UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Vra,   V.   li .   ".00 d 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY. 
A.  D.  MELVIN,  Chief  of  Bureau. 


SPECIAL  REPORT 


ON 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 


Drs.  PEARSON,  MICHENER,  LAW,  HARBAUGH,  TRUMBOWER,  LIAUTARD, 
HOLCOMBE,  HUIDEKOPER,  STILES,  MOHLER,  AND  ADAMS. 


REVISED    EDITION. 


WASHINGTON : 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

I  9  I  I . 


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USZs 

1^  n 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Washington,  D.  C,  July  20,  1911. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  copy  of  the  Special 
Report  on  Diseases  of  the  Horse  prepared  for  reprinting  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  resolution,  approved  March  4,  1911 : 

Resolved  hy  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  there  be  printed  and  bound  in  cloth  one 
hundred  thousand  copies  of  the  Special  Report  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Horse,  the 
same  to  be  first  revised  and  brought  to  date  under  the  supervision  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture;  seventy  thousand  copies  for  use  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, thirty  thousand  copies  for  use  of  the  Senate. 

\»  As  the  work  was  thoroughly  revised  in  1903  and  slightly  revised  in 
^  1907,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  make  only  a  few  minor  changes 
^    and  additions  at  this  time. 

^  This  report  was  first  issued  in  1890  and  was  at  once  accorded  a 
^  hearty  reception  by  the  horse  owners  of  the  country.  The  limited 
J|  edition  that  the  department  was  able  to  publish  was  very  soon  ex- 
fS;  hausted,  and  the  demand  was  then  turned  upon  Members  of  Congress. 
V  As  a  result  of  the  continuous  demand,  Congress  has  ordered  reprints 
^^from  time  to  time  until  the  total  editions,  including  the  present, 
^  amount  to  about  1,000,000  copies. 

Very  respectfully,  A.  D.  Melvin, 


Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


Chief  of  Bureau. 
3 


Ji74048 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/diseasesofhorseOOunitiala 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

The  examination  of  a  sick  horse.     By  Leonard  Pearson 9 

Methods  of  administering  medicines.     By  Ch.  B.  Michener 28 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  organs.     By  Ch.  B.  Michener 34 

Diseases  of  the  urinary  organs.     By  James  Law 75 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs.     By  W.  H.  Harbangh. 104 

Diseases  of  the  generative  organs.     By  James  Law 143 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  system.     By  M.  R.  Trumbower 190 

Diseases  of  the  heart,  blood  vessels,  and  lymphatics.     By  M.  R.  Trumbower.  225 

Diseases  of  the  eye.     By  James  Law 251 

Lameness.     By  A.  Liautard 274 

Diseases  of  the  fetlock,  ankle,  and  foot.     By  A.  A.  Holcombe 369 

Diseases  of  the  skin.     By  James  Law 431 

Wounds  and  their  treatment.     By  Ch.  B.  Michener 459 

General  diseases.     By  Rush  Shippen  Huidekoper 483 

Shoeing.     By  John  W.  Adams 565 

Index 589 

5 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATB8. 

Plate       I.  Digestive  apparatus 74 

II.  BotB 74 

III.  Intestinal  worms 74 

IV.  Longitudinal  section  through  kidney 76 

V.  Microscopic  anatomy  of  kidney 88 

VI.  Microscopic  anatomy  of  kidney 88 

VII.  Calculi  and  instrument  for  removal 88 

VIII.  Position  of  the  left  lung 128 

IX.  Instruments  used  in  diflBcult  labor 166 

X.  Normal  presentations 166 

XI.  Abnormal  presentations 166 

XII.  Abnormal  presentations 166 

XIII.  Abnormal  presentations 176 

XIV.  Abnormal  presentations 176 

XV.  Anterior  presentations 176 

XVI.  The  nervous  system ^ 192 

XVII.  Interior  of  chest,  showing  position  of  heart  and  diaphragm 228 

XVIII.  Circulatory  apparatus 228 

XIX.  Theoretical  section  of  the  horse's  eye 256 

XX.  Skeleton  of  the  horse 288 

XXI.  Superficial  layer  of  muscles 288 

XXII.  Splint 288 

•     XXIII.  Ringbone 304 

XXIV.  Various  types  of  spavin 304 

XXV.  Bone  spavin 336 

XXVI.  Bone  spavin 336 

XXVII.  Dislocation  of  shoulder  and  elbow,  Bourgelat's  apparatus 336 

XXVIII.  The  sling  in  use 336 

XXIX.  Anatomy  of  foot 372 

XXX.  Anatomy  of  foot 372 

XXXI.  Quarter  crack  and  remedies 372 

XXXII.  Sound  and  contracted  feet 372 

XXXIII.  Foundered  feet 416 

XXXIV.  Ringbone  and  navicular  disease 416 

XXXV.  Diseases  of  the  skin 432 

.   XXXVI.  Mites  that  infest  the  horse 448 

XXXVII.  General  diseases.     Inflammation 488 

XXXVIII.  General  diseases.     Inflammation 488 

XXXIX.  Glanders,  nasal  septum  of  horse,  right  side,  showing  acute  lesions.  532 

XL.  Glanders,  middle  region  of  nasal  septum,  left  side,  showing  ulcers.  532 
XLI.  Glanders,  posterior  half  of  nasal  septum,  right   side,  showing 

cicatrices 532 

XLII.  Age  of  horses  as  indicated  by  teeth 564 

7 


g  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

TBXT  nauBM. 

Page. 

Flo.     1.  OroandMiHace  of  ariKht  fore  huof  of  the  "regular"  form 572 

2.  I"iur  of  fore  f««t  of  regolar  form  In  regular  Btan<ling  i>o8ition 573 

5.  Pair  of  foro  fwt  of  b«ae-wido  form  in  too-wi<le  standing  poHition 573 

4.  Pair  of  forv  feet  of  baae-oarrow  form  in  toe-narrow  Htanding  jKwition.  574 

6.  Bide  view  of  an  acnit«HUigled  fore  foot,  of  a  regular  fore  foot,  and  of  a 

■tumpy  fore  foot 574 

t.  Side  riew  of  foot  with  the  foot-axis  broken  btickwanl  aa  a  result  of  too 

kxiicaloe 576 

7.  Leit  forp  hoof  of  a  n<gt>lar  form,  shod  with  a  plain  fullere<l  shoe 5S0 

8.  Side  view  of  hoof  and  fullered  thoe 581 

9.  An  arate-angled  left  fore  hoof  shod  with  a  bar  shoe 583 

10.  A  fairly  formed  right  fore  ice  shoe  for  a  roadriter 583 

11.  Left  fore  h<>of  of  regular  form  shod  with  a  rubber  {tad  and  "  three- 

quarter"  »hoe 584 

12.  A  narrow  right  fore  hoof  of  the  base-wide  standing  position  Hho«l  with 

a  plain  '*  drop}K«d  crea(<e ' '  shoe 584 

13.  Hoof  rarface  of  a  right  hin<l  shoe  to  prevent  interfering 585 

14.  iiround  aurfaoe  of  shoe  shown  in  fig.  13 585 

1ft.  Bide  view  of  a  fore  hoof  shod  so  as  to  quicken  the  "breaking  over" 

in  a  "forger" 586 

16.  Side  view  of  a  short-toed  hind  hoof  of  a  forger 586 

17.  A  toe-weight  shoe  tr»  increase  the  length  of  stride  of  fore  feet 587 

1ft.  M'wt  cnmmtm  form  of  {Minched  heel-weight  shoe  to  induce  high  action 

in  forefeet 587 


SPECIAL  REPORT 


ON 


DISEASES    OE   THE    HORSE. 


THE  EXAMINATION  OF  A  SICK  HORSE. 

By  Leonard  Pearson,  B.  S.,  V.  M.  D., 

Dean  of  the  Yeterinary  Department,   University  of  Pennsylvania,   and   State 

Veterinarian  of  Pennsylvania. 

In  the  examination  of  a  sick  horse  it  is  important  to  have  a  method, 
or  system.  If  a  definite  plan  of  examination  is  followed  one  may  feel 
reasonably  sure  when  the  examination  is  finished  that  no  important 
point  has  been  overlooked  and  that  the  examiner  is  in  a  position  to 
arrive  at  an  opinion  that  is  as  accurate  as  is  possible  for  him.  Of 
course,  an  experienced  eye  can  see,  and  a  trained  hand  can  feel,  slight 
alterations  or  variations  from  the  normal  that  are  not  perceptible  to 
the  unskilled  observer.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  conditions  that 
exist  in  health  is  of  the  highest  importance,  because  it  is  only  by  a 
knowledge  of  what  is  right  that  one  can  surely  detect  a  condition  that 
is  wrong.  A  knowledge  of  anatomy,  or  of  the  structure  of  the  body, 
and  of  physiology,  or  the  functions  and  activities  of  the  body,  lie  at 
the  bottom  of  accuracy  of  diagnosis.  It  is  important  to  remember 
that  animals  of  different  races  or  families  deport  themselves  differ- 
ently under  the  influence  of  the  same  disease  or  pathological  process. 
The  sensitive  and  highly  organized  Thoroughbred  resists  cerebral 
depression  more  than  does  the  lymphatic  draft  horse.  Hence  a  de- 
gree of  fever  that  does  not  produce  marked  dullness  in  a  Thorough- 
bred may  cause  the  most  abject  dejection  in  a  coarsely  bred  heavy 
draft  horse.  This  and  similar  facts  are  of  vast  importance  in  the 
diagnosis  of  disease  and  in  the  recognition  of  its  significance. 

The  order  of  examination,  as  given  below,  is  one  that  has  proved  to 
be  comparatively  easy  of  application  and  sufficiently  thorough  for  the 
purpose  of  the  readers  of  this  work.  It  is  recommended  by  several 
writers. 

9 


10  D1BIA8BB  OF  THE   B0R8E. 

HISTORY. 

It  is  important  to  know,  first  of  all,  something  of  the  ori^n  and] 
development  of  the  disease,  therefore  the  cause  should  be  looked  for. 
The  cause  of  a  disease  is  important,  not  only  in  connection  with  diag- 
nona,  but  also  in  connection  with  treatment.  The  character  of  food 
that  the  horse  has  had,  the  us©  to  which  he  has  been  put,  and  the  kind 
of  care  he  has  receivwl  should  all  be  inquired  into  closely.  It  may  be 
found  by  this  investigation  that  the  horse  has  been  fed  on  damaged 
food,  such  as  brewer's  grains  or  moldy  silage,  and  this  may  be  suffi- 
cient to  explain  the  profound  depression  and  weakness  that  are  char- 
acteristic of  forage  poisoning.  If  it  is  learned  that  the  horse  has 
been  kept  in  the  stable  without  exercise  for  several  days  and  upon 
full  rations,  and  that  he  became  suddenly  lame  in  his  back  and  hind 
k^  and  finally  fell  to  the  ground  from  what  appeared  to  be  partial 
paralysia,  this  knowledge,  taken  in  connection  with  a  few  evident 
symptoms,  will  he  enough  to  establish  a  diagnosis  of  azoturia.  If  it 
18  loimed  that  the  horse  has  been  recently  shipped  in  the  cars  or  has 
been  thrt>ugh  a  dealer's  stable,  we  have  knowledge  of  significance  in 
cminection  with  the  causation  of  a  possible  febrile  disease,  which  is, 
oiuier  these  conditions,  likely  to  prove  to  be  influenza,  or  edematous 
pneumonia. 

It  is  also  important  to  know  whether  the  particular  horse  that  is 
under  examination  is  the  only  one  in  the  stable  or  on  the  premises 
that  is  similarly  afflicted.  If  it  is  found  that  several  horses  are 
ailicted  much  in  the  same  way,  we  have  evidence  here  of  a  common 
cause  of  disease  which  may  prove  to  be  of  an  infectious  nature. 

Another  item  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the 
ease  relates  to  the  treatment  that  the  horse  may  have  had  before  he 
is  examined.  It  sometimes  hapi)ens  that  medicine  given  in  excessive 
quantities  produces  symptoms  resembling  those  of  disease,  so  it  is 
important  that  the  examiner  shall  be  fully  informed  as  to  the  medica- 
tion thai  has  been  employed. 

ATTITt-nK    AND   GKKKRAL   (T)NDITION. 

Before  beginning  the  special  examination  attention  should  be  paid 
to  tiic  attitude  and  general  condition  of  the  animal.  Sometimes 
horses  assume  positions  that  are  characteristic  of  a  certain  disease. 
For  example,  in  tetanus,  or  lockjaw,  the  muscles  of  the  face,  neck, 
and  shoulders  are  stiff  and  rigid,  as  well  as  the  muscles  of  the  jaw. 
This  condition  prwluces  a  peculiar  attitude,  that  once  seen  is  subse- 
quently recognized  as  rather  characteristic  of  this  disease.  A  horse 
with  tetanus  stands  with  his  muscles  tense  and  his  legs  in  a  somewhat 
bracing  position,  as  though  he  were  gathered  to  rope]  a  shock.  The 
neck  is  stiff  and  hsrd,  the  head  is  slightly  extended  upon  it,  the  face 
is  drawn,  and  the  nostrils  are  dilated.  The  tail  is  usually  held  up  a 
little,  and  whon  pressed  down  against  the  thighs  it  springs  back  to  its 


EXAMINATION    OF   A   SICK    HORSE.  11 

f 

previous  position.  In  inflammation  of  the  throat,  as  in  pharyngo- } 
laryngitis,  the  head  is  extended  upon  the  neck,  and  the  angle  between 
the  jaw  and  the  lower  border  of  the  neck  is  opened  as  far  as  possible 
to  relieve  the  pressure  that  otherwise  would  fall  upon  the  throat. 
In  dumminess,  or  immobility,  the  hanging  position  of  the  head  and 
the  stupid  expression  are  rather  characteristic.  In  pleurisy,  perito- 
nitis, and  some  other  painful  diseases  of  the  internal  organs,  the 
rigid  position  of  the  body  denotes  an  effort  of  the  animal  to  avoid 
pressure  upon  and  to  protect  the  inflamed  sensitive  region. 

The  horse  may  be  down  in  the  stall  and  unable  to  rise.  This  condi- 
tion may  result  from  paraplegia,  from  azoturia,  from  forage  poison- 
ing, from  tetanus,  or  from  painful  conditions  of  the  bones  or  feet, 
such  as  osteoporosis  or  founder.  Lying  down  at  unusual  times  or  in 
unusual  positions  may  indicate  disease.  The  first  symptom  of  colic 
may  be  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  horse  to  lie  down  at  a  time  or  place 
that  is  unusual  or  inappropriate.  Sometimes  disinclination  to  lie 
down  is  an  indication  of  disease.  Where  there  is  difficulty  in  breath- 
ing, the  horse  knows  that  he  can  manage  himself  better  upon  his  feet 
than  upon  his  breast  or  his  side.  It  happens,  therefore,  that  in  nearly 
all  serious  diseases  of  the  respiratory  tract  the  horse  stands  persist- 
ently, day  and  night,  until  recovery  has  commenced  and  breathing  is 
easier,  or  until  the  animal  falls  from  sheer  exhaustion.  "Where  there 
is  stiffness  and  soreness  of  the  muscles,  as  in  rheumatism,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  muscles  from  overwork,  or  of  the  bones  in  osteoporosis,  or 
of  the  feet  in  founder,  or  where  the  muscles  are  stiff  and  beyond  con- 
trol of  the  animal,  as  in  tetanus,  a  standing  position  is  maintained, 
because  the  horse  seems  to  realize  that  when  he  lies  down  he  will  be 
unable  to  arise. 

Abnormal  attitudes  are  assumed  in  painful  diseases  of  the  digestive 
organs  (colic).  A  horse  with  colic  may  sit  upon  his  haunches,  like  a 
dog,  or  may  stand  upon  his  hind  feet  and  rest  upon  his  knees  in  front, 
or  may  endeavor  to  balance  himself  upon  his  back,  with  all  four  feet 
in  the  air.  These  positions  are  assumed  because  they  give  relief  from 
pain  by  lessening  pressure,  or  tension,  upon  the  sensitive  structures. 

Under  the  general  condition  of  the  animal  it  is  necessary  to  observe 
the  condition,  or  state,  of  nutrition ;  the  conformation,  so  far  as  it  may 
indicate  the  constitution;  and  the  temperament.     By  observiui^  the 
condition  of  nutrition  one  may  be  able  to  determine  to  a  certain  extent* 
the  effect  that  the  disease  has  already  had  upon  the  animal  and  to  esti- 
mate the  amount  of  strength  that  remains  and  that  will  be  available 
for  the  repair  of  the  diseased  tissues.     A  good  condition  of  nutrition^ 
is  shown  by  the  rotundity  of  the  body,  the  pliability  and  softness  of 
the  skin,  and  the  tone  of  the  hair.     If  the  subcutaneous  fat  has  disap- 
peared and  the  muscles  are  wasted,  allowing  the  bony  prominences  to 
stand  out ;  if  the  skin  is  tight  and  inelastic  and  the  coat  dry  and  harsh, ' 
we  have  evidence  of  a  low  state  of  nutrition.     This  may  have  resulted 


12  DISEASES   OF  THE   H0B8B. 

from  a  severe  and  long-continuetl  disease  or  from  lack  of  proi>er  food 
and  care.  Where  an  animal  is  emaciated — that  is,  becomes  thin — 
there  i»  first  a  loss  of  fat  and  later  the  muscles  shrink.  By  observing 
the  amount  of  shrinkage  in  tlie  muscles  one  has  some  indication  as  to 
the  duration  of  the  unfavorable  conditions  that  the  animal  has  lived 
under. 

By  constitution  we  understand  the  innate  ability  of  the  animal  to 
witlistand  disease  or  unfavorable  conditions  of  life.  The  constitution 
depends  largely  upon  the  conformation.  The  type  of  construction 
that  usually  accompanies  the  best  constitution  is  deep,  broad  chest, 
allowing  plenty  of  room  for  the  lungs  and  heart,  indicating  that 
these  vital  organs  arc  well  developed;  capacious  abdomen,  allowing 
{*ufficient  siMce  for  well-developed  organs  of  digestion;  the  loins 
ahoald  be  siiort — that  is  the  space  sliould  be  short  between  the  last  rib 
•nd  the  point  of  the  hip;  the  head  and  neck  should  be  well  molded, 
without  superfluous  or  useless  tissue;  this  gives  a  clear-cut  throat. 
The  eera,  eyes,  and  face  j-hould  have  an  expression  of  alertness  and 
Kood  breedini^.  The  muscular  development  should  be  good;  the 
diouldera,  forearms,  croup,  and  thighs  must  have  the  appearance  of 
iirength.  The  withers  are  sharp,  which  means  that  they  are  not 
loaded  with  useless,  su{>erfluous  tissue;  the  legs  are  straight,  and  their 
axes  are  parallel ;  the  knees  and  hocks  are  low,  which  means  that  the 
forearms  and  thighs  are  long  and  the  cannons  relatively  short.  The 
rannons  are  bn)ad  from  in  front  to  l)eiund  and  relatively  thin  from 
Kide  to  side.  This  means  that  the  bony  and  tendinous  structures  of 
the  lega  are  well  develojied  and  well  placed.  The  hoofs  are  compact, 
tense,  firm  structures,  and  their  soles  are  concave  and  frogs  large. 
Sueh  a  horw  is  likely  to  have  a  good  constitution  and  to  be  able  to 
resist  hard  work,  fatigue,  and  disease  to  a  maximum  degree.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  |)oor  constitution  is  indicated  by  a  shallow,  narrow  chest, 
small  bones,  long  loins,  coarse  neck  and  head,  with  thick  throat, 
Mnall,  bony,  and  muscular  development,  short  thighs  and  forearms, 
♦mmll  jointx,  long,  round  cannons,  and  hoofs  of  ooen  texture  with 
flat  soles. 

The  temperament  is  indicated  by  the  manner  in  which  the  hoi-so 
re?<p<mds  to  external  stimuli,  ^^^len  the  horse  is  spoken  to,  or  when 
he  •«*«<  or  feels  anything  that  stimulates  or  gives  alarm,  if  he  responds 
actively,  quickly,  and  intelligently,  he  is  said  U)  Ije  of  lively,  or  nerv^- 
oun,  tcmfieranient.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  responds  in  a  slow, 
sluggish  manner,  he  U  said  to  have  a  sluggish,  or  lymphatic,  tempera- 
ment. The  tem[)erament  is  indirated  by  the  gait,  by  the  expression 
of  the  fnre,  and  by  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  ears.  The  nature  of 
the  temperament  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  an  endeavor  to 
ascertain  the  severity  of  a  given  case  of  illness.  l)e(^usc  the  general 
expression  of  an  animal  in  disease  as  well  as  in  health  depends  to  a 
nrge  extent  on  the  ten)|»«Tflm«»nt. 


EXAMINATION    OF   A   SICK   HOBSE.  13 

THE    SKIN   AND   THE   VISIBLE   MUCOUS   MEMBRANES. 

The  condition  of  the  skin  is  a  fair  index  to  the  condition  of  the 
animal.  The  effect  of  disease  and  emaciation  upon  the  pliability  of 
the  skin  have  been  referred  to  above.  There  is  no  part  of  the  body 
that  loses  its  elasticity  and  tone  as  a  result  of  disease  sooner  than  the 
skin.  The  practical  herdsman  or  flockmaster  can  gain  a  great  deal  of 
information  as  to  the  condition  of  an  animal  merely  by  grasping  the 
coat  and  looking  at  and  feeling  the  skin.  Similarly,  the  condition  of 
the  animal  is  shown  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  appearance  of  the 
mucous  membranes.  For  example,  when  the  horse  is  anemic  as  a 
result  of  disease  or  of  inappropriate  food  the  mucous  membranes 
become  pale.  This  change  in  the  mucous  membranes  can  be  seen  most 
readily  in  the  lining  of  the  eyelids  and  in  the  lining  of  the  nostril. 
For  convenience  of  examination  the  eyelids  can  readily  be  everted. 
Paleness  means  weak  circulation  or  poor  blood.  Increased  redness 
occurs  physiologically  in  painful  conditions,  excitement,  and  follow- 
ing severe  exertion.  Under  such  conditions  the  increase  of  circula- 
tion is  transitory.  In  fevers  there  is  an  increased  redness  in  the 
mucous  membrane,  and  this  continues  so  long  as  the  fever  lasts.  In 
some  diseases  red  spots  or  streaks  form  in  the  mucous  membrane. 
This  usually  indicates  an  infectious  disease  of  considerable  severity, 
and  occurs  in  blood  poisoning,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  hemorrhagic 
septicemia,  and  in  urticaria.  When  the  liver  is  deranged  and  does 
not  operate,  or  when  the  red-blood  corpuscles  are  broken  down,  as 
in  serious  cases  of  influenza,  there  is  a  yellowish  discoloration  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  The  mucous  membranes  become  bluish  or  blue 
when  the  blood  is  imperfectly  oxidized  and  contains  an  excess  of 
carbon  dioxide.  This  condition  exists  in  any  serious  disease  of  the 
respiratory  tract,  as  pneumonia,  and  in  heart  failure. 

The  temperature  of  the  skin  varies  with  the  temperature  of  the 
body.  If  there  is  fever  the  temperature  of  the  skin  is  likely  to  be 
increased.  Sometimes,  however,  as  a  result  of  poor  circulation  and 
irregular  distribution  of  the  blood,  the  body  may  be  warmer  than 
normal,  while  the  extremities  (the  legs  and  ears)  may  be  cold. 
"Where  the  general  surface  of  the  body  becomes  cold  it  is  evident  that 
the  small  blood  vessels  in  the  skin  have  contracted  and  are  keeping 
the  blood  away,  as  during  a  chill,  or  that  the  heart  is  weak  and  is 
unable  to  pump  the  blood  to  the  surface,  and  that  the  animal  is  on  the 
verge  of  collapse. 

The  skin  is  moist,  to  a  certain  degree,  at  all  times  in  a  healthy  horse. 
This  moisture  is  not  in  the  form  of  a  perceptible  sweat,  but  it  is 
enough  to  keep  the  skin  pliable  and  to  cause  the  hah*  to  have  a  soft, 
healthy  feel.  In  some  chronic  diseased  conditions  and  in  fever,  the 
skin  becomes  dry.  In  this  case  the  hair  has  a  harsh  feel  that  is  quite 
different  from  the  condition  observed  in  health,  and  from  the  fact  of 


14  DISEASES  OF   THE   HOBSE. 

its  being  so  dry  the  individual  hairs  do  not  adhere  to  one  another, 
tbey  stand  apart,  and  the  animal  has  what  is  known  as  "  a  staring 
ctmC*  When,  during  a  fever,  sweating  occurs,  it  is  usually  an  indi- 
cstkm  that  the  crisis  b  passed.  Sometimes  sweating  is  an  indication 
of  pain-  A  horse  with  tetanus  or  azoturia  sweats  profusely.  Horses 
sweat  freely  when  there  is  a  serious  impediment  to  respiration;  they 
sweat  under  excitement,  and,  of  course,  from  the  well-known  physio- 
logical causes  of  heat  and  work.  Local  sweating,  or  sweating  of  a 
restricted  ares  of  the  body,  denotes  some  kind  of  nerve  interference. 

Swellings  of  the  skin  usually  come  from  wounds  or  other  external 
esoses  and  have  no  special  connection  with  the  diagnosis  of  internal 
4ii«^nnn-  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  conditions  in  which  the 
swelling  of  the  skin  is  a  symptom  of  a  derangement  of  some  other 
psrt  of  the  body.  For  example,  there  is  the  well-known  "  stocking," 
or  swelling  of  the  legs  about  the  fetlock  joints,  in  influenza.  There  is 
the  soft  swelling  of  the  hind  legs  that  occurs  so  often  in  draft  horses 
when  standing  still  and  that  comes  from  previous  inflammation  (lym- 
phangitis) or  from  insufficient  heart  power.  Dropsy,  or  edema  of  the 
skin,  may  occur  beneath  the  chest  or  abdomen  from  heart  insuffi- 
ciency or  from  chronic  collection  of  fluid  in  the  chest  or  abdomen 
(hydrothorax,  ascites,  or  anemia).  In  anasarca  or  purpura  hemor- 
rfasgica  large  soft  swellings  appear  on  any  part  of  the  skin,  but 
usually  on  the  legs,  side  of  the  body,  and  about  the  head. 

Gas  collects  under  the  skin  in  some  instances.  This  comes  from  a 
local  inoculation  with  an  organism  which  produces  a  fermentation 
beneath  the  skin  and  causes  the  liberation  of  gas  which  inflates  the 
akin,  or  the  gas  may  be  air  that  enters  through  a  wound  penetrating 
some  air-containing  organ,  as  the  lungs.  The  condition  here  de- 
scribed is  known  as  emphynema.  Emphysema  may  follow  the  frac- 
ture of  a  rib  when  the  end  of  a  bone  is  forced  inward  and  caused  to 
penetrate  the  lung,  or  it  may  occur,  when,  as  a  result  of  an  ulcerat- 
ing process,  an  organ  containing  air  is  perforated.  This  accident  is 
more  common  in  cattle  than  it  is  in  horses.  Emphysema  is  recog- 
nised by  the  fact  that  the  swelling  that  it  causes  is  not  hot  or  sensi- 
tive on  pressure.  It  emits  a  peculiar  crackling  sound  when  it  is 
■Indeed  or  pressed  upon. 

Wounds  of  the  skin  may  be  of  importance  in  the  diagnosis  of 
internal  disease.  Wounds  over  the  bony  prominence,  as  the  point 
of  the  hip,  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  the  greatest  convexity  of 
the  ribs,  occurs  when  a  horse  is  unable  to  stand  for  a  long  time  and, 
through  continually  lying  upon  his  side,  has  shut  off  the  circulation 
to  the  portion  of  the  skin  that  covers  parts  of  the  body  that  carry  the 
greatest  weight,  and  in  this  way  has  caused  them  to  mortify.  Little, 
round,  soft,  doughlike  swellings  occur  on  the  skin  and  may  bo 
scattered  freely  over  the  surface  of  the  body  when  the  horse  is 


EXAMINATION    OP   A   SICK   HORSE.  15 

afficted  with  urticaria.  Similar  eruptions,  but  distributed  less  gen- 
erally, about  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar,  may  occur  as  a  symptom  of 
dourine,  or  colt  distemper.  Hard  lumps,  from  which  radiate  welt- 
like swellings  of  the  lymphatics,  occur  in  glanders,  and  blisterlike 
eruptions  occur  around  the  mouth  and  pasterns  in  horsepox. 

THE   ORGANS   OF   CIRCULATION. 

The  first  item  in  this  portion  of  the  examination  consists  in  taking 
the  pulse.  The  pulse  may  be  counted  and  its  character  may  be  de- 
termined at  any  point  where  a  large  artery  occupies  a  situation 
close  to  the  skin  and  above  a  hard  tissue,  such  as  a  bone,  cartilage,  or 
tendon.  The  most  convenient  place  for  taking  the  pulse  of  the  horse 
is  at  the  jaw.  The  external  maxillary  artery  runs  from  between  the 
jaws,  around  the  lower  border  of  the  jawbone  and  up  on  the  outside 
of  the  jawbone  to  the  face.  It  is  located  immediately  in  front  of  the 
heavy  muscles  of  the  cheek.  Its  throb  can  be  felt  most  distinctly 
just  before  it  turns  around  the  lower  border  of  the  jawbone.  The 
balls  of  the  first  and  second  or  of  the  second  and  third  fingers  should 
be  pressed  lightly  on  the  skin  over  this  artery  when  its  pulsations  are 
to  be  studied. 

The  normal  pulse  of  the  healthy  horse  varies  in  frequency  as 
follows : 

Stallion 28  to  32  beats  per  minute. 

Gelding 33  to  38  beats  per  minute. 

Mare 34  to  40  beats  per  minute. 

Foal  2  to  3  years  old 40  to  50  beats  per  minute. 

Foal  6  to  12  months  old 45  to  60  beats  per  minute. 

Foal  2  to  4  weeks  old 70  to  90  beats  per  minute. 

The  pulse  is  accelerated  by  the  digestion  of  rich  food,  by  hot 
weather,  exercise,  excitement,  and  alarm.  It  is  slightly  more  rapid 
in  the  evening  than  it  is  in  the  morning.  Well-bred  horses  have  a 
slightly  more  rapid  pulse  than  sluggish,  cold-blooded  horses.  The 
pulse  should  be  regular ;  that  is,  the  separate  beats  should  follow  each 
other  after  intervals  of  equal  length,  and  the  beats  should  be  of  equal 
fullness,  or  volume. 

In  disease,  the  pulse  may  become  slower  or  more  rapid  than  in 
health.  Slowing  of  the  pulse  may  be  caused  by  old  age,  great  exhaus- 
tion, or  excessive  cold.  It  may  be  due  to  depression  of  the  central 
nervous  system,  as  in  dumminess,  or  be  the  result  of  the  administra- 
tion of  drugs,  such  as  digitalis  or  strophantus.  A  rapid  pulse  is 
almost  always  found  in  fever,  and  the  more  severe  the  infection  and 
the  weaker  the  heart  the  more  rapid  is  the  pulse.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, the  beats  may  rise  to  80,  90,  or  even  120  per  minute.  When 
the  pulse  is  above  100  per  minute  the  outlook  for  recovery  is  not 
promising,  and  especially  if  this  symptom  accompanies  high  tempera- 


Jg  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

tur«  or  occurs  late  in  an  infectious  disease.  In  nearly  all  of  the  dis- 
eftses  of  the  heart  and  in  anemia  the  pulse  becomes  rapid. 

Tl»c  puLse  is  irregular  in  diseases  of  the  heart,  and  especially  where 
the  valves  are  affected.  The  irregularity  may  consist  in  varying  inter- 
vals U'tween  the  beats  or  tlie  dropping  of  one  or  more  beats  at  regu- 
lar or  irregular  intervals.  The  latter  condition  sometimes  occurs  in 
chronic  diseases  of  the  brain.  The  pulse  is  said  to  be  weak,  or  soft, 
when  the  beats  are  indistinct,  because  little  blood  is  forced  through 
the  artery  by  each  contraction  of  the  heart.  This  condition  occurs 
whejj  there  is  a  constriction  of  the  vessels  leading  from  the  heart  and 
it  occurs  in  certain  infectious  and  febrile  diseases,  and  is  an  indication 
of  heart  weakness. 

In  examining  the  heart  itself  it  is  necessary  to  recall  that  it  lies  in 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  chest  slightly  to  the  left  of  the  median  line 
and  that  it  extends  from  the  third  to  the  sixth  rib.  It  extends  almost 
to  the  breastbone.,  and  a  little  more  than  half  of  the  distance  between 
the  breastbone  and  the  backbone.  In  contracting,  it  rotates  slightly 
on  its  axis,  so  that  the  point  of  the  heart,  which  lies  below,  is  pressed 
agaiihst  the  left  chest  wall  at  a  place  immediately  above  the  point  of 
tlie  elbow.  The  heart  has  in  it  four  chambers — two  in  the  left  and 
two  in  the  right  side.  The  upper  chamber  of  the  left  side  (left  auri- 
cle) receives  the  blood  as  it  comes  fronv  the  lungs,  passes  it  to  the 
lower  chamber  of  the  left  side  (left  ventricle),  and  from  here  it  is  sent 
with  great  force  (for  this  chamber  has  very  strong,  thick  walls) 
through  the  aorta  and  its  branches  (the  arteries)  to  all  parts  of  the 
iKKly.  The  blotnl  returns  through  the  veins  to  the  upper  chamber  of 
tlu'  right  side  (right  auricle),  passes  then  to  the  lower  chamber  of  the 
right  side  (right  vcntrioh').  and  from  this  chamber  is  forced  into  the 
lungs  to  be  oxidized.  The  openings  between  the  chambers  of  each 
Hide  and  into  the  aorta  are  guarded  by  valves. 

If  the  horse  is  not  too  fat,  one  nuiy  feel  the  impact  of  the  apex  of 
the  heart  against  the  chest  wall  with  each  contraction  of  the  heart  by 
placing  the  hand  on  the  left  side  back  of  the  fifth  rib  and  above  the 
point  of  the  elbow.  The  thinner  and  the  better  bred  the  horse  is  the 
more  <iistin<tly  this  impact  is  felt.  If  the  animal  is  excited,  or  if  he 
hiiM  just  l)et'n  exercised,  the  impact  is  stronger  than  when  the  horse  is 
at  nwt    If  the  horse  is  weak,  the  impact  is  reduced  in  force. 

The  examination  of  the  heart  with  the  ear  is  an  important  matter  in 
this  conne«tion.  Certain  sounds  are  produced  by  each  contraction  of 
the  nomml  heart.  It  is  customary  to  divide  these  into  two,  and  to 
call  th.-m  the  first  and  s<'con.l  sounds.  These  two  sounds  are  heard 
durmg  earh  pulsation,  and  any  deviation  of  the  normal  indicates  some 
alteration  in  the  structure  or  the  functions  of  the  heart.  In  making 
this  examination,  one  may  apply  the  left  car  over  the  heavy  muscles 
of  the  shoulder  back  of  the  shoulder  joint,  and  just  above  the  point  of 


EXAMINATION    OP   A   SICK   HOESE.  17 

the  elbow,  or,  if  the  sounds  are  hot  heard  distinctly,  the  left  fore  leg 
may  be  drawn  forward  by  an  assistant  and  the  right  ear  placed 
against  the  lower  portion  of  the  chest  wall  that  is  exposed  in  this 
manner. 

The  first  sound  of  the  heart  occurs  while  the  heart  muscle  is  con- 
tracting and  while  the  blood  is  being  forced  from  the  heart  and  the 
valves  are  rendered  taut  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the 
lower  to  the  upper  chambers.  The  second  sound  follows  quickly  after 
the  first  and  occurs  during  rebound  of  blood  in  the  arteries,  caus- 
ing pressure  in  the  aorta  and  tensions  of  the  valves  guarding  its  open- 
ing into  the  left  ventricle.  The  first  sound  is  of  a  high  pitch  and  is 
longer  and  more  distinct  than  the  second.  Under  the  influence  of 
disease  these  sounds  may  be  altered  in  various  ways.  It  is  not  profit- 
able, in  a  work  such  as  this,  to  describe  the  details  of  these  alterations. 
Those  who  are  interested  will  find  this  subject  fully  discussed  in  the 
veterinary  text-books. 

TEMPERATURE. 

The  temperature  of  the  horse  is  determined  roughly  by  placing  the 
fingers  in  the  mouth  or  between  the  thighs  or  by  allowing  the  horse 
to  exhale  against  the  cheek  or  back  of  the  hand.  In  accurate  examina- 
tion, however,  these  means  of  determining  temperature  are  not  relied 
upon,  but  recourse  is  had  to  the  use  of  the- thermometer.  The  ther- 
mometer used  for  taking  the  temperature  of  a  horse  is  a  self -register- 
ing clinical  thermometer,  similar  to  that  used  by  physicians,  but 
larger,  being  from  5  to  6  inches  long.  The  temperature  of  the  animal 
is  measured  in  the  rectum. 

The  normal  temperature  of  the  horse  varies  somewhat  under  differ- 
ent conditions.  It  is  higher  in  the  young  animal  than  in  the  old,  and 
is  higher  in  hot  weather  than  in  cold.  The  weather  and  exercise  de- 
cidedly influence  the  temperature  physiologically.  The  normal  tem- 
perature varies  from  99.5°  to  101°  F.  If  the  temperature  rises  to 
302.5°  the  horse  is  said  to  have  a  low  fever ;  if  the  temperature  reaches 
104°  the  fever  is  moderate ;  if  it  reaches  106°  it  is  high,  and  above  this 
point  it  is  regarded  as  very  high.  In  some  diseases,  such  as  tetanus 
or  sunstroke,  the  temperature  goes  as  high  as  108°  or  110°.  In  the 
ordinary  infectious  diseases  it  does  not  often  exceed  106°.  A  tem- 
perature of  107.5°  and  above  is  very  dangerous  and  must  be  reduced 
promptly  if  the  horse  is  to  be  saved. 

THE  ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION. 

In  examining  this  system  of  organs  and  their  functions  it  is  custom- 
ary to  begin  by  noting  the  frequency  of  the  respiratory  movements. 
This  point  can  be  determined  by  observing  the  motions  of  the  nostrils 
or  of  the  flanks;  on  a  cold  day  one  can  see  the  condensation  of  the 
moisture  of  the  warm  air  as  it  comes  from  the  lungs.  The  normal 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 2 


Ig  DISEASES   OF  THE   HORSE. 

nite  of  respiration  for  a  healthy  hort>e  at  rest  is  from  8  to  IG  per  min- 
ute. The  rate  is  faster  in  young  animals  than  in  old,  and  is  increased 
by  work,  hot  weather,  overfilling  of  the  stomach,  pregnancy,  lying 
upon  the  side,  etc.  Acceleration  of  the  respiratory  rate  where  no 
physiological  cause  operates  is  due  to  a  variety  of  conditions.  Among 
these  is  fever;  restricted  area  of  active  lung  tissue,  from  filling  of  por- 
tiona  of  the  lungs  with  inflanunatorj'  exudate,  as  in  pneumonia;  com- 
pression of  the  lungs  or  loss  of  elasticity;  pain  in  the  muscles  con- 
trolling the  respiratory  movements;  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
blood ;  and  constriction  of  the  air  passages  leading  to  the  lungs. 

Difficult  or  labored  respiration  is  known  as  dyspnea.  It  occurs 
when  it  is  difficult,  for  any  reason,  for  the  animal  to  obtain  the 
amount  of  oxygen  that  it  requires.  This  may  be  due  to  filling  of  the 
lungs,  as  in  pneumonia ;  to  painful  movements  of  the  chest,  as  in  rheu- 
matism or  pleurisy;  to  tumors  of  the  nose  and  paralysis  of  the  throat, 
swellings  of  the  throat,  foreign  bodies,  or  weakness  of  the  respiratory 
passages,  fluid  in  the  chest  cavity,  adhesions  between  the  lungs  and 
chest  walls,  loss  of  elasticity  of  the  lungs,  etc.  Where  the  difficulty 
b  great  the  accessory  muscles  of  respiration  are  brought  into  play. 
In  great  dyspnea  the  horse  stands  with  his  front  feet  apart,  with  his 
neck  straight  out,  and  his  head  extended  upon  his  neck.  The  nostrils 
are  widely  dilated,  the  face  has  an  anxious  expression,  the  eyeballs 
protrude,  the  up-and-down  motion  of  the  larynx  is  aggravated,  the 
amplitude  of  the  movement  of  the  chest  walls  increased,  and  the 
flanks  heave. 

The  expire<l  air  is  of  about  the  temperature  of  the  body.  It  con- 
tains considerable  moisture,  and  it  should  come  with  equal  force  from 
each  nostril  and  sliould  not  have  an  unpleasant  odor.  If  the  stream 
of  air  from  one  nostril  is  stronger  than  from  the  other,  there  is  an  in- 
dication of  an  olwtruction  in  a  nasal  chamlxT.  If  the  air  possesses  a 
bad  odor,  it  is  usually  an  indication  of  putrefaction  of  a  tissue  or 
secretion  in  some  part  of  the  respiratory  tract.  A  bad  odor  is  found 
where  there  is  ne<,Tosis  of  the  lx>ne  in  the  nasal  passages  or  in  chronic 
catarrh.  An  ulcerating  tumor  of  the  nose  or  throat  may  cause  the 
breatli  to  have  an  offensive  (xlor.  The  most  offensive  breath  occurs 
where  there  is  necrosis,  or  gangrene,  of  the  lungs. 

In  jionie  diseases  there  is  a  discharge  from  the  nose.  In  order  to 
determine  tlie  significnnce  of  the  discharge  it  should  be  examined 
closely.  One  should  a--<-ertain  wjjcther  it  comes  from  one  or  both 
nostrils.  If  but  from  one  nfwtril,  it  probably  originates  in  the  head. 
The  color  should  lie  noted.  A  thin,  waWry  discharge  may  be  com- 
poaed  of  senun,  and  it  occurs  in  the  earlier  stages  of  coryza,  or  nasal 
catarrh.  An  opaleswnt,  slightly  tinted  discharge  is  composed  of 
mucus  and  indicates  a  little  more  severe  irritation.  If  the  discharge 
if  sticky  and  pus-like,  a  deeper  difficulty  or  more  advanced  irritation 


EXAMINATION    OF   A   SICK   HORSE.  19 

is  indicated.  If  the  discharge  contains  flakes  and  clumps  of  more  or 
less  dried,  agglutinated  particles,  it  is  probable  that  it  originates 
within  a  cavity  of  the  head,  as  the  sinuses  or  guttural  pouches.  The 
discharge  of  glanders  is  of  a  peculiar  sticky  nature  and  adheres 
tenaciously  to  the  wings  of  the  nostrils.  The  discharge  of  pneumonia 
is  of  a  somewhat  red  or  reddish  brown  color,  and,  on  this  account, 
has  been  described  as  a  prune-juice  discharge.  The  discharge  may 
contain  blood.  If  the  blood  appears  as  clots  or  as  streaks  in  the  dis- 
charge, it  probably  originates  at  some  point  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
respiratory  tract.  If  the  blood  is  in  the  form  of  a  fine  froth,  it  comes 
from  the  lungs. 

In  examining  the  interior  of  the  nasal  passage  one  should  remem- 
ber that  the  normal  color  of  the  mucous  membrane  is  a  rosy  pink  and 
that  its  surface  is  smooth.  If  ulcers,  nodules,  swellings,  or  tumors 
are  found,  these  indicate  disease.  The  ulcer  that  is  characteristic  of 
glanders  is  described  fully  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  that 
disease. 

Between  the  lower  jaws  there  are  several  clusters  of  lympathic 
glands.  These  glands  are  so  small  and  so  soft  that  it  is  difficult  to 
find  them  by  feeling  through  the  skin,  but  when  a  suppurative  dis- 
ease exists  in  the  upper  part  of  the  respiratory  tract  these  glands 
become  swollen  and  easy  to  feel.  They  may  become  soft  and  break 
down  and  discharge  as  abscesses;  this  is  seen  constantly  in  strangles. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  may  become  indurated  and  hard  from  the 
proliferation  of  connective  tissue  and  attach  themselves  to  the  jaw- 
bone, to  the  tongue,  or  to  the  skin.  This  is  seen  in  chronic  glanders. 
If  the  glands  are  swollen  and  tender  to  pressure,  it  indicates  that  the 
disease  causing  the  enlargement  is  acute;  if  they  are  hard  and  insen- 
sitive, the  disease  causing  the  enlargement  is  chronic. 

The  manner  in  which  the  horse  coughs  is  of  importance  in  diagno- 
sis. The  cough  is  a  forced  expiration,  following  immediately  upon  a 
forcible  separation  of  the  vocal  cords.  The  purpose  of  the  cough  is 
to  remove  some  irritant  substance  from  the  respiratory  passages,  and 
it  occurs  when  irritant  gases,  such  as  smoke,  ammonia,  sulphur  vapor, 
or  dust,  have  been  inhaled.  It  occurs  from  inhalation  of  cold  air  if 
the  respiratory  passages  are  sensitive  from  disease.  In  laryngitis, 
bronchitis,  and  pneumonia,  cough  is  very  easily  excited  and  occurs 
merely  from  accumulation  of  mucus  and  inflammatory  product  upon 
the  irritated  respiratory  mucous  membrane.  If  one  wishes  to  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  cough,  it  can  easily  be  excited  by  pressing 
upon  the  larynx  with  the  thumb  and  finger.  The  larynx  should  be 
pressed  from  side  to  side  and  the  pressure  removed  the  moment  the 
horse  commences  to  cough.  A  painful  cough  occurs  in  pleurisy,  also 
in  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  and  bronchial  pneumonia.  Pain  is  shown 
by  the  effort  the  animal  exerts  to  repress  the  cough.  The  cough  is 
not  painful,  as  a  rule,  in  the  chronic  diseases  of  the  respiratory  tract. 


20  DI8RA8BS   OF   TUB    HOBSB. 

The  force  of  the  cou^h  is  t-onsidcrable  when  it  is  not  especially  pain- 
ful and  when  the  lungs  are  not  seriously  involved.  When  the  lunp 
are  so  diseased  that  they  can  not  be  filled  with  a  large  volume  of  air, 
and  in  heaves,  the  cough  is  weak,  as  it  is  also  in  weak,  debilitated 
animals.  If  mucus  or  pus  is  coughed  out,  or  if  the  cough  is  accom- 
panied by  a  gurgling  sound,  it  is  said  to  be  moist;  it  is  dry  when 
these  characteristics  are  not  present — that  is,  when  the  air  in  passing 
out  pMses  over  surface  not  loaded  with  secretion. 

In  the  examination  of  the  chest  we  resort  to  percussion  and  «*/•*- 
cultation.  When  a  cask  or  other  structure  containing  air  is  tapped 
upon,  or  percusse<l,  a  hollow  sound  is  given  forth.  If  the  cask  con- 
tains fluid,  the  sound  is  of  a  dull  and  of  quite  a  different  character. 
Similarly,  the  amount  of  air  contained  in  the  lung>;  can  be  estimated 
by  tapping  upon,  or  percussing,  the  walls  of  the  chest.  Percussion  is 
practiced  with  the  fingers  alone  or  with  the  aid  of  a  special  percussion 
hammer  and  an  object  to  strike  upon  known  as  a  pleximeter.  If  the 
fingers  are  used,  the  middle  finger  of  the  left  hand  should  be  pressed 
firmly  against  the  side  of  the  horse  and  should  ha  struck  with  the 
ends  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  bent  at  a  right  angle  so  as  to 
form  a  hammer.  The  percussion  hammer  sold  by  instrument  makers 
is  made  of  rubber  or  has  a  rubber  tip,  so  that  when  the  pleximeter, 
which  is  placcfl  against  the  side,  is  struck  the  impact  will  not  ho 
accompanied  by  a  noise.  After  experience  in  this  method  of  exami- 
nation one  can  detennine  with  a  considerable^  degree  of  accuracy 
whether  the  lung  contains  a  normal  amount  of  air  or  not.  If,  as  in 
pneumonia,  air  ha.s  Ix'cn  displaced  by  inflammatory  product  occupy- 
ing the  air  space,  or  if  fluid  collects  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chest, 
the  p<'rcu8sion  sound  becomes  dull.  If,  as  in  emphysema  or  in  pneu- 
mothorax, there  is  an  excess  of  air  in  the  chest  cavity,  the  percussion 
sound  U'comes  abnormally  loud  and  clear. 

Auscultation  consists  in  the  examination  of  the  lungs  with  the  ear 
applied  closely  to  the  chest  wall.  As  the  air  goes  in  and  out  of  tho 
lungs  a  ct'rtain  soft  sound  is  made  which  can  l)e  heard  distinctly, 
esperially  u|)on  inspiration.  This  sound  is  intensified  by  anythinij 
that  ar<flerat«'s  the  rate  of  respiration,  such  as  exercise.  This  soft, 
rustling  s^Hind  is  known  as  vesicular  murmur,  and  wherever  it  is 
heard  it  signifies  that  the  lung  contains  air  and  is  functionally  activi-. 
The  vesicular  munnur  is  weakened  wh««n  there  is  an  infinnimatory 
infiltration  of  the  Itnig  tissue  or  when  the  lungs  are  compressed  l»v 
fluid  in  the  chest  cavity.  Tlie  vesicular  murmur  disappears  when  air 
is  exrludtnl  hy  {\w  accumulation  of  inflammatory  proclnct,  as  in  pneu- 
monia, and  when  the  lungs  are  compreKstnl  by  fluid  in  the  chest 
cavity.  Tlie  v«>sicular  murmur  becomes  rough  and  harsh  in  the  early 
.Mages  of  inflanmiation  of  the  lungs,  and  this  is  often  the  first  sign  of 
the  beginning  of  pneumonia. 


EXAMINATION    OF   A   SICK    HOESE.  21 

By  applying  the  ear  over  the  lower  part  of  the  ^^indpipe  in  front  of 
the  breastbone  a  somewhat  harsh,  blowing  sound  may  be  heard.  This 
is  known  as  the  bronchial  murmur  and  is  heard  in  normal  conditions 
near  the  lower  part  of  the  trachea  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  ante- 
rior portions  of  the  lungs  after  sharp  exercise.  When  the  bronchial 
murmur  is  heard  over  other  portions  of  the  lungs,  it  may  signify  that 
the  lungs  are  more  or  less  solidified  by  disease  and  the  blowing  bron- 
chial murmur  is  transmitted  through  this  solid  lung  to  the  ear  from  a 
distant  part  of  the  chest.  The  bronchial  murmur  in  an  abnormal 
place  signifies  that  there  exists  pneumonia  or  that  the  lungs  are  com- 
pressed by  fluid  in  the  chest  cavity. 

Additional  sounds  are  heard  in  the  lungs  in  some  diseased  condi- 
tions. For  example,  when  fluid  collects  in  the  air  passages  and  the 
air  is  forced  through  it  or  is  caused  to  pass  through  tubes  containing 
secretions  or  pus.  Such  sounds  are  of  a  gurgling  or  bubbling  nature 
and  are  known  as  mucous  rales.  Mucous  rales  are  spoken  of  as  being 
large  or  small  as  they  are  distinct  or  indistinct,  depending  upon  the 
quantity  of  fluid  that  is  present  and  the  size  of  the  tube  in  which  this 
sound  is  produced.  Mucous  rales  occur  in  pneumonia  after  the  solid- 
ified parts  begin  to  break  down  at  the  end  of  the  disease.  They  occur 
in  bronchitis  and  in  tuberculosis,  where  there  is  an  excess  of  secretion. 

Sometimes  a  shrill  sound  is  heard,  like  the  note  of  a  whistle,  fife,  or 
flute.  This  is  due  to  a  dry  constriction  of  the  bronchial  tubes  and  it 
is  heard  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  in  tuberculosis. 

A  friction  sound  is  heard  in  pleurisy.  This  is  due  to  the  rubbing 
together  of  roughened  surfaces,  and  the  sound  produced  is  similar 
to  a  dry  rubbing  sound  that  is  caused  by  rubbing  the  hands  together 
or  by  rubbing  upon  each  other  two  dry,  rough  pieces  of  leather. 

THE  EXAMINATION  Or  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT. 

The  first  point  in  connection  with  the  examination  of  the  organs  of 
digestion  is  the  appetite  and  the  manner  of  taking  food  and  drink.  A 
healthy  animal  has  a  good  appetite.  Loss  of  appetite  does  not  point 
to  a  special  diseased  condition,  but  comes  from  a  variety  of  causes. 
Some  of  these  causes,  indeed,  may  be  looked  upon  as  being  physio- 
logical. Excitement,  strange  surroundings,  fatigue,  and  hot  weather 
may  all  cause  loss  of  appetite.  AVhere  there  is  cerebral  depression, 
fever,  profound  weakness,  disorder  of  the  stomach,  or  mechanical 
difficulty  in  chewing  or  swallowing,  the  appetite  is  diminished  or 
destroyed.  Sometimes  there  is  an  appetite  or  desire  to  eat  abnormal 
things,  such  as  dirty  bedding,  roots  of  grass,  soil,  etc.  This  desire 
usually  comes  from  a  chronic  disturbance  of  nutrition. 

Thirst  is  diminished  in  a  good  many  mild  diseases  unaccompanied 
by  distinct  fever.  It  is  seen  where  there  is  great  exhaustion  or  depres- 
sion or  profound  brain  disturbance.     Thirst  is  increased  after  pro- 


22  DI8EASB8   OF  THE  H0B8E. 

fuse  sweating)  in  diabetes,  diarrhea,  in  fever,  at  the  crisis  of  infec- 
tious diseases,  and  \s'hen  the  mouth  is  dry  and  hot. 

Some  diseaaes  of  the  mouth  or  throat  make  it  difficult  for  the  horse 
to  chew  or  swallow  his  food.  "Where  difficulty  in  this  respect  is  expe- 
rienced, the  following-named  conditions  should  be  borne  in  mind  and 
carefully  looked  for:  Diseases  of  the  teeth,  consisting  in  decay,  frac- 
ture, abscess  formation,  or  overgrowth;  inflammatory  conditions,  or 
wounds  or  tumors  of  the  tongue,  cheeks,  or  lips;  paralysis  of  the  mus- 
cles of  chewing  or  swallowing;  foreign  bodies  in  upper  part  of  the 
mouth  between  the  molar  teeth;  inflammation  of  throat.  Difficulty 
in  swallowing  is  sometimes  shown  by  the  symptom  known  as  "quid- 
ding."'  Quidding  consists  in  dropping  from  the  mouth  well-chewed 
and  insalivated  lx)luses  of  food.  A  mouthful  of  hay,  for  example, 
after  being  ground  and  masticated,  is  carried  to  the  back  part  of  the 
mouth.  The  horse  then  finds  that  from  tenderness  of  the  throat,  or 
from  some  other  cause,  swallowing  is  difficult  or  painful,  and  the 
bolus  is  then  dropped  from  the  mouth.  Another  quantity  of  hay  is 
similarly  prepared,  only  to  be  dropped  in  turn.  Sometimes  quidding 
is  due  to  a  painful  tooth,  the  bolus  being  dropped  from  the  mouth 
when  the  tooth  is  struck  and  during  the  pang  that  follows.  Quid- 
ding may  be  practiced  so  |>ersistently  that  a  considerable  pile  of 
boluses  of  food  accumulate  in  the  manger  or  on  the  floor  of  the  stall. 
In  pharyngitis  one  of  the  symptoms  is  a  return  through  the  nose  of 
fluid  that  the  horse  attempts  to  swallow. 

lo  son>e  brain  diseases,  and  particularly  in  chronic  internal  hydro- 
cephalus^ the  horse  has  a  mast  peculiar  manner  of  swallowing  and  of 
taking  foo<l.  A  similar  condition  is  seen  in  hyperemia  of  the  brain. 
In  eating  the  horse  will  sink  his  muzzle  into  the  grain  in  the  feed 
box  and  eat  for  a  while  without  raising  the  head.  Long  pauses  are 
made  while  the  food  ia  in  the  mouth.  Sometimes  the  horse  will  eat 
very  rapidly  for  a  little  while  and  then  slowly;  the  jaws  may  be 
bnmght  togetlier  so  forcibly  that  the  teeth  gnash.  In  eating  hay 
tlie  horse  will  Htop  at  times  with  hay  protruding  from  the  mouth  and 
stand  stupidly,  as  though  he  has  forgotten  what  he  was  about. 

In  examining  the  mouth  one  should  first  l<K)k  for  swellings  or  for 
evidt-nce  of  abnomial  conditions  upon  the  exterior;  that  is,  the  front 
and  sides  of  the  face,  the  jaws,  and  about  the  muzzle.  By  this  means 
wounds,  fractures,  tumors,  abscesses,  and  disease  accompanied  by 
eruptions  alxiut  the  muzzle  may  be  detected.  The  interior  of  the 
mouth  is  examined  by  holding  the  head  up  and  inserting  the  fingers 
through  the  intenlental  space  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  mouth  to 
open.  The  mucous  membrane  should  l)e  clean  and  of  a  light-pink 
color,  excepting  on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  where  the  color  is  a  yel- 
lowish gray.  As  abnormalities  of  this  region,  the  chief  are  diffuse 
inflammation,  characterized  by  redness  and  catarrhal  discharge ;  local 


EXAMINATION   OP   A   SICK   HORSE.  23 

inflammation,  as  from  eruptions,  ulcers,  or  wounds;  necrosis  of  the 
lower  jawbone  in  front  of  the  first  back  tooth;  and  swellings.  For- 
eign bodies  are  sometimes  found  embedded  in  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  of  the  mouth  or  lodged  between  the  teeth. 

The  examination  of  the  pharynx  and  of  the  esophagus  is  made 
chiefly  by  pressing  upon  the  skin  covering  these  organs  in  the  region 
of  the  throat  and  along  the  left  side  of  the  neck  in  the  jugular  gutter. 
Sometimes,  when  a  more  careful  examination  is  necessary,  an  esoph- 
ageal tube  or  probang  is  passed  through  the  nose  or  mouth  down  the 
esophagus  to  the  stomach. 

Vomiting  is  an  act  consisting  in  the  expulsion  of  all  or  part  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  through  the  mouth  or  nose.  This  act  is  more 
difficult  for  the  horse  than  for  most  of  the  other  domestic  animals, 
because  the  stomach  of  the  horse  is  small  and  does  not  lie  on  the  floor 
of  the  abdominal  cavity,  so  that  the  abdominal  walls  in  contracting  do 
not  bring  pressure  to  bear  upon  it  so  directly  and  forcibly,  as  is  the 
case  in  many  other  animals.  Beside  this,  there  is  a  loose  fold  of 
mucous  membrane  at  the  point  where  the  esophagus  enters  the  stom- 
ach, and  this  forms  a  sort  of  valve  which  does  not  interfere  with  the 
passage  of  food  into  the  stomach,  but  does  interfere  with  the  exit  of 
food  through  the  esophageal  opening.  Still,  vomiting  is  a  symptom 
that  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  horse.  It  occurs  when  the  stomach  is 
very  much  distended  with  food  or  with  gas.  Distention  stretches  the 
mucous  membrane  and  eradicates  the  valvular  fold  referred  to,  and 
also  makes  it  possible  for  more  pressure  to  be  exerted  upon  the  stom- 
ach through  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  Since  the 
distention  to  permit  vomiting  must  be  extreme,  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  it  leads  to  rupture  of  the  stomach  walls.  This  has 
caused  the  impression  in  the  minds  of  some  thiat  vomiting  can  not 
occur  in  the  horse  without  rupture  of  the  stomach,  but  this  is  incor- 
rect, since  many  horses  vomit  and  afterwards  become  entirely  sound. 
After  rupture  of  the  stomach  has  occurred  vomiting  is  impossible. 

In  examination  of  the  abdomen  one  should  remember  that  its  size 
depends  largely  upon  the  breed,  sex,  and  conformation  of  the  animal, 
and  also  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  animal  has  been  fed  and  the 
use  to  which  it  has  been  put.  A  pendulous  abdomen  ma}^  be  the  result 
of  an  abdominal  tumor  or  of  an  accumulation  of  fluid  in  the  abdom- 
inal cavity;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  merely  be  an  indication 
of  pregnancy,  or  of  the  fact  that  the  horse  has  been  fed  for  a  long 
time  on  bulky  and  innutritions  food.  Pendulous  abdomen  occurring 
in  a  work  horse  kept  on  a  concentrated  diet  is  an  abnormal  condi- 
tion. The  abdomen  may  increase  suddenly  in  volume  from  accu- 
mulation of  gas  in  tympanic  colic.  The  abdomen  becomes  small  and 
the  horse  is  said  to  be  "  tucked  up  "  from  long-continued  poor  appe- 
tite, as  in  diseases  of  the  digestive  tract  and  in  fever.     This  condi- 


24  DIBBA8I8   OP  THE   HOB8B. 

tion  also  occurs  in  tetanus  from  the  contraction  of  the  aMoniinal 
wallA  and  in  diarrhea  from  emptiness. 

In  applying  the  ear  to  the  Hank,  on  either  the  right  or  left  side, 
certain  bubbling  sounds  may  be  heard  that  are  known  as  peristaltic 
sounds,  because  they  are  produced  by  peristalsis,  or  wormlike  con- 
traction of  the  intestines.  These  sounds  are  a  little  louder  on  the 
riglit  side  than  on  the  left  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  large  intes- 
tines lie  in  the  right  flank.  Absence  of  peristaltic  sounds  is  always  an 
indication  of  disease,  and  suggests  exhaustion  or  paralysis  of  the 
intestines.  This  may  occur  in  certain  kinds  of  colic  and  is  an  un- 
favorable symptom.  Increased  sounds  are  heard  where  the  intes- 
tines are  contracted  more  violently  than  in  health,  as  in  spasmodic 
colic,  and  also  where  there  is  an  excess  of  fluid  or  gas  in  the  intestinal 
canal. 

The  feces  show,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  thoroughness  of  digestion. 
Thoy  should  show  that  the  food  has  been  well  ground,  and  should,  in 
the  horse,  be  free  from  ofl"ensive  odor  or  coatings  of  mucus.  A  coat- 
ing of  mucus  shows  intestinal  catarrh.  Blood  on  the  feces  indicates 
severe  inflammation.  Very  light  color  and  bad  odor  may  come  from 
inactive  liver.     Parasites  are  sometimes  in  the  dung. 

Rectal  examination  consists  in  examination  of  the  organs  of  the 
pelvic  cavity  and  posterior  jxirtion  of  the  aMominal  cavity  by  the 
hand  inserted  into  the  rectum.  This  examination  should  be  attempted 
by  a  veterinarian  only,  and  is  useless  except  to  one  who  has  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  parts  concerned. 

TlIK    KXAMINATION    OF   THE    NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

Tl»e  great  brain,  or  cerebrum,  is  the  seat  of  intelligence,  and  it  con- 
tains the  <-enters  that  control  motion  in  many  parts  of  the  body. 
The  front  jMirtion  of  the  brain  ih  believed  to  l)e  the  region  that  is  most 
imixirtant  in  governing  the  intelligence.  The  central  and  posterior 
portions  of  the  cerebrum  contain  the  centers  for  the  voluntary  motions 
of  the  face  an<l  of  the  front  and  hi  rid  legs.  The  growth  of  a  tumor  or 
an  inflammatory'  change  in  the  region  of  a  center  governing  the 
motion  of  a  certain  part  of  the  IkkIv  has  the  effect  of  disturbing 
motion  in  that  part  by  causing  excessive  contraction  known  as  cramps, 
or  inability  of  the  muscles  to  contract,  constituting  the  condition 
known  as  paralysis.  The  nerve  paths  from  the  cerebrum,  and  hence 
from  thcM*  centers  to  the  spinal  cord  and  thoncc  to  tlio  nniscles,  pass 
beneath  the  small  brain,  or  the  cereMlum,  and  through  the  medulla 
oblongata  to  the  spinal  cord.  Interference  with  these  paths  has  the 
effect  <.f  disturbing  motion  of  the  parts  reached  by  them.  If  all  of 
the  paths  on  one  side  are  interfered  with,  the  result  is  paralysis  of  one 
side  of  the  IkhIv. 

The  small  brain,  or  cerebellum,  governs  the  regularity,  or  coordi- 


EXAMINATION    OP   A   SICK   HORSE.  25 

nation,  of  movements.  Disturbances  of  the  cerebellum  cause  a  totter- 
ing, uncertain  gait.  In  the  medulla  oblongata,  which  lies  between  the 
spinal  cord  and  the  cerebellum,  are  the  centers  governing  the  circula- 
tion and  breathing. 

The  spinal  cord  carries  sensory  messages  to  the  brain  and  motor 
impressions  from  the  brain.  The  anterior  portions  of  the  cord  con- 
tain the  motor  paths,  and  the  posterior  portions  of  the  cord  contain 
the  sensory  paths. 

Paralysis  of  a  single  member  or  a  single  group  of  muscles  is  known 
as  monoplegia  and  results  from  injury  to  the  motor  center  or  to  a 
nerve  trunk  leading  to  the  part  that  is  involved.  Paralysis  of  one- 
half  of  the  body  is  known  as  hemiplegia  and  results  from  destruction 
or  severe  disturbances  of  the  cerebral  hemisphere  of  the  opposite  side 
of  the  body  or  from  interference  with  nerve  paths  between  the  cere- 
bellum, or  small  brain,  and  the  spinal  cord.  Paralysis  of  the  poste- 
rior half  of  the  body  is  known  as  paraplegia  and  results  from  de- 
rangement of  the  spinal  cord.  If  the  cord  is  pressed  upon,  cut,  or 
injured,  messages  can  not  be  transmitted  beyond  that  point,  and  so  the 
posterior  part  becomes  paralyzed.  This  is  seen  when  the  back  is 
fractured. 

Abnormal  mental  excitement  may  be  due  to  congestion  of  the  brain 
or  to  inflammation.  The  animal  so  afflicted  becomes  vicious,  pays  no 
attention  to  commands,  cries,  runs  about  in  a  circle,  stamps  with  the 
feet,  strikes,  kicks,  etc.  This  condition  is  usually  followed  by  a  dull, 
stupid  state,  in  which  the  animal  stands  with  his  head  down,  dull  and 
irresponsive  to  external  stimuli.  Cerebral  depression  also  occurs  in 
the  severe  febrile  infectious  diseases,  in  chronic  hydrocephalus,  in 
chronic  diseases  of  the  liver,  in  poisoning  with  a  narcotic  substance, 
and  with  chronic  catarrh  of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 

Fainting  is  a  symptom  that  is  not  often  seen  in  horses.  A^Tien  it 
occurs  it  is  shown  by  unsteadiness  of  gait,  tottering,  and,  finally,  in- 
ability to  stand.  The  cause  usually  lies  in  a  defect  of  the  small  brain, 
or  cerebellum.  This  defect  may  be  merely  in  respect  of  the  blood 
supply,  to  congestion,  or  to  anemia,  and  in  this  case  it  is  likely  to  pass 
away  and  may  never  return,  or  it  may  be  due  to  some  permanent 
cause,  as  a  tumor  or  an  abscess,  or  it  may  result  from  a  hemorrhage, 
from  a  defect  of  the  valves  of  the  heart,  or  from  poisoning. 

Loss  of  consciousness  is  known  as  coma.  It  is  caused  by  hemor- 
rhage in  the  brain,  by  profound  exhaustion,  or  may  result  from  a 
saturation  of  the  system  with  the  poison  of  some  disease.  Coma  may 
follow  upon  cerebral  depression,  which  occurs  as  a  secondary  state 
of  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

Where  the  sensibility  of  a  part  is  increased  the  condition  is  known 
as  hyperesthesia,  and  where  it  is  lost — that  is,  where  there  is  no  feel- 
ing or  knowledge  of  pain — the  condition  is  known  as  anesthesia.    The 


26  DISEASES   OF  THE   H0B8E. 

fonner  usually  accompanies  some  chronic  diseases  of  the  spinal  cord 
or  Iho  earlier  stages  of  irritation  of  a  nervo  trunk.  Hvi^eresthesia  is 
difficult  to  detect  in  a  nervous,  irritable  animal,  and  sometimes  even 
in  a  horse  of  less  sensitive  temperament.  An  irritable,  sensitive  spot 
may  be  found  surrounded  by  skin  that  is  not  sensitive  to  pressure. 
This  is  sometimes  a  symptom  of  beginning  of  inflammation  of  the 
brain.  Anesthesia  occurs  in  connection  with  cerebral  and  spinal 
paralysis,  section  of  a  nerve  trunk  leading  to  a  part,  in  severe  mental 
depression,  and  in  narcotic  poisoning. 

URINARY   AND   SEXUAL   ORGANS. 

In  considering  the  examination  of  the  urinary  and  sexual  organs 
we  may  consider,  at  the  beginning,  a  false  impression  that  prevails  to 
an  astonishing  extent.  Many  horsemen  are  in  the  habit  of  pressing 
upon  the  back  of  a  horse  over  the  loins  or  of  sliding  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  along  on  either  side  of  the  median  line  of  this  region.  If  the 
horse  depresses  his  back  it  is  at  once  said  "  his  kidneys  are  weak." 
Nothing  could  be  more  absurd  or  further  from  the  truth.  Any 
healthy  horse — any  horse  with  normal  sensation  and  with  a  normally 
flexible  back — will  cause  it  to  sink  when  manipulated  in  this  way.  If 
the  kidney's  are  inflamed  and  sensitive,  the  back  is  held  more  rigidly 
and  is  not  depressed  under  this  pressure. 

To  examine  the  kidneys  by  pressure  the  pressure  should  be  brought 
to  bear  over  these  organs.  The  kidneys  lie  beneath  the  ends  of  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  loins  and  beneath  the  hind- 
most ril>s.  If  the  kidneys  are  actually  inflamed  and  especially  sensi- 
tive, pressure  or  light  blows  applied  here  may  cause  the  horse  to 
shrink. 

The  physical  examination  of  the  sexual  and  generative  organs  is 
made  in  large  part  through  the  rectum,  and  this  portion  of  the  exami- 
nation should  l>e  carried  out  by  a  veterinarian  only.  By  this  means 
it  is  possible  to  discover  or  locate  cysts  of  the  kidneys,  urinary 
calculi  in  the  ureters,  bladder,  or  upper  urethra,  malformations,  and 
acute  inflammations  accompanied  by  pain.  The  external  genital 
organs  arc  swollen,  discolored,  or  show  a  discharge  as  a  result  of 
local  disea.se  or  from  disease  higher  in  the  tract. 

The  manner  of  urinating  is  sometimes  of  considerable  diagnostic 
importance.  Painful  urination  is  shown  by  frequent  attempts,  dur- 
ing which  but  a  small  quantity  of  urine  is  passed;  by  groaning,  by 
constraine<l  attitude,  etc.  This  condition  comes  from  inflammation 
of  the  l>ladder  or  urethra,  urinary  calculi  (stones  of  the  bladder  or 
urethra),  hemorrhage,  tumors,  bruises,  etc.  The  urine  is  retained 
from  spasniH  of  tiie  muscle  at  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  from  calculi, 
inflammatory  growths,  tumors,  and  paralysis  of  the  bladder. 

The  urine  dribblf-s  without  control  when  the  neck  of  the  bladder 
is  weakened  or  paralyzed.    This  condition  is  seen  after  the  bladder  is 


EXAMINATION   OP  A   SICK   HOKSE.  27 

weakened  from  long-continued  retention  and  where  there  is  a  partial 
paralysis  of  the  hind  quarters. 

Horses  usually  void  urine  five  to  seven  times  a  day,  and  pass  from  4 
to  7  quarts.  Disease  may  be  shown  by  increase  in  the  number  of 
voidings  or  of  the  quantity.  Frequent  urination  indicates  an  irri- 
table or  painful  condition  of  the  bladder  or  urethra  or  that  the  quan- 
tity is  excessive.  In  one  form  of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidneys 
(interstitial  nephritis)  and  in  polyuria  the  quantity  may  be  increased 
to  20  or  30  quarts  daily.  Diminution  in  the  quantity  of  urine  comes 
from  profuse  sweating,  diarrhea,  high  fever,  weak  heart,  diseased  and 
nonsecreting  kidneys,  or  an  obstruction  to  the  flow. 

The  urine  of  the  healthy  horse  is  a  pale  or  at  times  a  slightly  red- 
dish yellow.  The  color  is  less  intense  when  the  quantity  is  large,  and 
is  more  intense  when  the  quantity  is  diminished.  Dark -brown  urine 
is  seen  in  azoturia  and  in  severe  acute  muscular  rheumatism.  A 
brownish-green  color  is  seen  in  jaundice.  Red  color  indicates  admix- 
ture of  blood  from  a  bleeding  point  at  some  part  of  the  urinary  tract, 
usually  in  the  kidneys. 

The  urine  of  the  healthy  horse  is  not  clear  and  transparent.  It 
contains  mucus,  which  causes  it  to  be  slightly  thick  and  stringy,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  undissolved  carbonates,  causing  it  to  be  cloudy. 
A  sediment  collects  when  the  urine  is  allowed  to  stand.  The  urine  of 
the  horse  is  normally  alkaline.  If  it  becomes  acid  the  bodies  in  sus- 
pension are  dissolved  and  the  urine  is  made  clear.  The  urine  may  be 
unusually  cloudy  from  the  addition  of  abnormal  constituents,  but  to 
determine  their  character  a  chemical  or  microscopic  examination  is 
necessary.  Red  or  reddish  flakes  or  clumps  in  the  urine  are  always 
abnormal,  and  denote  a  hemorrhage  or  suppuration  in  the  urinary 
tract. 

The  normal  specific  gravity  of  the  urine  of  the  horse  is  about  1.040. 
It  is  increased  when  the  urine  is  scanty  and  decreased  when  the 
quantity  is  excessive. 

Acid  reaction  of  the  urine  occurs  in  chronic  intestinal  catarrh,  in 
high  fever,  and  during  starvation.  Chemical  and  microscopic  tests 
and  examinations  are  often  of  great  importance  in  diagnosis,  but 
require  special  apparatus  and  skill. 

Other  points  in  the  examination  of  a  sick  horse  require  more  discus- 
sion than  can  be  afforded  in  this  connection,  and  require  special  train- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  examiner.  Among  such  points  may  be  men- 
tioned the  examination  of  the  prgans  of  special  sense,  the  examination 
of  the  blood,  the  microscopic  examination  of  the  secretions  and  excre- 
tions, bacteriological  examinations  of  the  secretions,  excretions,  and 
tissues,  specific  reaction  tests,  and  diagnostic  inoculation. 


METHODS  OF  ADMINISTERING  MEDICINES. 

By  Ch.  B.  Michener,  V.  R. 
(R«TlMd  In  1003  by  Leonard  Pearson,  B.  8.,  V.  M.  D.] 

Medicine  may  enter  the  body  through  any  of  the  following  desig- 
nated channels:  First,  by  the  mouth;  second,  by  the  air  passages; 
third,  by  the  skin ;  fourth,  by  the  tissue  beneath  the  skin  (hypodermic 
njcthods) ;  fifth,  by  the  rectum;  sixth,  by  the  genito-urinary  passages; 
and,  seventh,  by  the  blood  (intravenous  injections). 

(1)  Hv  TiiK  MorTii. — Medicines  can  be  given  by  the  mouth  in  the 
form  of  solids,  as  powders  or  pills;  liquids,  and  pastes,  or  electuaries. 

Solids  administered  as  powders  should  be  as  finely  pulverized  as 
possible,  in  order  to  secure  rapid  solution  and  absorption.  Their 
action  is  in  this  way  facilitated  and  intensified.  Powders  must  be 
free  from  any  irritant  or  caustic  action  upon  the  mouth.  Those  that 
are  without  any  disagreeable  taste  or  smell  are  readily  eaten  with  the 
feed  or  taken  in  the  drinking  water.  When  placed  with  the  feed  they 
sliould  first  l>e  dissolved  or  susi)ended  in  water  and  thus  sprinkled  on 
the  feed.  If  mixed  dry  the  horse  will  often  leave  the  medicine  in 
the  bottom  of  his  manger.  Nonirritant  powders  may  be  given  in 
capsules,  as  !)alls  are  given. 

Pills,  or  '7y*/Wj»,"  when  properly  made,  are  cylindrical  in  shape,  2 
inches  in  length  and  al)out  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
They  should  be  fresh,  but  if  necessary  to  keep  them  some  time  they 
nhould  \yc  made  up  with  glycerin,  or  some  such  agent,  to  prevent 
their  Incoming  too  hard.  Very  old,  hard  balls  are  sometimes  passed 
whole  with  the  manure  withotit  being  acted  upon  at  all.  Pa|)er  is 
sometimes  wrapjxnl  around  balls  when  given,  if  they  are  so  sticky  as 
to  adhere  to  the  fingers  or  the  Inlling  gun.  Paper  used  for  this  pur- 
pose should  U'  thin  but  firm,  as  the  tougher  tissue  pajx»rs.  Balls  are 
preferred  to  drenches  when  the  medicine  is  extremely  disagreeable  or 
nanaeating;  when  the  dose  is  not  too  large;  when  the  horse  is  difficult 
to  drench;  or  when  the  medicine  is  intended  to  act  slowly.  Certain 
mwlicines  ran  not  or  shoidd  not  be  made  into  balls,  as  medicines 
requiring  to  lie  given  in  large  doses,  ovl.s,  caustic  sul)stances,  unless  in 
small  dose  and  diluted  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  vehicle,  deli- 
qoewent,  or  efflorescent  salts.  Substances  suitable  for  balls  can  be 
made  up  by  the  addition  of  honey,  sirup,  soap,  etc.,  when  required 


METHODS   OF   ADMINISTEBING   MEDICINES.  29 

for  immediate  use.  Gelatin  capsules  of  different  sizes  are  now  obtain- 
able and  are  a  convenient  means  of  giving  medicines  in  ball  form. 

Liquids  may  be  given  as  drenches  when  the  dose  is  large,  or  they 
may,  when  but  a  small  quantity  is  administered,  be  injected  into  the 
mouth  with  a  hard-rubber  syringe  or  be  poured  upon  the  tongue  from 
a  small  phial. 

Pastes,  or  electuaries,  are  medicines  mixed  with  licorice-root  pow- 
der, ground  flaxseed,  molasses,  or  sirup  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  or 
a  "  soft  solid."  They  are  intended,  chiefly,  to  act  locally  upon  the 
mouth  and  throat.  They  are  given  by  being  spread  upon  the  tongue, 
gums,  or  teeth  with  a  wooden  paddle  or  strong  long-handled  spoon. 

When  balls  are  to  be  given  we  should  observe  the  following  direc- 
tions: In  shape  they  should  be  cylindrical,  of  the  size  above  men- 
tioned, and  soft  enough  to  be  easily  compressed  by  the  fingers.  If 
made  round  or  egg-shaped,  if  too  long  or  too  hard,  they  are  liable  to 
become  fixed  in  the  gullet  and  cause  choking.  Balls  may  be  given 
with  the  "  balling  gun  "  (obtainable  at  any  veterinary  instrument 
maker's)  or  by  the  hand.  If  given  by  the  hand  a  mouth  speculum  or 
gag  may  be  used  to  prevent  the  animal  from  biting  the  hand  or  crush- 
ing the  ball;  Always  loosen  the  horse  before  attempting  to  give  a 
ball;  if  tied  he  may  break  his  halter  and  injure  himself  or  the  one 
giving  the  ball.  With  a  little  practice  it  is  much  easier  to  give  a  ball 
without  the  mouth  gag,  as  the  horse  always  fights  more  or  less  against 
having  his  mouth  forced  open.  The  tongue  must  be  firmly  grasped 
with  the  left  hand  and  gently  pulled  forward ;  the  ball,  slightly  moist- 
ened, is  then  to  be  placed  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand 
as  far  back  into  the  mouth  as  possible ;  as  the  tongue  is.  loosened  it  is 
drawn  back  into  the  mouth  and  carries  the  ball  backward  with  it. 
The  mouth  should  be  kept  closed  for  a  minute  or  two.  We  should 
always  have  a  pail  of  water  at  hand  to  offer  the  horse  after  "balling. 
This  precaution  will  often  prevent  him  from  coughing  out  the  ball  or 
its  becoming  lodged  in  the  gullet. 

It  is,  very  often,  impossible  to  get  balls  properly  made,  or  to  induce 
owners  or  attendants  to  attempt  to  give  them,  and  for  these  reasons 
medicines  by  the  mouth  are  mostly  given  in  the  form  of  liquids. 
When  medicine  is  to  be  given  as  a  drench  we  must  be  careful  to  use 
enough  water  or  oil  to  dissolve  or  dilute  it  thoroughly ;  more  than  this 
makes  the  drench  bulky  and  is  unnecesary.  'Insoluble  medicines,  if 
not  irritant  or  corrosive,  may  be  given  simply  suspended  in  water, 
the  bottle  to  be  well  shaken  immediately  before  giving  the  drench. 
The  bottle  used  for  drenching  purposes  should  be  clean,  strong,  and 
smooth  about  its  neck ;  it  should  be  without  shoulders,  tapering,  and 
of  a  size  to  suit  the  amount*  to  be  given.  A  horn  or  tin  bottle  may  be 
better,  because  they  are  not  so  easily  broken  by  the  teeth.  If  the  dose 
is  a  small  one  the  horse's  head  may  be  held  up  by  the  left  hand,  while 


30  DISEASES   OF  THE    H0B8E. 

the  medicine  is  poured  into  the  mouth  by  the  right.  The  left  thumb 
is  to  bo  pUced  in  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  fingers  spread 
out  in  such  a  manner  as  to  support  the  lower  lip.  Should  the  dose 
be  largi',  the  horse  ugly,  or  the  attendant  unable  to  support  the  head 
as  directed  above,  the  head  is  then  to  be  held  up  by  running  the  tines 
of  a  long-handled  wooden  fork  under  the  noseband  of  the  halter  or 
tlie  halter  strap  or  a  rope  may  be  fastened  to  the  noseband  and  thrown 
over  a  limb,  beam,  or  through  a  pulley  suspended  from  the  ceiling. 
Another  way  of  supporting  the  head  is  to  place  a  loop  in  the  end  of  a 
rope,  and  introduce  this  loop  into  the  mouth  just  behind  the  upper 
front  teeth  or  tusks  of  the  upix»r  jaw,  the  free  end  to  be  run  througli 
a  pfilley,  as  before  descril)ed,  and  held  by  an  assistant.  It  is  never  to 
be  fasteneil,  as  the  horse  might  in  that  case  do  himself  serious  injury. 
The  head  is  to  be  elevated  just  enough  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
tlirowing  the  liquid  out  of  his  mouth.  The  line  of  the  face  should  be 
horizontal,  or  only  the  least  bit  higher.  If  the  head  is  drawn  too  high 
the  animal  can  not  swallow  with  ease  or  even  with  safety.  (If  this  is 
doubted,  just  fill  your  mouth  with  water,  throw  back  the  head  as  far 
as  possible,  and  then  try  to  swallow.)  The  person  giving  the  drench 
should  stand  on  some  object  in  order  to  reach  the  horse's  mouth — on 
a  level,  or  a  little  above  it.  The  bottle  or  horn  is  then  to  be  intro- 
duced at  the  side  of  the  mouth,  in  front  of  the  molar  teeth,  in  an 
upward  direction.  This  will  cause  the  horse  to  open  his  mouth,  when 
the  ba.se  of  the  l)ottle  is  to  be  elevated,  and  about  4  ounces  of  the 
liquid  aIlowe<i  to  escai)e  on  the  tongue  as  far  back  as  possible,  care 
Using  taken  not  to  get  the  neck  of  the  bottle  between  the  back  teeth. 
Tl»e  bottle  is  to  be  immediately  removed,  and  if  the  horse  does  not 
swallow  this  can  Ije  encouraged  by  rubbing  the  fingers  or  neck  of  the 
bottle  against  the  rtmf  of  the  mouth,  occasionally  removing  them. 
As  soon  as  this  is  swallowed  re|jcat  the  operation  until  he  has  taken 
all  th«  drench.  If  ct>ughing  occurs,  or  if,  by  any  mishap,  the  bottle 
should  \>e  rnishe<l  in  the  mouth,  lower  the  head  immediately. 

Do  not  rub,  pinch,  or  i>ound  the  throat  nor  draw  out  the  tongue 
when  giving  a  dn-nch.  These  proces.ses  in  no  way  aid  the  horse  to 
swallow  and  oftoner  do  harm  than  good.  In  drenching,  swallowing 
may  l»  hastened  by  jmuring  into  the  nose  of  the  horse,  while  the  head 
is  high,  a  few  teaspoonfuls  of  clean  water,  but  drencheff  mmt  nerev  he 
given  throutjh  the  nos<i.  Ij&rgvs  quantities  of  medicine  given  by  pour- 
ing into  the  noue  are  liable  to  .strangle  the  animal,  or,  if  the  medicine 
is  irritating,  it  sets  up  an  inflanunation  of  the  nose,  fauces,  windpipe. 
and  sometimes  the  lungs. 

Cattle  are  easily  drenched  by  holding  them  by  the  nose  with  the 
left  hand,  while  the  medicine  is  poure<l  into  the  mouth  with  the  right. 
Balls  are  not  to  be  given  to  caUle,  for  they  are  likely  to  l^ecome 


METHODS   OF   ADMINISTERING   MEDICINES.  31 

embedded  in  the  great  mass  of  food  in  the  stomach  and  act  tardily  if 
at  all. 

(2)  Medicines  are  administered  to  the  lungs  and  upper  air  passages 
by  insufflation,  inhalation,  injection,  and  nasal  douche. 

Insufflation  consists  of  blowing  an  impalpable  powder  directly  into 
the  nose.     It  is  but  rarely  resorted  to. 

Gaseous  and  volatile  medicines  are  given  by  inhalation^  as  is  also 
medicated  steam,  or  vapor.  Of  the  gases  used  there  may  be  men- 
tioned, as  the  chief  ones,  sulphurous  acid  gas  and,  occasionally,  chlo- 
rine. The  animal  or  animals  are  to  be  placed  in  a  tight  room,  where 
these  gases  are  generated  until  the  atmosphere  is  sufficiently  impreg- 
nated with  them.  Volatile  medicines — as  the  anesthetics  (ether,  chlo- 
roform, etc.) — are  to  be  given  by  the  attending  surgeon  only.  Medi- 
cated vapors  are  to  be  inhaled  by  placing  a  bucket  containing  hot 
water,  vinegar  and  water,  scalded  hay  or  bran,  to  which  carbolic  acid, 
iodine,  creolin,  compound  tincture  of  benzoin,  or  other  medicines 
have  been  added,  in  the  bottom  of  a  long  grain  bag.  The  horse's  nose 
is  to  be  inserted  into  the  top  of  the  bag,  and  he  thus  inhales  the 
"  medicated  steam."  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  this  hot  enough 
to  scald  the  animal.  The  vapor  from  scalding  bran  or  hay  is  often 
thus  inhaled  to  favor  discharges  in  sore  throat  or  "  distemper." 

Injections  are  made  into  the  trachea  by  means  of  a  hypodermic 
syringe.  This  method  of  medication  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  treat- 
ing local  diseases  of  the  trachea  and  upper  bronchial  tubes.  It  has 
also  been  used  as  a  mode  of  administering  remedies  for  their  constitu- 
tional effect,  but  is  now  rarely  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  ruisal  douche  is  employed  by  the  veterinarian  in  treating  some 
local  diseases  of  the  nasal  chambers.  Special  appliances  and  profes- 
sional knowledge  are  necessary  when  using  liquid  medicines  by  this 
method.  It  is  not  often  resorted  to,  even  by  veterinary  surgeons, 
since,  as  a  rule,  the  horse  objects  very  strongly  to  this  mode  of  medi- 
cation. 

(3)  By  the  skin. — Medicines  are  often  administered  to  our  hair- 
covered  animals  by  the  skin,  yet  care  must  be  taken  in  applying  some 
medicines — as  tobacco  water,  carbolic-acid  solutions,  strong  creolin 
solutions,  mercurial  ointment,  etc. — over  the  entire  body,  as  poison- 
ing and  death  follow  in  some  instances  from  absorption  through  the 
skin.  For  the  same  reasons  care  must  also  be  exercised  and  poisonous 
medicines  not  applied  over  very  large  raw  or  abraded  surfaces.  With 
domestic  animals  medicines  are  only  to  be  applied  by  the  skin  to  allay 
local  pain  or  cure  local  disease. 

(4)  By  the  tissue  beneath  the  skin  (hypodekmatic  method). — 
Medicines  are  frequently  given  by  the  hypodermic  syringe  under  the 
skin.     It  is  not  safe  for  any  but  medical  or  veterinary  practitioners 


^  DTSBA8B8   OF  THE   HOB8B 

to  use  this  form  of  medication,  since  the  me<licines  thus  given  are  pow- 
erful jwisons.  There  are  many  precautions  to  be  observed,  and  a 
knowledp"  of  anatomy  is  indis|>ensable.  One  of  the  chief  precautions 
has  to  do  with  the  sterilization  of  the  syringe.  If  it  is  not  st«rile  an 
■b^^cess  may  be  produced. 

(5)  By  thk  recti- m.— Medicines  may  be  given  by  the  rectum  when 
they  can  not  be  given  by  the  mouth,  or  when  they  are  not  retained  in 
the  stomach;  when  we  want  a  local  action  on  the  last  gut ;  when  it  is 
desired  to  destroy  the  small  worms  infesting  the  large  bowels  or  to 
stimulate  tlie  i)eristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines  and  cause  evacuation. 
Medicines  are  in  such  cases  given  in  the  form  of  suppositories  or  as 
liquid  injections  (enemas).     Foods  may  also  be  given  in  this  way. 

Suppositories  are  conical  bodies  made  up  of  oil  of  theobroma  and 
opium  (or  whatever  medicine  is  indicated  in  special  cases),  and  are 
introduced  into  the  rectum  or  vagina  to  allay  irritation  and  pain  of 
these  parts.     They  are  not  much  used  in  treating  horses. 

Enemas^  when  given  for  absorption,  should  l>e  small  in  quantity, 
neutral  or  slightly  acid  in  reaction,  and  of  a  temperature  of  from  90** 
to  100*  F.  These,  like  foo<ls  ^ven  by  the  rectum,  should  be  intro- 
duced only  after  the  last  bowel  has  l^een  emptied  by  the  hand  or  by 
copious  injections  of  tepid  water.  Enemas,  or  clysters,  if  to  aid  the 
action  of  physics,  should  be  in  quantities  sufficient  to  distend  the 
bowel  and  cause  the  animal  to  eject  them.  Simple  water,  salt  and 
water,  or  soap  an<l  water,  in  quantities  of  a  gallon  or  more,  may  be 
given  everj*  half  hour.  It  is  best  that  the  horse  retain  them  for  some 
little  time,  as  the  liquid  serves  to  moisten  the  dting  and  favor  a  pas- 
sage. Stimul/tting  enemas,  as  glycerin,  should  be  administered  after 
thoHc  already  mentioned  have  emptied  the  last  bowel,  with  the  pur- 
pose of  Ktill  further  increasing  the  natural  motion  of  the  intestines 
and  aiding  the  purging  me<li(ine. 

Liquids  may  lie  thrown  into  the  rectum  by  the  means  of  a  large 
Rvringi*  or  a  ptitnp.  A  very  gocnl  "  irrigator  "  can  Ix^  bought  of  any 
tinsmith  at  a  trifling  c<>st,  and  shouhl  Ik*  constantly  at  hand  on  every 
stock  farm.  It  coiiHists  of  a  funnel  alwut  fi  inches  deep  and  7  inches 
in  diameter,  whirh  is  to  be  furnished  with  a  prolongation  to  which  a 
piece  of  rubber  hoso,  such  as  small  ganlen  hns«',  4  fwt  long  may  \n^ 
attached.  The  hone,  well  oiled,  is  to  l>c  ins<'rted  gently  into  the  rec- 
tum about  2  feet.  The  liquid  to  l)e  injected  may  then  l>c  y)oured  in 
the  funnel  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  will  force  it  into  the 
bowels,  Tliis  appliance  i.«}  better  than  the  more  complicated  and 
expensive  <»nes. 

Ordinary-  cold  water  or  even  ice-cold  water  is  highly  recommended 
by  many  as  a  rertol  injertinn  for  horses  overcome  by  the  excessive 
heat  of  summer,  and  may  be  given  by  this  simple  pipe. 


METHODS    OF    ADMINISTERING   MEDICINES.  33 

(6)  By  the  genito-urinary  passages. — This  method  of  medication 
is  especially  useful  in  treating  local  diseases  of  the  genito-urinary 
organs.  It  finds  its  chief  application  in  the  injection  and  cleansing 
of  the  uterus  and  vagina.  For  this  purpose  a  large  syringe  or  the 
irrigator  described  above  may  be  used. 

(7)  By  THE  BLOOD. — lujcctions  directly  into  veins  are  to  be  prac- 
ticed by  medical  or  veterinary  practitioners  only,  as  are  probably 
some  other  means  of  giving  medicines — intratracheal  injections,  etc. 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 3 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

By  Ch.  B,  Michener,  V.  S. 
[Revised  in  1003  by  Leonard  rearson,  B.  S.,  V.  M.  D.] 

It  will  not  prove  an  easy  task  to  write  "  a  plain  account  of  the 
common  diseases,  with  directions  for  preventive  measures,  hygienic 
care,  and  the  simpler  forms  of  medical  treatment,"  of  the  digestive 
organs  of  the  horse.  This  study  includes  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  food  and  drink  of  our  animals,  their  quality,  quantity,  analyses, 
etc  This,  of  itself,  is  material  for  a  book.  Being  limited  as  to 
space,  the  endeavor  must  be  made  to  give  simply  an  outline — to  state 
the  most  important  facts — leaving  many  gaps,  and  continually  check- 
ing the  disposition  to  write  anything  like  a  full  description  as  to 
cause,  prevention,  and  modes  of  treatment  of  disease. 

These  articles  are  addressed  entirely  to  farmers  and  stock  owners, 
and  I  must  ask  my  professional  brethren  to  bear  this  in  mind  when 
they  arc  disposed  to  complain  of  a  want  of  scientific  treatment  of 
the  subjects. 

WATER. 

It  is  generally  held,  at  least  in  practice,  that  any  water  that  stock 
can  be  indured  to  drink  is  sufficiently  pure  for  their  use.  This  prac- 
tice occasions  los.ses  that  would  startle  us  if  statistics  were  at  hand. 
Water  that  is  impure  from  the  presence  of  decomposing  organic  mat- 
tor,  Mich  as  is  found  in  wells  and  ponds  in  close  proximity  to  manure 
hea|»s  and  re-ssp(X)ls,  is  freciuently  the  cause  of  diarrhea,  dysentery, 
and  majiy  other  diHcas<'s  of  stock,  while  water  tiiat  is  impregnated 
with  different  poisons  and  contaminated  with  specific  media  of  con- 
tagion provinces  death  in  very  many  instances. 

Consi«lering  first  the  quantity  of  water  rwjuired  by  the  horse,  it 
may  Im*  ^-tatrd  that  when  our  aninuils  have  access  to  water  continually 
they  nev.r  drink  t..  excess.  Were  the  horse  sul)jected  to  ship  voyages 
or  any  other  circumstances  where  he  nnist  deijemi  upon  his  attendant 
for  the  .HUi)ply  of  water,  it  may  h>  n.ughlv  stated  that  each  horse 
rcquirej*  »  ,laily  averap.  of  about  H  gaHons  of  water.  This  will  vary 
somewhat  uinm  the  character  of  his  food;  if  upon  green  food,  less 
water  «dl  U-  nwMled  than  wh-u  fed  up.M.  <!rv  hay  and  <r,.ai„ 

The  tune  .»f  giving  water  sh<,uhl  U-  carefullv  studied."  At  rest,  the 
hon«  should  n.ceive  water  at  least  three  titnes  a  day;  when  at  work, 
more  fr^juently.  The  rule  shotd.l  U-  to  give  in  small  quantities  and 
Often^  Then.  ,s  a  fH-pular  fallacy  that  if  a  horse  is  warm  he  should 
not  be  allowed  to  drrnk,  many  claiming  that  the  first  swallow  of  water 
34 


DISEASES   OF   THE   DIGESTIVE   OEGANS.  35 

"  founders  "  the  animal  or  produces  colic.  This  is  erroneous.  No 
matter  how  warm  a  horse  may  be,  it  is  always  entirely  safe  to  allow 
him  from  six  to  ten  swallows  of  water.  If  this  is  given  on  going  into 
the  stable,  he  should  be  given  at  once  a  pound  or  two  of  hay  and 
allowed  to  rest  about  an  hour  before  feeding.  If  water  be  now  offered 
him  it  will  in  many  cases  be  refused,  or  at  least  he  will  drink  but 
sparingly.  The  danger,  then,  is  not  in  the  "  first  swallow  "  of  water, 
but  is  due  to  the  excessive  quantity  that  the  animal  will  take  when 
warm  if  he  is  not  restrained. 

Water  should  never  be  given  to  horses  when  it  is  ice  cold.  It  may 
not  be  necessary  to  add  hot  water,  but  we  should  be  careful  in  placing 
water  troughs  about  our  bams  to  have  them  in  such  position  that  the 
sun  may  shine  upon  the  water  during  the  winter  mornings.  Water, 
even  though  it  be  thus  cold,  seldom  produces  serious  trouble  if  the 
horse  has  not  been  deprived  for  a  too  great  length  of  time. 

In  reference  to  the  purity  of  water.  Smith,  in  his  "  Veterinary  Hy- 
giene," classes  spring  water,  deep-well  water,  and  upland  surface 
water  as  wholesome;  stored  rain  water  and  surface  water  from  culti- 
vated land,  as  suspicious;  river  water  to  which  sewage  gains  access 
and  shallow-well  water,  as  dangerous.  The  water  that  is  used  for 
drinking  purposes  for  stock  so  largely  throughout  some  States  can 
not  but  be  impure.  I  refer  to  those  sections  where  there  is  an  imper- 
vious clay  subsoil.  It  is  the  custom  to  scoop,  or  hollow  out,  a  large 
basin  in  the  pastures.  During  rains  these  basins  become  filled  with 
water.  The  clay  subsoil,  being  almost  impervious,  acts  as  a  jug,  and 
there  is  no  escape  for  the  water  except  by  evaporation.  Such  water 
is  stagnant,  but  would  be  kept  comparatively  fresh  by  subsequent 
rains  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  much  organic  matter  is  carried 
into  it  by  surface  drainage  during  each  succeeding  storm.  This  or- 
ganic matter  soon  undergoes  decomposition,  and,  as  the  result,  wc 
find  diseases  of  different  kinds  much  more  prevalent  where  this  water 
is  drunk  than  where  the  water  supply  is  wholesome.  Again,  it  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of  that  stagnant  surface  water  is  much  more  certainly 
contaminated  than  is  running  water  by  one  diseased  animal  of  the 
herd,  thus  endangering  the  remainder. 

The  chief  impurities  of  water  may  be  classified  as  organic  and 
inorganic.  The  organic  impurities  are  either  animal  or  vegetable 
substances.  The  salts  of  the  metals  are  the  inorganic  impurities. 
Lime  causes  hardne^  of  water,  and  occasion  will  be  taken  to  speak  of 
this  when  describing  intestinal  concretions.  Salts  of  lead,  iron,  and 
copper  are  also  frequently  found  in  water,  and  will  be  referred  to 
hereafter. 

About  the  only  examination  of  water  that  can  be  made  by  the  aver- 
age stock  raiser  is  to  observe  its  taste,  color,  smell,  and  clearness. 
Pure  water  is  clear  and  is  without  taste  or  smell. 


36  DISKA8BS   OF   THE   HORSE. 

Chemioil  and  microt»copic  examination  will  frequently  be  neces- 
■iry  in  order  to  detect  the  presence  of  certain  poisons,  bacteria,  etc, 
and  can,  of  course,  be  conducted  by  experts  only. 

FXX)DS    AND    l-'EEDINO. 

In  this  place  one  can  not  attempt  anything  like  a  comprehensive 
discussion  of  the  subject  of  foods  and  feeding,  and  I  must  content  my- 
self with  merely  giving  a  few  facts  as  to  the  different  kinds  of  food, 
preparation,  digestibility,  proper  time  of  feeding,  quality,  and  quan- 
tity. Improper  feeding  and  watering  will  doubtless  account  for  over 
one-half  of  the  digestive  disorders  met  with  in  the  horse,  and  hence 
the  reader  can  not  fail  to  see  how  very  important  it  is  to  have  some 
projxjr  ideas  concerning  these  subjects. 


KINDS    OF   POOD. 


In  this  country  horses  are  fed  chiefly  upon  hay,  grass,  com  fodder, 
roots,  oats,  corn,  wheat,  and  rye.  Many  think  that  they  could  be  fed 
on  nothing  else.  Stewart,  in  "  The  Stable  Book,"  gives  the  following 
extract  from  Loudon's  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  which  is  of 
interest  at  this  point : 

In  some  sterile  countries  they  [horses]  are  forced  to  subsist  on  dried  fish,  and 
even  on  vegetable  mold ;  In  Arabia,  on  milk,  flesh  balls,  eggs,  broth.  In  India 
horses  are  variously  fed.  The  native  grasses  are  judged  very  nutritious.  Few, 
I)erha|>s  no,  oats  are  grown;  barley  is  rare,  and  not  commonly  given  to  horses. 
In  li«'ngal  a  vet<-h,  something  like  the  tare,  is  used.  On  the  western  side  of 
India  a  sort  of  pigeon  i)ea,  called  gram  (Ciccr  arictinum) ,  forms  the  ordinary 
fcKHl.  with  graKs  while  in  season,  and  hay  all  the  year  round.  Indian  com  or 
rU'i'  is  Hi>ldom  given.  In  the  West  Indies  maize,  guinea  com,  sugar-corn  tops, 
and  >»oinetimes  molasses  are  given.  In  the  Mahratta  country  salt,  pepper,  and 
otlMT  jqilt'es  are  made  into  balls,  with  flour  and  butter,  and  these  are  supposed 
to  prodiK-e  animation  and  to  fine  the  coat.  Broth  made  from  sheep's  head  Is 
Mtmetinu>ff  given.  In  France,  Hpain,  and  Italy,  besides  the  grasses,  the  leaves 
of  lime*,  vlncH,  the  tofw  of  acacia,  and  the  seeds  of  the  carob  tree  are  given  to 
borws. 

For  information  a.s  to  the  nutritive  value,  chemistry,  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  differiMit  kinds  of  food,  I  will  refer  the  reader  to  Jordan's 
or  Ann.sby'w  lMK>k  on  feeding  animals,  or  to  "  Smith's  Veterinary 
Hygiene." 

We  can  not,  however,  leave  aside  entirely  here  u  consideration  of 
the  digestibility  of  fiKxls;  and  by  this  we  mean  the  readiness  with 
which  foods  undergo  those  changes  in  the  digestive  canal  that  fit 
them  for  abHorption  and  deposition  as  integral  parts  of  the  animal 
economy. 

The  ngi»  an<l  health  of  the  animal  will,  of  course,  modify  the  diges- 
tibility of  ftxxls,  as  will  also  the  manner  and  time  of  harvesting,  pre- 
serving, and  pH'paring  the  food.s. 

In  the  horse  digestion  Ukes  place  principally  in  the  intestines,  and 
here,  as  in  all  other  animals  and  with  all  foods,  it  is  found  that  a 


POODS   AND    FEEDING.  37 

certain  part  only  of  the  provender  is  digested;  another  portion  is 
indigested.  This  proportion  of  digested  and  undigested  food  must 
claim  passing  notice  at  least,  for  if  the  horse  receives  too  much  food, 
or  bulky  food  containing  much  indigestible  waste,  a  large  portion  of 
food  must  pass  out  unused,  entailing  not  only  the  loss  of  this  unused 
food,  but  also  calling  for  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  vital  force 
on  the  part  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the  horse.  It  is  thus  that,  in 
fact,  too  much  food  may  make  an  animal  poor. 

In  selecting  food  for  the  horse  we  should  remember  the  anatomical 
arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs,  as  well  as  the  physiological 
functions  performed  by  each  one  of  them.  Foods  must  be  whole- 
some, clean,  and  sweet,  the  hours  of  feeding  regular,  the  mode  of 
preparation  found  by  practical  experience  to  be  the  best  must  be 
adhered  to,  and  cleanliness  in  preparation  and  administration  must 
be  observed. 

The  length  of  time  occupied  by  stomach  digestion  in  the  horse 
varies  with  the  different  foods.  Hay  and  straw  pass  out  of  the  stom- 
ach more  rapidly  than  oats.  It  would  seem  to  follow,  then,  that  oats 
should  be  given  after  hay,  for  if  reversed  the  hay  would  cause  the 
oats  to  be  sent  onward  into  the  intestines  before  being  fully  acted 
upon  by  the  stomach,  and  as  a  result  produce  indigestion.  Experi- 
ence confirms  this.  There  is  another  good  reason  why  hay  should  be 
given  first,  particularly  if  the  horse  is  very  hungry  or  if  exhausted 
from  overwork,  namely,  it  requires  more  time  in  mastication  (insur- 
ing proper  admixture  of  saliva)  and  can  not  be  bolted,  as  are  the 
grains.  In  either  instance  water  must  not  be  given  soon  after  feed- 
ing, as  it  washes  or  sluices  the  food  from  the  stomach  before  it  is  fitted 
for  intestinal  digestion. 

The  stomach  begins  to  empty  itself  very  soon  after  the  commence- 
ment of  feeding,  and  continues  rapidly  while  eating.  Afterwards 
the  passage  is  slower,  and  several  hours  are  required  before  the  stom- 
ach is  entirely  empty.  The  nature  of  the  work  required  of  the  horse 
must  guide  us  in  the  selection  of  his  food.  Rapid  or  severe  labor  can 
not  be  performed  on  a  fidl  stomach.  For  such  labor  food  must  be 
given  in  small  quantity  and  about  two  hours  before  they  go  to  work. 
Even  horses  intended  for  slow  work  must  never  be  engorged  with 
bulky,  innutritions  food  immediately  before  going  to  labor.  The 
small  stomach  of  the  horse  would  seem  to  lead  us  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  animal  should  be  fed  in  small  quantities  and  often,  which,  in 
reality,  should  be  done.  The  disproportion  between  the  size  of  the 
stomach  and  the  amount  of  water  drank  tells  us  plainly  that  the 
horse  should  always  be  watered  before  feeding.  One  of  the  common 
errors  of  feeding,  and  the  one  that  produces  more  digestive  disorders 
than  any  other,  is  to  feed  too  soon  after  a  hard  day^s  ivork.  This 
must  never  be  done.     If  a  horse  is  completely  jaded,  it  will  be  found 


38  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

beneficial  to  give  him  an  alcoholic  stimulant  on  going  into  the  stable. 
A  small  quantity  of  hay  may  then  be  given,  but  his  grain  should  be 
withheld  for  one  or  two  hours.  These  same  remarks  will  apply  with 
equal  force  to  the  horse  that  for  any  reason  has  been  fasting  for  a 
long  time.  After  a  fast,  feed  less  than  the  horse  would  eat;  for  if 
allowed  too  much  the  stomach  becomes  engorged,  its  walls  paralyzed, 
and  ''  colic "  is  almost  sure  to  follow.  The  horse  should  be  fed 
three  or  four  times  a  day.  It  will  not  answer  to  feed  him  entirely 
upon  concentrated  food.  Bulky  food  must  be  given  to  detain  the 
grains  in  their  passage  through  the  intestinal  tract ;  bulk  also  favors 
distention,  and  thus  mechanically  aids  absorption.  For  horses  that 
do  slow  work  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  chopped  or  cut  hay 
fed  with  crushed  oats,  ground  com,  etc.,  is  the  best  manner  of  feed- 
ing, as  it  gives  the  required  bulk,  saves  time-,  and  half  the  labor  of 
feeding. 

Sudden  changes  of  diet  are  always  dangerous.  When  desirous  of 
changing  the  food,  do  so  very  gradually.  If  a  horse  is  accustomed  to 
oats,  a  sudden  change  to  a  full  meal  of  corn  will  almost  always  sicken 
him.  If  we  merely  intend  to  increase  the  quantity  of  the  usual  feed, 
this  also  must  be  done  gradually.  The  quantity  of  food  given  must 
always  be  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  labor  to  be  performed.  If 
a  horse  is  to  do  a  small  amount  of  work,  or  rest  entirely  from  work 
for  a  few  days,  see  that  he  receives  a  proportionate  amount  of  feed. 
If  this  should  be  observed  even  on  Saturday  night  and  Sunday,  there 
would  be  fewer  cases  of  "  Monday  morning  sickness,"  such  as  colics 
and  lymphangitis. 

Foods  should  also  be  of  a  more  laxative  nature  when  the  horse  is  to 
stand  for  some  days. 

Musty  ob  moldv  foods. — Above  all  things,  avoid  feeding  musty  or 
moldy  foodis.  These  are  very  frequent  causes  of  disease  of  different 
kinds.  Lung  trouble,  such  as  bronchitis  and  "  heaves,"  often  follows 
the  use  of  such  food.  The  digastive  organs  always  suffer  from  moldy 
or  musty  footls.  Musty  hay  is  generally  considered  to  produce  dis- 
order of  the  kidneys;  and  all  know  of  the  danger  to  pregnant  ani- 
mals from  feeding  upon  ergotized  grasses  or  grains.  It  has  often 
been  said  to  produce  that  peculiar  disease  known  variously  as  cere- 
bro-spinal  meningitis,  putrid  sore  throat,  or  choking  distemper. 

Leaving  these  somewhat  general  considerations,  I  will  refer  briefly 
to  the  different  kinds  of  foods: 

Hay. — The  best  hay  for  horses  is  timothy.  It  should  be  about  one 
year  old,  of  a  greenish  color,  crisp,  clean,  fresh,  and  possessing  a 
sweet,  pleasant  aroma.  Even  this  good  hay,  if  kept  for  too  great  a 
length  of  time,  loses  part  of  its  nourishment,  and,  while  it  may  not 
be  positively  injurious,  it  is  hard,  dry,  and  indigestible.  New  hay  is 
difficult  to  digest,  produces  much  salivation  (slobbering)   and  occa- 


FOODS  AND   FEEDING.  '39 

sional  purging  and  irritation  of  the  skin.  If  fed  at  all,  it  should  be 
mixed  with  old  hay. 

Second  crop^  or  aftermath. — This  is  not  considered  good  hay  for 
horses,  but  it  is  prized  by  some  farmers  as  a  good  food  for  milch 
cows,  the  claim  being  made  that  it  increases  the  flow  of  milk.  The 
value  of  hay  depends  upon  the  time  of  cutting,  as  well  as  care  in  the 
curing.  Hay  should  be  cut  when  in  full  flower,  but  before  the  seeds 
fall ;  if  left  longer,  it  becomes  dry  and  woody  and  lacks  in  nutrition. 
An  essential  point  in  making  hay  is  that  when  the  crop  is  cut  it 
should  remain  as  short  a  time  as  possible  in  the  field.  If  left  too 
long  in  the  sun  it  loses  color,  flavor,  and  dries  or  wastes.  Smith 
asserts  that  one  hour  more  than  is  necessary  in  the  sun  causes  a  loss 
of  15  to  20  per  cent  in  the  feeding  value  of  hay.  It  is  impossible  to 
state  any  fixed  time  that  hay  must  have  to  cure,  this  depending,  of 
course,  upon  the  weather,  thickness  of  the  crop,  and  many  other  cir- 
cumstances; but  it  is  well  known  that,  in  order  to  preserve  the  color 
and  aroma  of  hay,  it  should  be  turned  or  tedded  frequently  and 
cured  as  quickly  as  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  hay  spoils  in  the 
mow  if  harvested  too  green,  or  when  not  sufficiently  dried.  Mow- 
burnt  hay  produces  disorder  of  the  kidneys  and  bowels  and  causes  th«3 
horse  to  fall  off  in  condition. 

The  average  horse  on  grain  should  be  allowed  from  10  to  12  pounds 
of  good  hay  a  day.  It  is  a  mistake  of  many  to  think  that  horses  at 
light  work  can  be  kept  entirely  on  hay.  Such  horses  soon  becom'3 
pot-bellied,  fall  off.  in  flesh,  and  do  not  thrive.  The  same  is  true  of 
colts;  unless  the  latter  are  fed  with  some  grain  they  grow  up  to  be 
long,  lean,  gawky  creatures,  and  never  make  as  good  horses  as  those 
accustomed  to  grain  with,  or  in  addition  to,  their  hay. 

Straw. — The  straws  are  not  extensively  fed  in  this  country,  and 
when  used  at  all  they  should  be  cut  and  mixed  with  hay  and  ground 
or  crushed  grain.  Wheat,  rye,  and  oat  straw  are  the  ones  most 
used,  and  of  these  oat  straw  is  most  easily  digested  and  contains  the 
most  nourishment.  Pea  and  bean  straw  are  occasionally  fed  to 
horses,  the  pea  being  preferable,  according  to  most  writers. 

Chaff. — Wheat  and  rye  chaff  should  never  be  used  as  a  food  for 
horses.  The  beards  frequently  become  lodged  in  the  mouth  or  throat 
and  are  productive  of  more  or  less  serious  trouble.  In  the  stomach 
and  intestines  they  often  serve  as  the  nucleus  of  the  "  soft  concre- 
tions," which  are  to  be  described  when  treating  of  obstructions  of  the 
digestive  tract. 

Oat  chaff,  if  fed  in  small  quantities  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  or 
corn  fodder,  is  very  much  relished  by  horses.  It  is  not  to  be  given  in 
large  quantities,  as  I  have  repeatedly  witnessed  a  troublesome  and 
sometimes  fatal  diarrhea  following  the  practice  of  allowing  horses 
or  cattle  free  access  to  a  pile  of  oat  chaff. 


40  DISEASES   OF  THE    HOBSE. 

Grains. — Oats  take  precedence  of  all  grains  as  a  food  for  horses, 
as  the  ingredients  necessary  for  the  complete  nutrition  of  the  body 
exist  in  them  in  the  best  proportions.  Oats  are,  besides,  more  easily 
digested  and  a  larger  proi)ortion  absorbed  and  converted  into  the 
various  tissues  of  the  body.  Care  must  be  taken  in  selecting  oats. 
According  to  Stewart,  the  best  oats  are  one  year  old,  plump,  short, 
hard,  clean,  bright,  and  sweet.  New  oats  are  indigestible.  Kiln- 
dried  oats  are  to  be  refused,  as  a  rule,  for  even  though  originally  good 
this  drying  process  injures  them.  Oats  that  have  sprouted  or  fer- 
mente<l  are  injurious  and  should  never  be  fed.  Oats  are  to  be  given 
either  whole  or  crushed — whole  in  the  majority  of  instances ;  crushed 
to  old  horses  and  those  having  defective  teeth.  Horses  that  bolt  their 
feed  are  also  best  fed  upon  crushed  oats  and  out  of  a  manger  large 
enough  to  permit  of  spreading  the  grain  in  a  thin  layer. 

The  average  horse  requires,  in  addition  to  the  allowance  of  hay 
above  mentioned,  about  12  quarts  of  good  oats  daily.  The  best  oats 
are  those  cut  about  one  week  before  being  fully  ripe.  Not  only  is  the 
grain  richer  in  nutritive  materials  at  this  time,  but  there  is  also  less 
waste  from  '*  scattering  "  than  if  left  to  become  dead  ripe.  Moldy 
oats,  like  hay  and  straw,  not  only  produce  serious  digestive  disorders, 
but  have  been  tlie  undoubted  cause  of  outbreaks  of  that  dread  disease 
in  horses,  already  referred  to,  characterized  by  inability  to  eat  or 
drink,  sudden  paralysis,  and  death. 

Wheat  am)  rye, — These  grains  are  not  to  be  used  as  food  for 
horses  except  in  small  quantities,  bruised  or  crushed,  and  fed  mixed 
with  other  grains  or  hay.  If  fed  alone,  in  any  considerable  quanti- 
ties, they  are  almost  certain  to  produce  digestive  disorders,  laminitis 
(founder),  and  similar  troubles.  They  should  never  constitute  more 
than  one- fourth  of  the  grain  allowance,  and  should  always  be  ground 
or  crushed. 

Bran. — The  bran  of  wheat  is  the  one  most  used,  and  its  value  as  a 
feeding  stuff  is  variously  estimated.  It  is  not  to  be  depended  upon  if 
given  alone,  but  may  l>e  fed  with  other  grains.  It  serves  to  keep  the 
bowels  ojKMi.  Sour  bran  is  not  to  l>e  given.  It  disorders  the  stomach 
and  intestines  and  may  even  produce  serious  results. 

Maize  ((orn). — This  grain  is  not  suitable  as  an  exclusive  food  for 
young  horses,  as  it  is  deficient  in  salts.  It  is  fed  whole  or  ground. 
Com  on  the  cob  is  commonly  used  as  the  food  for  horses  affectexi  with 
"  lampas."  If  the  corn  is  old  and  is  to  be  fed  in  this  manner  it  should 
l)e  soaked  in  pure,  clean  water  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Corn  is  bet- 
ter given  ground,  and  fed  in  quantities  of  from  1  to  2  quarts  at  a 
meal  mixed  with  crushed  oats  or  wheat  bran.  Be  very  particular  in 
giving  com  to  a  horse  that  is  not  accustomed  to  its  use.  It  must  be 
commenced    in   small   quantities   and   very   gradually    increased,     I 


PREPAEATICN    CF    FOODS.  41 

know  of  no  grain  more  likely  to  produce  what  is  called  acute  indiges- 
tion than  corn  if  these  directions  are  not  observed. 

Linseed. — Ground  linseed  is  occasionally  fed  with  other  foods  to 
keep  the  bowels  open  and  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  skin.  It  is 
of  particalar  service  during  convalescence,  when  the  bowels  are  slug- 
gish in  their  action.  Linseed  tea  is  very  often  given  in  irritable  or 
inflamed  conditions  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Potatoes. — These  are  used  as  an  article  of  food  for  the  horse  in 
many  sections.  If  fed  raw  and  in  large  quantities  they  often  produce 
indigestion.  Their  digestibility  is  favored  by  steaming  or  boiling. 
They  possess,  in  common  with  other  roots,  slight  laxative  properties. 

Beets. — These  are  not  much  used  as  food  for  horses. 

Carrots. — These  make  a  most  excellent  food,  particularly  during 
sickness.  They  improve  the  appetite  and  slight!}^  increase  the  action 
of  the  bowels  and  kidneys.  They  possess  also  certain  alterative  prop- 
erties. The  coat  becomes  smooth  and  glossy  when  carrots  are  fed. 
Some  veterinary  writers  claim  that  chronic  cough  is  cured  by  giving 
carrots  for  some  time.  The  roots  may  be  considered,  then,  as  an 
adjunct  to  the  regular  regimen,  and  if  fed  in  small  quantities  are 
highly  beneficial. 

Grasses. — Grass  is  the  natural  food  of  horses.  It  is  composed  of 
a  great  variety  of  plants,  differing  widely  as  to  the  amount  of  nour- 
ishment contained,  some  being  almost  entirely  without  value  as  foods 
and  only  eaten  when  there  is  nothing  else  obtainable,  while  others  are 
positively  injurious,  or  even  poisonous.  None  of  the  grasses  are  suf- 
ficient to  keep  the  horse  in  condition  for  work.  Horses  thus  fed 
are  "  soft,"  sweat  easily,  purge,  and  soon  tire  on  the  road  or  when  at 
hard  work.  To  growing  stock  grass  is  indispensable,  and  there  is 
little  or  no  doubt  but  that  it  acts  as  an  alterative  when  given  to 
horses  accustomed  to  grain  and  hay.  It  must  be  given  to  such  horses 
in  small  quantities  at  first.  The  stomach  and  intestines  undergo  rest, 
and  recuperate  if  the  horse  is  turned  to  grass  for  a  time  each  year. 
It  is  also  certain  that  during  febrile  diseases  grass  acts  almost  as  a 
medicine,  lessening  the  fever  and  favoring  recovery.  Wounds  heal 
more  rapidly  than  when  the  horse  is  on  grain,  and  some  chronic  dis- 
orders (chronic  cough,  for  instance)  disappear  entirely  when  at  grass. 
In  my  experience,  grass  does  more  good  when  the  horse  crops  it  him- 
self. This  may  be  due  to  the  sense  of  freedom  he  enjoys  at  pasture, 
to  the  rest  to  his  feet  and  limbs,  and  for  many  other  similar  reasons. 
When  cut  for  him  it  should  be  fed  fresh  or  when  but  slightly  wilted. 

preparation  of  foods. 

Foods  are  prepared  for  feeding  for  any  of  the  following  reasons: 
To  render  the  food  more  easily  eaten;  to  make  it  more  digestible;  to 
economize  in  amount;    to  give  it  some  new  property;    and  to  pre- 


42  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

Berve  it.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  preparation  of  drying,  and 
need  not  revert  to  this  again,  as  it  only  serves  to  preserve  the  different 
foods.  Drying  does,  however,  change  some  of  the  properties  of  food, 
t,  tf.,  removes  the  laxative  tendency  of  most  of  them. 

The  different  grains  are  more  easily  eaten  when  ground,  crushed,  or 
eveji  boiled.  Rye  or  wheat  should  never  be  given  whole,  and  even  of 
corn  it  is  found  that  there  is  less  waste  w'hen  ground,  and,  in  common 
with  all  grains,  it  is  more  easily  digested  than  when  fed  whole. 

Hay  and  fodder  are  economized  when  cut  in  short  pieces.  No< 
only  will  the  horse  eat  the  necessary  amount  in  a  shorter  time,  but  it 
will  \)c  found  that  there  is  less  waste,  and  the  mastication  of  the  grains 
(whole  or  crushed)  fed  with  them  is  insured. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  those  horses  that  bolt  their 
food,  and  we  need  only  remark  here  that  the  consequences  of  such 
ravenous  eating  may  be  prevented  if  the  grains  are  fed  with  cut  hay, 
straw,  or  fodder.  Long  or  uncut  hay  should  also  be  fed,  even  though 
a  certain  amount  of  hay  or  straw  is  cut  and  fed  mixed  with  grain. 

One  objection  to  feeding  cut  hay  mixed  with  ground  or  crushed 
grains,  and  wetted,  must  not  be  overlooked  during  the  hot  months. 
Such  food  is  apt  to  undergo  fermentation  if  not  fed  directly  after  it 
is  mixed ;  and  the  mixing  trough  even,  unless  frequently  scalded  and 
cleaned,  becomes  sour  and  enough  of  its  scrapings  are  given  with  the 
food  to  produce  flatulent  (wind)  colic.  A  small  amount  of  salt 
should  always  be  mixed  with  such  food.  Bad  hay  should  never  be 
cut  simply  because  it  insures  a  greater  consumption  of  it ;  bad  foods 
are  dear  at  any  price  and  should  never  be  fed. 

I  have  Ix'fore  spoken  of  the  advantage  of  boiling  roots.  Not  only 
does  this  render  them  less  liable  to  produce  digestive  disorders,  but  it 
also  makes  them  clean.  Boiling  or  steaming  grains  is  to  be  recom- 
mended wlum  the  teeth  are  poor,  or  when  the  digestive  organs  are 
weak.  Of  ensilage  as  a  food  for  horses  I  have  no  experience,  but  am 
inclined  to  think  that  (and  this  opinion  is  based  upon  the  imperfect 
manner  in  which  the  crop  is  often  stored)  disordered  digestion  would 
be  more  frequent  were  it  extensively  fed. 

DISRASKS   or   TIIB   TE^ETH.** 

Dentition. — This  covers  the  pericnl  during  which  the  yoimg  horse 
is  cutting  his  teeth — from  birth  to  the  age  of  five  years.  With  the 
horse  more  difficulty  is  experienced  in  cutting  the  second  or  per- 
manent te«»th  than  with  the  first  or  milk  teeth.  There  is  a  tendency 
among  farmers  and  many  veterinarians  to  pay  too  little  attention  to 
the  teeth  of  young  horses.  Percivall  relates  an  instance  illustrative 
of  this  that  i.s  U'st  told  in  his  own  words: 

1  wa»  n-qufntwl  to  give  my  opiuion  rouceniing  a  borne,  then  In  his  fifth  year, 
who  bad  fed  ho  Hixiiingly  for  the  InHt  fortnight,  and  ho  rapidly  doclliifHl  In  oon- 

•Tbe  roethotl  of  determining  the  age  of  a  borne  by  the  teeth  is  illustrated  in 
Plate  XLII.  p.  G04.  * 


DISEASES   OF   THE   TEETH.  43 

dition  in  consequence,  that  his  owner,  a  veterinary  surgeon,  was  under  no  light 
apprehensions  about  his  life.  He  had  himself  examined  his  mouth  without 
having  discovered  any  defect  or  disease,  though  another  veterinary  surgeon 
was  of  opinion  that  the  difficulty  or  inability  manifested  in  mastication,  and 
the  consequent  cudding,  arose  from  preternatural  bluntness  of  the  surfaces  of 
the  molar  teeth,  which  were,  in  consequence,  filed,  but  without  beneficial  result. 
It  was  after  this  that  I  saw  the  horse,  and  I  confess  I  was,  at  my  first  examina- 
tion, quite  as  much  at  a  loss  to  offer  any  satisfactory  interpretation  as  others 
had  been.  While  meditating,  however,  after  my  inspection,  on  the  apparently 
extraordinary  nature  of  the  case,  it  struck  me  that  I  had  not  seen  the  tusks.  I 
went  back  into  the  stable  and  discovered  two  little  tumors,  red  and  hard,  in  the 
situation  of  the  inferior  tusks,  which,  when  pressed,  gave  the  animal  insuflfer- 
able  pain.  I  instantly  took  out  my  pocketknife  and  made  crucial  incisions 
through  them  both,  down  to  the  coming  teeth,  from  which  moment  the  horse 
recovered  his  appetite  and,  by  degrees,  his  wonted  condition. 

The  mouths  of  young  horses  should  be  examined  from  time  to  time 
to  see  if  one  or  more  of  the  milk  teeth  are  not  remaining  too  long, 
causing  the  second  teeth  to  grow  in  crooked,  in  which  case  the  first 
teeth  should  be  removed  with  the  forceps. 

Irregularities  of  teeth. — There  is  quite  a  fashion  of  late  years,  espe- 
cially in  large  cities,  to  have  horses'  teeth  regularly  "  floated,"  or 
"  rasped,"  by  "  veterinary  dentists."  In  some  instances  this  is  very 
beneficial,  while  in  most  cases  it  is  entirely  unnecessary.  From  the 
character  of  the  food,  the  rubbing,  or  grinding,  surface  of  the  horse's 
teeth  should  be  rough.  Still,  we  must  remember  that  the  upper  jaw 
is  somewhat  wider  than  the  lower,  and  that,  from  the  fact  of  the 
teeth  not  being  perfectly  apposed,  a  sharp  ridge  is  left  unworn  on  the 
inside  of  the  lower  molars  and  on  the  outside  of  the  upper,  which  may 
excoriate  the  tongue  or  cheeks  to  a  considerable  extent.  This  condi- 
tion can  readily  be  felt  by  the  hand,  and  these  sharp  ridges  when 
found  should  be  rasped  down  by  a  guarded  rasp.  In  some  instances 
the  first  or  last  molar  tooth  is  unnaturally  long,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  its  fellow  in  the  opposite  jaw  has  been  lost  or  does  not  close  per- 
fectly against  it.  Should  it  be  the  last  molar  that  is  thus  elongated, 
it  will  require  the  aid  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  who  has  the  neces- 
sary forceps  or  chisel  for  cutting  it.  The  front  molar  may  be  rasped 
down,  if  much  patience  is  taken.  In  decay  of  the  teeth  it  is  quite 
common  to  find  the  tooth  corresponding  to  the  decayed  one  on  the 
opposite  jaw  very  much  elongated,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  mouth  can  not  be  perfectly  closed.  Such  teeth  must  also  be 
shortened  by  the  tooth  forceps,  chisel,  tooth  saw,  or  rasp.  In  all 
instances  where  horses  "  quid  "  their  food,  where  thej'^  are  slobbering, 
or  where  they  evince  pain  in  mastication,  shown  by  holding  their 
head  to  one  side  while  chewing,  the  teeth  should  be  carefully  exam- 
ined. Horses  whose  teeth  have  unduly  sharp  edges  are  likely  to  drive 
badly;  they  pull  to  one  side,  do  not  bear  on  the  bit,  or  bear  on  too 
hard  and  "  big,"  toss  the  head,  and  start  suddenly  when  a  tender  spot 
is  touched.    If,  as  is  mostly  the  case,  all  the  symptoms  are  referable 


44  DISEASES   OF   THE    HOBSE. 

to  sharp  corners  or  projections  of  the  teeth,  these  must  be  removed  by 
the  rasp.  If  decayed  teeth  are  found,  or  other  serious  difficulty 
detected,  or  if  the  cause  of  the  annoying  symptoms  is  not  discovered, 
an  exiK;rt  should  be  called. 

Toothacfu'. — This  is  rare  in  the  horse  and  is  mostly  witnessed  where 
there  is  decay  of  a  tooth  or  inflammation  about  its  root.  Toothache 
is  to  be  tliscovered  in  the  horse  by  the  pain  expressed  by  him  while 
feeding  or  drinking  cold  water.  I  have  seen  horses  affected  with 
toothache  that  would  suddenly  stop  chewing,  throw  the  head  to  one 
^ide,  and  slightly  open  the  mouth.  They  behave  as  though  some 
Kharp  body  had  punctured  the  mouth.  If  upon  examination  there  is 
no  foreign  lx)dy  found,  we  must  then  carefully  examine  each  tooth. 
If  this  can  not  be  done  with  the  hand  in  the  mouth,  we  can,  in  most 
instances,  discover  the  aching  tooth  by  pressing  each  tooth  from 
without.  By  tapping  the  teeth  in  succession  with  a  hard  object,  such 
as  a  s-mall  hammer,  the  one  that  is  tender  may  be  located.  The  horse 
will  flinch  when  the  sore  tooth  is  pressed  or  tapped  upon.  In  most 
cases  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  extract  the  decayed  tooth,  and 
this,  of  course,  is  only  to  be  attempted  by  the  veterinarian. 

There  is  a  deformity^  known  as  parrot-mouth,  that  interferes  with 
prehension,  mastication,  and,  indirectly,  with  digestion.  The  upper 
incisors  project  in  front  of  and  beyond  the  lower  ones.  The  teeth  of 
IxHh  jaws  become  unusually  long,  as  they  are  not  worn  down  by  fi-ic- 
tion.  Such  h<)rs<'s  experience  much  difficulty  in  grazing.  Little  can 
\yc  done  except  to  occasionally  examine  the  teeth,  and  if  those  of  the 
lower  jaw  l)ecome  so  long  that  they  bruise  the  "  bars  "  of  the  upper 
jaw,  they  must  l)e  shortened  by  the  rasp  or  saw.  Horses  with  this 
deformity  should  never  be  left  entirely  at  pasture. 

DISKASKS    (»F   TIIK    MOITII. 

I^MPAH. — I^ampas  is  the  name  given  to  a  swelling  of  the  mucous 
iiionibnine  i-overing  tho  hard  palate  and  projecting  in  a  more  or  less 
(irfmiincnt  ridge  immediately  l)ehind  the  upper  incisors.  The  hard 
palate  is  ((imposed  of  sf)ongy  tissue  that  fills  with  blood  when  the 
horse  is  f«H'<ling,  an<l  this  causes  the  ridges  to  Ix'come  prominent,  and 
they  then  help  to  kt't'p  f<MMl  from  dropping  from  the  mouth.  This 
swelling  \^  entirely  natural  and  (Kcurs  in  every  hejilthy  horse.  Where 
then'  is  wmie  irritation  in  (lie  mouth,  as  in  stomatitis  or  during  teeth- 
ing, the  prominence  of  the  hard  palate  may  persist,  due  to  the  in- 
«Teas4Ml  blfHHl  supply.  In  sueh  cases  the  caus*'  of  the  irritation  should 
be  H.>ugljt  for  and  reujoved.  Hy  way  of  din'ct  treatment,  slight  scari- 
fication i«4  fhe  m<»st  that  will  Iw  recpiired.  Hurning  the  lainpas  is  bar- 
barou.s  and  inj:irious,  and  it  should  never  lie  tolerated. 

It  IH  quite  a  common  opinion  among  ownei*s  of  horses  and  stable- 
men that  lampas  is  a  disease  that  very  frequently  exists.  In  fact 
whenever  a  horse  fails  to  eat,  and  if  he  does  not  exiiil)it  very  marked 


DISEASES    OF    THE    MOUTH.  45 

symptoms  of  a  severe  illness,  they  say  at  once  "  he  has  the  lampas." 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  convince  them  to  the  contrary;  yet  it  is 
not  the  case.  It  may  be  put  down,  then,  as  an  affliction  of  the  stable- 
man's imagination  rather  than  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

Stomatitis. — This  in  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  mouth  and  is  produced  by  irritating  medicines,  foods,  or 
other  substances.  The  symptoms  are  swelling  of  the  mouth,  which 
is  also  hot  and  painful  to  the  touch;  there  is  a  copious  discharge  of 
saliva;  the  mucous  membrane  is  reddened,  and  in  some  cases  there 
are  observed  vesicles  or  ulcers  in  the  mouth.  The  treatment  is  simple, 
soft  feed  alone  often  being  all  that  is  necessary.  A  bucket  of  fresh 
cold  water  should  be  kept  constantly  in  the  manger  so  that  the  horse 
may  drink  or  rinse  his  mouth  at  will.  In  some  instances  it  may  be 
advisable  to  use  a  wash  of  chlorate  of  potash,  borax,  or  alum,  about 
one-half  ounce  to  a  pint  of  water.  Hay,  straw,  or  oats  should  not  be 
fed  unless  steamed  or  boiled.  A  form  of  contagious  stomatitis  some- 
times occurs  that  is  characterized  by  the  formation  within  the  mouth 
of  small  vesicles,  or  blisters.  In  this  disease  the  horse  should  be 
isolated  from  other  horses,  and  his  stall,  especially  the  feed  box,  and 
his  bit  should  be  disinfected. 

Glossitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  tongue,  is  very  similar  to  the 
above,  and  mostly  exists  with  it  and  is  due  to  the  same  causes.  In- 
juries to  the  tongue  may  produce  this  simple  inflammation  of  its 
covering  membrane,  or,  if  severe,  may  produce  lesions  much  more 
extensive,  such  as  lacerations,  abscesses,  etc.  These  latter  would  re- 
quire surgical  treatment,  but  for  the  simpler  forms  of  inflammation 
of  the  tongue  the  treatment  recommended  for  stomatitis  should  be 
followed. 

Ptyalism,  or  salivation,  consists  in  an  abnormal  and  excessive  se- 
cretion of  saliva.  This  is  often  seen  as  a  symptom  of  irregular  teeth ; 
inflammation  of  the  mouth  or  tongue,  or  of  the  use  of  such  medicines 
as  lobelia,  mercury,  and  many  others.  Some  foods  produce  this,  such 
as  clover,  and  particularly  second  crop ;  foreign  bodies,  such  as  nails, 
wheat  chaff,  and  corncobs  becoming  lodged  in  the  mouth.  If  the 
cause  is  removed  no  further  attention  is  necessary,  as  a  rule.  Astrin- 
gent washes  may  be  applied  to  the  mouth  as  a  gargle  or  by  means  of 
a  sponge. 

Pharyngitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
of  the  pharynx  or  throat.  It  rarely  exists  unless  accompanied .  by 
stomatitis  or  laryngitis,  especially  the  latter.  In  those  rare  instances 
in  which  the  inflammation  is  mostly  confined  to  the  pharynx  are 
noticed  febrile  symptoms — difficulty  of  swallowing  either  liquids  or 
solids ;  there  is  but  little  cough  except  when  trying  to  swallow ;  there 
is  no  soreness  on  pressure  over  larynx  (head  of  the  windpipe).  In- 
creased flow  of  saliva,  difficulty  of  swallowing  liquids  in  particular, 


46  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

and  cough  only  when  attempting  to  swallow  are  the  symptoms  best 
marked  in  pharyngitis.  In  some  cases  the  throat  becomes  gangrenous 
and  tfje  disease  ends  in  death.  For  treatment  wrap  a  wet  sheet 
Hniinul  the  throat  and  cover  this  with  rubber  sheeting  and  a  warm 
blanket.  This  should  be  changed  three  times  daily;  or  the  region  of 
the  throat  may  be  rubbed  with  mercurial  ointment  twice  daily  until 
the  skin  becomes  irritated,  but  no  longer;  chlorate  of  potash  may  be 
given  in  quantities  of  2  drams  four  times  daily,  mixed  with  flaxseed 
njcal  or  liquorice-root  powder  and  honey,  as  an  electuary.  Soft  foods 
should  be  given,  and  fresh  water  should  be  constantly  before  the 
horse. 

Paralysis  of  the  pharynx,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  "  paralysis 
of  the  throat,"  is  a  rare  but  very  serious  disease.  The  symptoms  are 
as  follows:  The  horse  will  constantly  try  to  eat  or  drink,  but  will  be 
unable  to  do  so;  if  water  he  offered  him  from  a  pail  he  will  appar- 
ently drink  with  avidity,  but  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  pail  will 
remain  about  the  same;  he  will  continue  trying  to  drink  by  the  hour; 
if  he  can  succeed  in  getting  any  fluid  into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth 
it  will  come  out  at  once  through  the  nose.  Foods  also  return  through 
the  nose,  or  are  dropped  from  the  mouth,  quidded.  An  examination 
of  the  mouth  by  inserting  the  hand  fails  to  find  any  obstruction  or 
any  abnormal  condition.  These  cases  go  on  from  bad  to  worse;  the 
horse  constantly  and  rapidly  loses  in  condition,  becomes  very  much 
emaciated,  the  eyes  are  hollow  and  lusterless,  and  death  occurs  from 
inanition. 

Treatment  is  very  unsatisfactory.  A  severe  blister  should  be  ap- 
plied behind  and  under  the  jaw;  the  mouth  is  to  be  frequently 
swabl>ed  out  with  alum  or  chlorate  of  potash,  1  ounce  to  a  pint  of 
water,  by  means  of  a  sponge  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stick.  Strych- 
nia may  l)e  given  in  1-grain  doses  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

This  disease  may  Ik;  mistaken  at  times  for  foreign  bodies  in  the 
numth  or  for  the  so-called  cerebrospinal  meningitis.  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tingijiHhe<l  from  the  former,  upon  a  careful  examinution  of  the 
month,  by  the  alisence  of  any  offending  body  and  by  the  flabby  feel 
of  the  mouth;  and  from  the  latter  by  the  animal  api)earing  in  per- 
fect health  in  every  particular  except  this  inability  to  eat  or  drink. 

Aiw  KH.Hi>t.— .\l>s<«,>sses  sometimes  form  !)ack  of  the  pharynx  and 
give  rise  to  symptoms  res^-mbling  thos<>  of  laryngitis  or  distemper 
Interference  with  breathing  that  is  of  re<ent  origin  and  progression, 
without  any  oliservable  swelling  or  soreness  alwut  the  throat  will 
make  one  «usixH,-t  the  formation  of  an  abscess  in  this  location  '  But 
little  can  \^  done  by  the  owner  in  the  way  of  treatment,  save  to  hurry 
the  npenmg  of  the  al»s.-«.ss  and  its  discharge  bv  steaming  with  hops 
hay,  or  similar  .suUtan<vs  and  by  poulticing  the  throat.  The  opera- 
aUon  for  opening  an  abscess  in  this  region  necessitates  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  complex  anatomy  of  the  throat  region 


DISEASES   OF   THE   GULLET.  47 

DISEASES    OF    THE    ESOPHAGUS,    OR    GULLET. 

It  is  rare  to  find  diseases  of  this  organ,  except  as  a  result  of  the 
introduction  of  foreign  bodies  too  large  to  pass  or  to  the  administering 
of  irritating  medicines.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  administra- 
tion of  irritant  or  caustic  medicines  that  they  be  thoroughly  diluted. 
If  this  is  not  done  erosions  and  ulcerations  of  the  throat  ensue,  and 
this  again  is  prone  to  be  followed  by  constriction  (narrowing)  of 
the  gullet.  The  mechanical  trouble  of  choking  is  quite  common.  It 
may  occur  when  the  animal  is  suddenly  startled  while  eating  apples 
or  roots,  and  we  should  be  careful  never  to  approach  suddenly  or 
put  a  dog  after  horses  or  cows  that  are  feeding  upon  such  substances. 
If  left  alone  these  animals  very  rarely  attempt  to  swallow  the  object 
until  it  is  sufficiently  masticated. 

Choking  also  arises  from  feeding  oats  in  a  deep,  narrow  manger  to 
such  horses  as  eat  very  greedily  or  bolt  their  food.  Wheat  chaff  is 
also  a  frequent  cause  of  choke.  This  accident  may  result  from  the 
attempts  to  force  eggs  down  without  breaking  or  from  giving  balls 
that  are  too  large  or  not  of  the  proper  shape. 

"Whatever  object  causes  the  choking,  it  may  lodge  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  esophagus,  at  its  middle  portion,  or  close  to  the  stomach, 
giving  rise  to  the  designations  of  pharyngeal,  cervical,  and  thoracic 
choke.  In  some  cases  where  the  original  obstruction  is  low  we  find 
all  that  part  of  the  gullet  above  it  to  be  distended  with  food. 

The  symptoms  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  position  of  the 
body  causing  choke.  In  pharyngeal  choke  the  object  is  lodged  in  the 
upper  portion  of  the  esophagus.  The  horse  will  present  symptoms 
of  great  distress,  hurried  breathing,  frequent  cough,  excessive  flow 
of  saliva,  sweating,  trembling,  or  stamping  with  the  fore  feet.  The 
abdomen  rapidly  distends  with  gas.  The  diagnosis  is  completed  by 
manipulating  the  upper  part  of  the  throat  from  without  and  by  the 
introduction  of  the  hand  into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  finding  the 
body  lodged  here.  In  cervical  choke  (where  the  obstruction  is 
situated  at  any  point  between  the  throatlatch  and  the  shoulder)  the 
protrusion  caused  by  the  object  can  be  seen  and  the  object  can  be  felt. 
The  symptoms  here  are  not  so  severe;  the  horse  will  be  seen  occa- 
sionally to  draw  himself  up,  arch  his  neck,  and  make  retching 
movements  as  though  he  wished  to  vomit.  The  abdomen  may  be 
tympanitic.  Should  there  be  any  question  as  to  the  trouble  a  con- 
clusion may  be  reached  by  pouring  water  into  the  throat  from  a 
bottle.  If  the  obstruction  is  complete  you  can  see  the  gullet  become 
distended  with  each  bottle  of  water  by  standing  on  the  left  side  of  the 
horse  and  watching  the  course  of  the  esophagus,  just  above  the  wind- 
pipe. This  is  not  always  a  sure  test,  as  the  obstruction  may  be  an 
angular  body,  in  which  case  liquids  would  pass  it.  Solids  taken 
would  show  in  these  cases;  but  solids  should  not,  however,  be  given, 


48  DI8EA8K8   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

uii  Uiey  serve  to  increase  the  trouble  by  rendering  the  removal  of  the 
IxKly  more  difficult. 

In  thoracic  choke  the  symptoms  are  less  severe.  Food  or  water 
may  be  ejected  through  the  nose  or  mouth  after  the  animal  has  taken 
a  few  swallows.  There  will  be  some  symptoms  of  distress,  fullness 
of  the  alxlomen,  cough,  and  occasionally  retching  movements.  Some- 
times a  horse  that  is  choking  is  heard  to  emit  groans.  The  facial 
expression  always  denotes  great  anxiety  and  the  eyes  are  bloodshot. 
The  diagnosis  is  complete  if,  upon  passing  the  probang  (a  flexible 
tube  made  for  this  pur|>ose),  an  obstruction  is  encountered. 

Treatmevt. — If  the  choke  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  gullet  {pharyn- 
geal) an  effort  must  be  made  to  remove  the  obstacle  through  the 
mmith.  A  mouth-gag,  or  speculum,  is  to  be  introduced  into  the 
mouth  to  i)rotect  the  hand  and  arm  of  the  operator.  Then,  while  an 
assistant,  with  his  hands  grasped  tightly  hehind  the  object,  presses 
it  upwiinl  and  forward  with  all  his  force,  the  operator  must  pass  his 
hand  into  the  mouth  until  he  can  seize  the  obstruction  and  draw  it 
outward.  This  mode  of  procedure  must  not  be  abandoned  with  the 
first  failure,  as  we  may  get  the  obstacle  farther  toward  the  mouth  by 
continued  efforts.  If  we  fail  with  the  hand,  forceps  may  be  intro- 
duce<l  through  the  mouth  and  the  object  seized  when  it  is  just  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  fingers.  Should  our  efforts  entirely  fail,  we  must 
then  endeavor  to  force  the  obstruction  downward  by  means  of  the 
probang.  Tliis  instrument,  which  is  of  such  signal  service  in  remov- 
ing choke  in  cattle,  is  decidedly  more  dangerous  to  use  for  the  horse; 
and  I  can  not  pass  this  point  without  a  word  of  caution  to  those  who 
have  been  known  to  introduce  into  the  horse's  throat  such  objects  as 
whipstalks,  shovel  handles,  etc.  The!-:e  are  always  dangerous,  and 
nion-  than  one  horse  has  been  killed  by  such  barbarous  treatment, 

Ckkvicai.  r  hokk. — In  this,  as  well  as  in  thoracic  choke,  we  must 
first  of  all  endeavor  to  soften  or  lubricate  the  obstruction  by  pouring 
oil  or  nnicilaginoiis  drinks  down  the  gullet.  After  this  has  been  done 
endeavor  to  move  the  objwt  by  gentle  manipulations  with  the  hands. 
If  choke<l  with  <mts  or  chaff  (and  tliese  are  the  objects  that  most  fre- 
quently pHMlwce  choke  in  the  horse),  begin  by  gently  squeezing  the 
lower  [Kirtion  of  the  impacted  mass  and  endeavor  to  work  it  loose  a 
little  at  a  time.  This  is  greatly  favored  at  times  if  we  apply  hot 
fomentations  immediately  jilxiut  the  obstruction.  Persist  in  these 
efforts  for  at  least  an  hour  U'fore  deciding  to  re-sort  to  other  and  more 
dangerous  modes  of  treatment.  If  unsuccessful,  however,  the  pro- 
long may  Ik-  usimI.  In  the  absence  of  the  regular  instrument,  use  a 
piece  of  inch  hos««  6  foet  lorig.  or  a  piece  of  new  three -quarter- inch 
maniU  rof»e  well  wrapped  at  the  end  with  cotton  twine  and  thor- 
oughly greawd  with  tallow.  'Ilie  mouth  is  to  be  kept  open  by  a  gag 
of  wood  or  iron  and  the  head  slightly  raised  and  extended.     The  pro- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    STOMACH   AND   INTESTINES.  49 

bang  is  then  to  be  carefully  guided  by  the  hand  into  the  upper  part  of 
the  gullet  and  gently  forced  downward  until  the  obstruction  is 
reached.  Pressure  must  then  be  gradual  and  firm.  Do  not  at  first 
attempt  too  much  force,  or  the  esophagus  will  be  ruptured.  Simply 
keep  up  this  firm,  gentle  pressure  until  you  feel  the  object  moving, 
after  which  you  are  to  follow  it  rapidly  to  the  stomach.  If  this  mode 
of  treatment  is  unsuccessful,  a  veterinarian  or  physician  is  to  be  called 
in,  who  can  remove  the  object  by  cutting  down  upon  it.  This  should 
scarcely  be  attempted  by  a  novice,  as  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  parts  is  essential  to  avoid  cutting  the  large  artery,  vein,  and  nerve 
that  are  closely  related  to  the  esophagus  in  its  cervical  portion. 

Thoracic  choke. — Thoracic  choke  can  be  treated  only  by  means  of 
the  introduction  of  oils  and  mucilaginous  drinks,  and  the  careful  use 
of  the  probang. 

Stricture  of  the  esophagus. — ^This  is  due  to  corrosive  medicines, 
previous  choking  (accompanied  by  lacerations,  which,  in  healing,  nar- 
row the  passage) ,  or  pressure  on  the  gullet  by  tumors.  In  the  major- 
ity of  cases  of  stricture^  dilatation  of  the  gullet  in  front  of  the  con- 
stricted portion  soon  occurs.  This  dilatation  is  due  to  the  frequent 
accumulation  of  solid  food  above  the  constriction.  Little  can  be  done 
in  either  of  these  instances  except  to  feed  on  sloppy  or  liquid  food. 

Sacular  dilatation  of  the  esophagus. — This  follows  choking,  and 
is  due  to  stretching  or  rupture  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  gullet, 
allowing  the  internal,  or  mucous,  coat  to  protrude  through  the  lacer- 
ated muscular  walls.  Such  a  dilatation,  or  pouch,  may  gradually 
enlarge  from  the  frequent  imprisonment  of  food.  When  liquids  are 
taken,  the  solid  materials  are  partially  washed  out  of  the  pouch. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  as  follows:  The  horse  is  able  to 
swallow  a  few  mouthfuls  of  food  without  apparent  difficulty;  then 
he  will  stop  feeding,  paw,  contract  the  muscles  of  his  neck,  and  eject 
a  portion  of  the  food  through  his  nose  or  mouth,  or  it  will  gradually 
work  down  to  the  stomach.  As  the  dilatation  thus  empties  itself  the 
symptoms  gradually  subside,  only  to  reappear  when  he  has  again 
taken  solid  food.  Liquids  pass  without  any,  or  but  little,  inconvc^n- 
ience.  Should  this  dilatation  exist  in  the  cervical  region,  surgical  in- 
terference may  sometimes  prove  effectual;  if  in  the  thoracic  por- 
tion, nothing  can  be  done,  and  the  patient  rapidly  passes  from  hand 
to  hand  by  "  swapping,"  until,  at  no  distant  date,  the  contents  of  the 
sac  become  too  firm  to  be  dislodged  as  heretofore,  and  the  animal 
succumbs. 

diseases  of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 

As  a  rule  it  is  most  difficult  to  distinguish  between  diseases  of  the 
stomach  and  of  the  intestines  of  the  horse.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  stomach  is  relatively  small.     It  lies  away  from  the  abdominal 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 i 


50  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSB. 

wall,  and  so  pressure  from  without  can  not  be  brought  to  bear  upoa 
it  to  reveal  sensitiveness  or  pain.  Nor  does  enlargement,  or  disten- 
tion, of  the  stomach  produce  visible  alteration  in  the  form  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  horse.  Moreover,  it  is  a  rule  to  which  there  are  few- 
exceptions  that  an  irritant  or  cause  of  disease  of  the  stomach  acta 
likewise  upon  the  intestines,  so  that  it  is  customary  to  find  them 
similarly  deranged.  For  these  reasons  it  is  logical  to  discuss  together 
the  diseases  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  and  to  point  out  such 
localizations  in  one  organ  or  another  as  are  of  importance  in  recog- 
nizing and  treating  the  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the  horse. 

It  should  bt'  understood  that  gastritis  signifies  an  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  and  enteritis  an  inflammation  of  the  intestines.  The  two 
terms  may  lie  used  together  to  signify  a  disease  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  as  gastro-cnteritis. 

Colic. — The  disease  of  the  horse  that  is  most  frequently  met  with  is 
what  is  termed  "  colic,"  and  many  are  the  remedies  that  are  reputed  to 
lie  "  sure  cures  "  for  this  disease.  I^t  us  discover,  then,  what  the  word 
"  colic  "  means.  This  term  is  applied  loosely  to  almost  all  diseases  of 
the  organs  of  the  abdomen  that  are  accompanied  by  pain.  If  the 
horse  evinces  abdominal  pain,  he  is  likely  to  be  put  down  as  suffering 
with  colic,  no  matter  wlu'ther  the  difficulty  be  a  cramp  of  the  bowel, 
an  internal  hernia,  overloading  of  the  stomach,  or  a  painful  disease 
of  the  bladder  or  liver.  Since  these  conditions  differ  so  much  in  their 
causation  and  their  nature,  it  is  manifestly  absurd  to  treat  them  alike 
and  to  expect  the  same  drugs  or  procedures  to  relieve  them  all. 
Theri'fore  it  is  imj)ortant  that  the  various  diseased  states  that  are  so 
roughly  classed  together  as  colic  shall,  so  far  as  possible,  be  separated 
and  individualized  in  order  that  appropriate  treatments  may  be  prc- 
scnU-d.  With  this  object  in  view,  colics  will  bo  considered  under 
the  following  headings:  (1)  Engorgement  colic,  (2)  obstruction  colic, 
(3)  tympanitic  colic,  (4)  spasmodic  colic,  (5)  worm  colic. 

The  general  symptoms  of  abdominal  pain,  and  therefore  of  colic, 
are  restlessness,  cessation  of  whatever  the  horse  is  about,  lying  down, 
l.xiking  aro.ind  toward  the  flank,  kicking  with  the  hind  feet  upward 
and  forwanl  toward  the  l»elly,  jerky  switcliing  of  the  tail,  stretching 
a.s  though  to  urinate,  fre(|uent  change  of  position,  and  groaning.  In 
the  more  inten^.  f(,nns  the  horM>  plunges  about,  throws  himself  down, 
rolls  assunu's  unnatural  positions,  as  sitting  on  the  haunches,  and 
grunts  loudly.  Tsually  the  pain  is  not  constant,  and  during  the  inter- 
ni.s>,ons  the  horM.  may  .-at  an.l  appear  normal.  During  the  period 
of  pau»  sweat  is  ,H,ured  out  freely.  Sometimes  the  horse  moves  con- 
Mantly  in  a  circle.  The  respirations  are  accelerated,  and  usually 
there  is  no  fever. 

(1)  ENc;om;r.MKNT  .oi.u.-This  form  of  colic  consists  in  an  over- 
loading of  the  wionuich  with  f(K>d.     The  horse  may  have  been  overfed 


DISEASES    OF    THE    STOMACH    AND   INTESTINES.  51 

or  the  food  may  have  collected  in  the  stomach  through  failure  of  this 
organ  to  digest  it  and  pass  it  backward  into  the  intestines.  Even  a 
normal  amount  of  food  that  the  horse  is  unaccustomed  to  may  cause 
disease.  Hence  a  sudden  change  of  food  may  produce  engorgement 
colic.  Continued  full  rations  while  the  horse  is  resting  for  a  day  or 
two  or  working  too  soon  after  feeding  may  serve  as  a  cause.  New 
oats,  corn,  or  hay,  damaged  food,  or  food  difficult  of  digestion,  such 
as  barley  or  beans,  may  incite  engorgement  colic.  This  disease  may 
result  from  having  fed  the  horse  twice  by  error  or  from  its  having 
escaped  and  taken  an  unrestricted  meal  from  the  grain  bin.  Ground 
feeds  that  pack  together  making  a  sort  of  dough  may  cause  engorge- 
ment colic  if  they  are  not  mixed  with  cut  hay.  Greedy  eaters  are 
predisposed  to  this  disease. 

Sym'ptoms. — The  horse  shows  the  general  signs  of  abdominal  pain, 
which  may  be  long  continued  or  of  short  duration.  Retching  or  vom- 
iting movements  are  made;  these  are  shown  by  labored  breathing, 
upturned  upper  lip,  contraction  of  the  flank,  active  motion  at  the 
throat,  and  drawing  in  of  the  nose  toward  the  breast,  causing  high 
arching  of  the  neck.  The  horse  may  assume  a  sitting  position  on  his 
haunches,  like  a  dog.  At  times  the  pain  is  very  great  and  the  horse 
makes  the  most  violent  movements,  as  though  mad.  At.  other  times 
there  is  profound  mental  depression,  the  horse  standing  in  a  sleepy, 
or  dazed,  way,  with  the  head  down,  the  eyes  closed,  and  leaning  his 
head  against  the  manger  or  wall.  There  is,  during  the  struggles,  pro- 
fuse perspiration.  Following  retching,  gas  may  escape  from  the 
mouth,  and  this  may  be  followed  by  a  sour  froth  and  some  stomach 
contents.  The  horse  can  not  vomit  except  when  the  stomach  is  vio- 
lently stretched,  and,  if  the  accumulation  of  food  or  gas  is  great 
enough  to  stretch  the  stomach  so  that  vomiting  is  possible,  it  may  be 
great  enough  to  rupture  this  organ.  So  it  happens  not  infrequently 
that  a  horse  will  die  from  ruptured  stomach  after  vomiting.  But 
after  the  stomach  ruptures  vomiting  is  impossible.  The  death  rate 
in  this  form  of  colic  is  high. 

Treatment. — The  bowels  should  be  stimulated  to  contraction  by  the 
use  of  clysters  of  large  quantities  of  water  and  of  glycerin.  Veteri- 
narians use  hypodermic  injections  of  eserin  or  arecolin  or  intra- 
venous injections  of  barium  chloride,  but  these  have  to  be  employed 
with  great  caution.  It  is  not  profitable  to  give  remedies  by  the 
stomach,  for  they  can  not  be  absorbed.  But  small  doses  of  morphine 
(5  grains)  or  of  the  fluid  extract  of  Indian  hemp  (2  drams)  may  be 
placed  in  the  mouth  and  are  absorbed  in  part,  at  least,  without  pass- 
ing to  the  stomach.  These  drugs  lessen  pain  and  thus  help  to  over- 
come the  violent  movements  that  are  dangerous,  because  they  may  be 
the  means  of  causing  rupture  of  the  diaphragm  or  stomach.     If 


52  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

fjicilities  are  available,  relief  may  be  afforded  by  pairing  an  esoph- 
ageal tube  through  which  some  of  the  gaseous  and  liquid  contents  of 
the  stomach  may  escape. 

Rupture  of  the  fttomach. — This  mostly  occurs  as  a  result  of  en- 
gorged or  tympanitic  stomach  (engorgement  colic)  and  from  the  horse 
violently  throwing  himself  when  ho  affected.  It  may  result  from 
disea-**  of  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  gastritis,  stones,  or  calculi,  tumors, 
or  anything  that  closes  the  opening  of  the  stomach  into  the  intes- 
tines, and  very  violent  pulling  or  jumping  immediately  after  the 
animal  has  eaten  heartily  of  bulky  food.  These  or  similar  causes 
may  lead  to  this  accident. 

The  /tt/mptoms  of  rupture  of  the  stomach  are  not  constant  or  always 
reliable.  Always  make  inquiry  as  to  what  and  how  much  the  horse 
has  been  fed  at  the  last  meal.  Vomiting  may  precede  rupture  of  this 
organ,  as  stated  above.  This  accident  appears  to  be  most  likely  to 
occur  in  heavy  draft  horses.  A  prominent  symptom  observed 
(though  it  may  also  occur  in  diaphragmatic  hernia)  is  where  the  horse, 
if  |)OKsible,  gets  the  front  feet  on  higher  ground  than  the  hind  ones  or 
sits  on  his  haunches,  like  a  dog.  This  position  affords  relief  to  some 
extent,  and  it  will  Im^  maintained  for  some  minutes;  it  is  also  quickly 
regained  when  the  horse  has  changed  it  for  some  other.  Colicky 
Hymptoms,  of  course,  are  present,  and  these  will  vary  much  and  pre- 
sent no  diagnostic  value.  As  the  case  progresses  "the  horse  will 
often  stretch  fonsard  the  fore  legs,  lean  backward  and  downward 
until  the  Ix'lly  nearly  touches  the  ground,  and  then  rise  up  again 
with  a  groan,  after  which  the  fluid  from  his  nostrils  is  issued  in 
inrreasfd  quant  it}'.''  The  pulse  is  fast  and  weak,  breathing  hurried, 
iKxly  batheil  in  a  clammy  sweat,  limbs  tremble  violently,  the  horse 
reels  or  staggers  from  side  to  side,  and  death  quickly  ends  the  scene. 

In  the  ab-«'n(M'  of  any  pathognomonic  symptom  we  must  take  into 
oc<*ount  the  history  of  the  case;  the  symptoms  of  colic  that  cease  sud- 
denly and  are  succtH'dod  by  cold  sweats  and  tremors;  the  pulse  quick 
and  sniiill  and  thready,  growing  weak  and  more  frequent,  and  at 
length  nnining  down  and  l>ecoming  altogether  imperceptible;  looking 
bark  at  the  flank  and  groaning:  sometimes  crouching  with  the  hind 
quartiT-,;  with  or  witiiont  eructation  and  vomiting. 

There  is  no  treatnunt  that  can  1h'  of  any  use  whatever.  Ck)uld  we 
l>e  sure  of  our  diagnosis  it  would  l)c  U^tter  to  destroy  the  animal  at 
once.  Sinr-e.  however,  there  is  always  the  possibility  of  a  mistake  in 
dingnf."is.  we  may  give  powdered  opium  in  1-dram  doses  every  two 
or  thnn.  hours,  with  the  object  of  keeping  the  stomach  as  quiet  as 
po!««il»]p. 

(2)  C  hiHTRi  fTioN  c()i,u-._-The  stomach  or  bowels  may  1x3  obstructed 
by  ncrunndati.ms  of  partly  digested  fcnxl  (focal  matter),  by  foreign 
bodjcw,  by  di>pluceniei.ts.  by  paralysis,  or  by  abnormal  growths. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    STOMACH    AND    INTESTINES.  •  53 

Impaction  of  the  large  intestines. — This  is  a  very  common  bowel 
trouble  and  one  which,  if  not  promptly  recognized  and  properly 
treated,  results  in  death.  It  is  caused  by  overfeeding,  especially  of 
bullcy  food  containing  an  excess  of  indigestible  residue ;  old,  dry,  hard 
hay,  or  stalks  when  largely  fed ;  deficiency  of  secretions  of  the  intesti- 
nal tracts ;  lack  of  water ;  want  of  exercise,  medicines,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Impaction  of  the  large  bowels  is  to  be  diagnosed  by  a 
slight  abdominal  pain,  which  may  disappear  for  a  day  or  two  to  reap- 
pear with  more  violence.  The  feces  are  passed  somewhat  more  fre- 
quently, but  in  smaller  quantities  and  more  dry ;  the  abdomen  is  full, 
but  not  distended  with  gas;  the  horse  at  first  is  noticed  to" paw  and 
soon  begins  to  look  back  at  his  sides.  Probably  one  of  the  most  char- 
acteristic symptoms  is  the  position  assumed  when  down.  He  lies  flat 
on  his  side,  head  and  legs  extended,  occasionally  raising  his  head  to 
look  toward  his  flank ;  he  remains  on  his  side  for  from  five  to  fifteen 
minutes  at  a  time.  Evidently  this  position  is  the  one  giving  the  most 
freedom  from  pain.  He  rises  at  times,  walks  about  the  stall,  paws, 
looks  at  his  sides,  backs  up  against  the  stall,  which  he  presses  with  his 
tail,  and  soon  lies  down  again,  assuming  his  favored  position.  The 
intestinal  sounds,  as  heard  by  applying  the  ear  to  the  flank,  are  dimin- 
ished, or  there  is  no  sound,  indicating  absence  of  motion  of  the  bowels. 
The  bowels  may  cease  entirely  to  move.  The  pressure  of  the  distended 
intestine  upon  the  bladder  may  cause  the  horse  to  make  frequent 
attempts  to  urinate.  The  pulse  is  but  little  changed  at  first,  being 
full  and  sluggish ;  later,  if  this  condition  is  not  overcome,  it  becomes 
rapid  and  feeble.  Horses  may  suffer  from  impaction  of  the  bowels 
for  a  week,  yet  eventually  recover,  and  cases  extending  two  or 
even  three  weeks  have  ended  favorably.  As  a  rule,  however,  they  sel- 
dom last  over  four  or  five  days,  many,  in  fact,  dying  sooner  than  this. 

The  treatTnent  consists  of  efforts  to  produce  movement  of  the  bowels 
and  to  prevent  inflammation  of  the  same  from  arising.  A  large 
cathartic  is  to  be  given  as  early  as  possible.  Either  of  the  follow- 
ing is  recommended:  Powdered  Barbados  aloes  1  ounce,  calomel  2 
drams,  and  powdered  nux  vomica  1  dram;  or  linseed  oil  1  pint  and 
croton  oil  15  drops;  or  from  1  pint  to  1  quart  of  castor  oil  may  be 
given.  Some  favor  the  administration  of  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts, 
1  pound,  with  one-quarter  pound  of  common  salt,  claiming  that  this 
causes  the  horse  to  drink  largely  of  water,  and  thus  mechanically 
softening  the  impacted  mass  and  favoring  its  expulsion.  Whichever 
physic  is  selected,  it  is  essential  that  a  full  dose  be  given.  This  is 
much  better  than  small  and  repeated  doses.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  horses  require  about  twenty-four  hours  in  which  to  respond  to  a 
physic,  and  under  no  circumstances  are  physics  to  be  repeated  sooner 
than  this.  If  aloes  has  been  given  and  has  failed  to  operate  at  the 
proper  time,  oil  or  some  different  cathartic  should  then  be  adminis- 
tered.    Allow  the  horse  all  the  water  he  will  drink.     Calomel  mav  be 


54  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

atlministered  in  half-dram  doses,  the  powder  being  placed  on  the 
tongue,  one  dose  every  two  hours  until  four  doses  are  given. 

Enemas  of  glycerin,  2  to  4  ounces,  are  often  beneficial.  Rubbing 
or  knoading  of  the  abdominal  walls  and  the  application  of  stimulat- 
ing liniments  or  strong  mustard  water  will  also,  at  times,  favor  the 
cxpiilsion  of  this  mass.  Walking  exercise  must  occasionally  be  given. 
If  this  treatment  is  faithfully  carried  out  from  the  start  the  majority 
of  cases  will  terminate  favorably.  Where  relief  is  not  obtained  in- 
flammation of  the  bowels  may  ensue,  and  death  follow  from  this 
cause. 

Coruttipation,  or  costiveness. — This  is  often  witnessed  in  the  horse, 
and  particularly  in  the  foal.  Many  colts  die  every  year  from  failure 
on  the  part  of  the  attendant  to  note  the  condition  of  the  bowels  soon 
after  birth.  ^Mienever  the  foal  fails  to  pass  any  feces,  and  in  partic- 
ular if  it  presents  any  signs  of  colicky  pains — straining,  etc. — imme- 
diiit^;  attention  must  be  given  it.  ^Vs  a  rule,  it  will  only  be  necessary 
to  give  a  few  injections  of  soapy  water  in  the  rectum  and  to  introduce 
the  finger  through  the  anus  to  break  down  any  hardened  mass  of  dung 
found  there.  If  this  is  not  effective,  a  purgative  must  be  given.  Oils 
are  the  best  for  these  young  animals,  and  preferably  castor  oil,  giving 
from  2  to  4  ounces.  The  foal  should  always  get  the  first  of  the 
mother's  milk,  as  this  ^ilk,  for  a  few  days,  possesses  decided  laxative 
properties.  If  a  mare,  while  suckling,  is  taking  laudanum,  morphine, 
atropia,  or  similar  medicines,  the  foal  should  be  fed  during  this  time 
by  hand  and  the  mare  milked  upon  the  ground.  Constipation  in 
adult  horses  is  often  the  result  of  long  feeding  on  dry,  innutritions 
fo«Kl,  deficiency  of  intestinal  secretions,  scanty  water  supply,  or  lack 
of  exorcise.  If  the  case  is  not  complicated  with  colicky  symptoms,  a 
chang*-  to  light,  sloppy  diet,  linseed  gruol  or  tea,  with  plenty  of  exer- 
cise, is  all  that  is  roqiiiri'd.  If  colic  exists,  a  cathartic  is  needed.  In 
very  many  instances  the  constipated  condition  of  the  bowels  is  due 
to  lark  «.f  intestinal  se.retions,  and  when  so  due,  may  be  treated  by 
giving  fluid  extract  of  IK-Jjudonna  three  times  a  day  in  2-dram  doses, 
and  handftd  d..s,.s  ,hiily  of  F:psom  salts  in  the  feed.  It  is  always 
»K«.1.  when  i)o.cHble.  to  overcome  this  trouble  bv  a  change  of  diet 
rather  than  by  the  n^  of  medicines.  For  the  relief  of  constipation 
such  siicndent  fiKHls  as  roots,  grass,  or  green  forage  are  recommended. 
Silage,  however.  sh<Mi],|  l»e  fed  sparingly,  and  not  at  all  unless  it  is 
in  the  very  U-^t  condition.     MoMy  silage  inav  cause  fatal  disease. 

hnr,,.,u  hn,i;rH  (ralrufi  (.sfn„rs)  !n  the  sfowarh).—ThoTQ  are  prob- 
ably but  f..w  symptoms  exhibited  by  the  horse  that  will  lead  one  to 
HisiH^-t  the  pre^-nn.  of  g„stric  calculi,  and  possibly  none  bv  which  we 
can  unn.istakabjy  M^M-rt  their  i,resence.  Stones  in  the  stomach  have 
been  most  frec,uently  found  in  millers'  horses  fed  sweepings  from 
the  milL    A  depraved  and  capricious  appetite  is  common  in  horses 


DISEASES    OF    THE    STOMACH    AND    INTESTINES.  55 

that  have  a  stone  forming  in  their  stomach.  There  is  a  disposition  to 
eat  the  woodwork  of  the  stable,  earth,  and,  in  fact,  ahnost  any  sub- 
stance within  their  reach.  This  symptom  must  not,  however,  be  con- 
sidered as  pathognomonic,  since  it  is  observed  when  calculi  are  not 
present.  Occasional  colics  may  result  from  these  "  stomach  stones," 
and  when  these  lodge  at  the  outlet  of  the  stomach  they  may  give  rise 
to  symptoms  of  engorged  stomach,  already  described.  There  is,  of 
course,  no  treatment  that  will  prove  effective.  Give  remedies  to  move 
the  bowels,  to  relieve  pain,  and  to  combat  inflanmiation. 

Intestinal  concretions  {calculi  {stones)  in  the  intestines). — ^These 
concretions  are  usually  found  in  the  large  bowels,  though  they  are 
occasionally  met  with  in  the  small  intestines.  They  are  of  various 
sizes,  weighing  from  1  ounce  to  25  pounds;  they  may  be  single  or 
multiple,  and  differ  in  composition  and  appearance,  some  being  soft 
(composed  mostly  of  animal  or  vegetable  matter),  while  others  are 
porous,  or  honeycombed  (consisting  of  animal  and  mineral  matter), 
and  others  are  entirely  hard  and  stonelike.  The  hair  balls,  so 
common  to  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  cattle,  are  very  rare  in  the 
horse.  Intestinal  calculi  form  around  some  foreign  body,  as  a  rule — 
a  nail  or  piece  of  wood^ — ^whose  shape  they  may  assume  to  a  certain 
extent.  Layers  are  arranged  concentrically  around  such  nucleus  until 
the  sizes  above  spoken  of  are  attained.  These  stones  are  also  often 
found  in  millers'  horses,  as  well  also  as  in  horses  in  limestone  districts, 
where  the  water  is  hard.  When  the  calculi  attain  a  sufficient  size  and 
become  lodged  or  blocked  in  some  part  of  the  intestines,  they  cause 
obstruction,  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  colicky  symptoms,  and  death. 
There  are  no  certain  signs  or  symptoms  that  reveal  them.  Recurring 
colics  of  the  type  of  impaction  colic,  but  more  severe,  may  lead  one  to 
suspect  the  existence  of  this  condition.  Examination  through  the 
rectum  may  reveal  the  calculus. 

The  symptoms  will  bo  those  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels.  Upon 
post-mortem  examinations  these  stones  will  be  discovered  mostly  in 
the  large  bowels;  the  intestines  will  be  inflamed  or  gangrenous  about 
the  point  of  obstruction.  Sometimes  calculi  have  been  expejled  by  the 
action  of  a  physic,  or  they  may  be  removed  by  the  hand  when  found 
to  occupy  the  rectiun. 

As  in  concretions  of  the  stomach,  there  can  be  but  little  done  in  the 
way  of  treatment  more  than  to  overcome  spasm  (if  any  exists),  and 
to  give  physics  with  the  hope  of  dislodging  the  stone  or  stones  and 
carrying  them  on  and  oUtward. 

Intussusception^  or  invagination. — This  is  the  slipping  of  a  portion 
of  the  intestine  into  another  portion  immediatelj^  adjoining,  like  a 
partially  turned  glove  finger.  This  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the 
bowels,  but  is  most  frequent  in  the  small  guts.  The  invaginated  por- 
tion may  be  slight — 2  or  3  inches  only — or  extensive,  measuring  as 


56  DISEASES   OF  THE   HORSE.- 

many  feet  In  intussusception,  the  inturned  bowel  is  in  the  direction 
of  the  anus.  There  are  adhesions  of  the  intestines  at  this  point,  con- 
gestion, inflammation,  or  even  gangrrene.  This  accident  is  most  likely 
to  occur  in  horses  that  are  sufl'ering  from  spasm  of  the  bowel,  or  in 
those  where  a  small  portion  of  the  gut  is  paralyzed.  The  natural 
wormlike  or  ringlike  contraction  of  the  gut  favors  the  passage  of 
the  contracted  or  paralyzed  portion  into  that  immediately  behind  it. 
It  may  occur  during  the  existence  of  almost  any  abdominal  trouble,  as 
diarrhea,  inlhunmation  of  the  bowels,  or  from  injuries,  exposure  to 
cold,  do.  A  fall  or  leaping  may  give  the  initial  maldirection.  Foals 
are  most  likely  to  be  thus  aillicted. 

Symptoms. — Unless  the  invaginated  portion  of  the  gut  becomes 
strangulated,  probably  no  symptoms  will  be  appreciable,  except  con- 
stipation.   iStrangulation  of  the  bowel  may  take  place  suddenly,  and 
the  horso  die  within  twenty-four  hours,  or  it  may  occur  after  several 
days — a  week  even — and  death  follow  at  this  time.     There  are  no 
symptoms  positively  diagnostic.     Colicky  pains,  more  or  less  severe 
and  continuous,  arc  observed,  and  there  may  be  at  first  diarrhea  fol- 
lowed by  constipation.    Severe  straining  occurs  in  some  instances  of 
intussustvpfion,  and  this  should  be  given  due  credit  when  it  occurs. 
As  death  approaches  the  horse  sweats  profusely,  sighs,  presents  an 
anxious  countenance,  the  legs  and  ears  become  cold,  and  there  is  often 
fretKlom    from   pain   immediately  before  death.     In   some   rare  in- 
stances the  horse  recovers,  even  though  the  invaginated  portion  of 
the  gut  Ijas  become  strangidated.     In  this  case  the  imprisoned  portion 
sloughs  away  so  gradually  that  a  union  has  taken  place  between  the 
intestines  at  the  point  where  one  portion  has  slipped  into  that  behind 
it.     The  piece  sloughing  off  is  found  passed  with  the  manure.     Such 
cases  are  excci'dingly  rare.     Nonirritating  laxatives,  such  as  castor 
oil.  s\vi-<«t  oil,  or  cahniu'l  in  small  doses  should  bo  given,  and  creolin 
in  2-dram  (los<s  in  a  pint  of  warm  water.     Soft  feed  and  mucilag- 
inous and   nourishing  drinks  siiould  Iw  given  during  these  attacks. 
K.  .MhvIh'w  MiciuMicr  has  operated  successfully  on  a  foal  with  intus- 
hus<-eption  by  o|»ening  the  abdomen  and  releasing  the  imprisoned  gut. 
VtdruluM,  guttir,  or  ticinting  of  the  howeh. — These  are  the  terms 
applie«|   to  the  lH)\vels   when   twisted   or  knotted.     This  accident  is 
rather  a  common  one,  and  frequently  results  from  the  violent  manner 
in  which  a  hors*'  throws  hinis4'jf  aUiut  when  attacked  by  spasmodic 
c<»lic.     TIm-  xymptntnH  are  the  same  as  those  of  intussusception  and 
oUtrurtions  of  the  Iwjweis;  tiuj  same  directions  as  to  treatment  are 
therefore  to  Ik;  observe*!. 

I'arulyHiM  of  thr  int4Mti,u'.—'Th\^  occurs  in  old,  debilitated  animals 
that  have  U^'n  fed  on  cdarst'  innutritions  fodder.  This  produces 
a  condition  of  dilatation  so  pronounced  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
the  intestme  to  advance  its  r<,ntents,  and  so  obstruction  results.  The 
symptoms  are  as  in  ..ther  forms  of  obstruction  colic.     The  history  of 


DISEASES    OF    THE    STOMACH   AND    INTESTINES.  57 

the  case  is  of  much  service  in  diagnosing  the  trouDie.  The  treatment 
consists  in  the  administration  of  laxatives.  One  may  give  1  quart  of 
raw  linseed  oil  and  follow  it  the  next  day  with  1  pound  of  Glauber's 
salts  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  warm  water.  Strychnia  may  be  given  in 
doses  of  1  grain  two  or  three  times  daily.  If  the  stagnant  mass  of 
feces  is  in  the  rectum,  it  must  be  removed  with  the  hand. 

Ahnormal  growths^  such  as  tumors  or  fibrous  tissue,  producing 
contraction  or  stricture  may  be  causes  of  obstruction.  The  colic 
caused  by  these  conditions  is  chronic.  The  attacks  occur  at  gradually 
shortening  intervals  and  become  progressively  more  severe.  Relief  is 
afforded  by  the  use  of  purgatives  that  render  the  feces  soft  and  thin 
and  thus  enable  them  to  pass  the  obstruction.  But  in  time  the  con- 
tracted place  is  likely  to  close  so  far  that  passage  is  impossible  and 
the  horse  will  die. 

(3)  Flatulent  colic  (tympanitic  colic,  wind  colic,  or  bloat). — 
Among  the  most  frequent  causes  of  this  form  of  colic  are  to  be  men- 
tioned sudden  changes  of  food,  too  long  fasting,  food  then  given 
while  the  animal  is  exhausted,  new  hay  or  grain,  large  quantities  of 
green  food,  food  that  has  lain  in  the  manger  for  some  time  and  become 
sour,  indigestible  food,  irregular  teeth,  crib-biting,  and,  in  fact,  any- 
thing that  produces  indigestion  may  produce  flatulent  colic. 

The  symptoms  of  wind  colic  are  not  so  suddenly  developed  nor  so 
severe  as  those  of  cramp  colic.  At  first  the  horse  is  noticed  to  be  dull, 
paws  slightly,  and  may  or  may  not  lie  down.  The  pains  from  the 
start  are  continuous.  The  belly  enlarges,  and  by  striking  it  in  front 
of  the  haunches  a  drumlike  sound  results.  If  not  soon  relieved  the 
above  symptoms  are  aggravated,  and  in  addition  there  are  noticed 
difficult  breathing,  bloodshot  eyes,  and  red  mucous  membranes,  loud 
tumultuous  heart  beat,  profuse  perspiration,  trembling  of  front  legs, 
sighing  respiration,  staggering  from  side  to  side,  and,  finally,  plung- 
ing forward  dead.  The  diagnostic  symptom  of  flatulent  colic  is  the 
distention  of  the  bowels  with  gas,  detected  by  the  bloated  appearance 
and  resonance  on  percussion. 

The  treatm^ent  for  wind  colic  differs  very  materially  from  that  of 
cramp  colic.  Absorbents  are  of  some  service,  and  charcoal  may  be 
given  in  any  quantity.  Relaxants  and  antispasmodics  are  also  bene- 
ficial in  this  form  of  colic.  Chloral  hydrate  not  only  possesses  these 
qualities,  but  it  also  is  an  antiferment  and  a  pain  reliever.  It  is  then 
particularly  well  adapted  to  the  treatment  of  wind  colic,  and  should 
be  given  in  the  same-sized  doses  and  in  the  manner  directed  for  spas- 
modic colic.  Diluted  alcohol  or  whisky  may  be  given,  or  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia  in  1-ounce  doses  at  short  intervals. 

A  physic  should  always  be  given  in  flatulent  colic  as  early  as  possi- 
ble, the  best  being  Barbados  aloes  in  the  dose  already  mentioned. 
Injections,  per  rectum,  of  turpentine  1  to  2  ounces,  linseed  oil  8  ounces, 
may  be  given  frequently  to  stimulate  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the 


58  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

bowels  and  favor  the  escape  of  wind.  Blankets  wrung  out  of  hot 
water  do  much  to  afford  relief;  they  should  be  renewed  every  five 
or  ten  minutes  and  covered  with  a  dry  woolen  blanket.  This  form  of 
colic  is  much  more  fatal  than  cramp  colic,  and  requires  prompt  and 
persistent  treatment.  It  is  entirely  unsafe  to  predict  the  result,  some 
apparently  mild  attacks  going  on  to  speedy  death,  while  others  that 
np|)ear  at  the  onset  to  be  very  severe  yielding  rapidly  to  treatment. 
Do  not  cease  your  efforts  until  you  are  sure  the  animal  is  dead.  In 
these  severe  cases  puncturing  of  the  bowels  in  the  most  prominent 
(distended)  part  by  means  of  a  small  trocar  and  cannula  or  with  a 
needle  of  a  hypodermic  syringe,  thus  allowing  the  escape  of  gas,  has 
often  saved  life,  and  such  punctures,  if  made  with  a  clean,  sharp  in- 
strument that  is  not  allowed  to  remain  in  the  horse  too  long,  are 
accompanied  by  little  danger  and  do  more  to  quickly  relieve  the 
patient  than  any  other  treatment. 

(4)  Spasmodic,  or  cramp,  colic. — ^This  is  the  name  given  to  that 
form  of  colic  jiroduced  by  contraction,  or  spasm,  of  a  portion  of  the 
small  intestines.  It  is  produced  by  indigestible  food ;  large  drinks  of 
cold  water  when  the  animal  is  warm ;  driving  a  heated  horse  through 
deep  streams;  cold  rains;  drafts  of  cold  air,  etc.  Unequal  distribu- 
tion of  or  interference  with  the  nervous  supply  here  produces  cramp 
of  the  bowels,  the  same  as  external  cramps  are  produced.  Spasmodic 
colic  is  much  more  frequently  met  with  in  high-bred,  nervous  horses 
ihan  in  coarse,  lymphatic  ones. 

Symptoms. — These  should  be  carefully  studied  in  order  to  diagnose 
this  from  other  forms  of  colic  requiring  quite  different  treatment. 
Spasmodic  colic  always  begins  suddenly.  If  feeding,  the  horse  is  seen 
to  stop  abruptly,  stamp  impatiently,  and  probably  look  back.  He 
t-oon  evinces  more  acute  pain,  and  this  is  shown  by  pawing,  suddenly 
lying  down,  rolling,  and  getting  up.  During  the  period  of  pain  the 
int<-stinal  sounds,  as  hoard  by  applying  the  ear  over  the  flank,  are 
louder  than  in  health.  There  is  then  an  interval  of  ease;  he  will 
rosuriie  f(M'ding  niid  appear  to  1x3  entirely  well.  In  a  little  while,  how- 
ever, the  pains  return  and  are  increased  in  severity,  only  to  again  pass 
off  for  a  time.  As  the  attack  progresses  these  intervals  of  ease  become 
^ho^te^  and  shorter,  and  pain  may  Ix?  cojitinuous,  though  even  now 
I  here  nrti  exa(erl>ati()ns  of  i)ain.  Animals  suffering  from  this  form  of 
colic  evince  the  most  intense  pain;  they  throw  themselves  down,  roll 
over  anrl  over,  jmnp  up.  whirl  al)out,  drop  down  again,  paw,  or  strike 
rnthiT,  with  the  front  feet,  steam  and  sweat,  and  make  frequent 
attempts  to  pass  their  urine.  Only  a  small  amount  of  water  is  passed 
at  a  time,  and  this  is  due  to  the  bladder  being  so  frequently  emptied. 
Thesfl  attempts  to  urinate  are  often  regarded  by  horsemen  as  symp- 
toms of  trouble  of  the  kidneys  or  bladder.  In  reality  thev  are  only 
one  of  the  many  ways  in  which  the  horse  expresses  the  presence  of 


SPASMODIC    COLIC.  59 

pain.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  diseases  of  the  bladder  or  kidneys  of  the 
horse  are  exceedingly  rare. 

To  recapitulate  the  symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic :  Keep  in  mind  the 
history  of  the  case,  the  type  of  horse,  the  suddenness  of  the  attack, 
the  increased  intestinal  sounds,  the  intervals  of  ease  (which  become  of 
shorter  duration  as  the  case  progresses) ,  the  violent  pain,  the  normal 
temperature  and  pulse  during  the  intervals  of  ease,  the  frequent 
attempts  to  urinate,  etc.,  and  there  is  but  little  danger  of  confounding 
this  with  other  forms  of  colic. 

Treatment. — Since  the  pain  is  due  to  spasm,  or  cramp,  of  the 
bowels,  medicines  that  overcome  spasms — ^antispasmodics — are  the 
ones  indicated.  Chloral  hydrate  may  be  used.  This  is  to  be  given  in 
a  dose  of  1  ounce  in  a  pint  of  water  as  a  drench.  As  f^his  drug  is 
irritant  to  the  throat  and  stomach,  it  has  to  be  well  dilut/ed.  A  com- 
mon and  good  remedy  is  sulphuric  ether  and  laudanum;  of  each  2 
ounces  in  a  half  pint  of  linseed  oil.  Another  drench  may  be  com- 
posed of  2  ounces  each  of  sulphuric  ether  and  alcohol  in  8  ounces  of 
water.  If  nothing  else  is  at  hand  give  whisky,  one-half  pint  in  hot 
water.  Jamaica  ginger  is  useful.  If  relief  is  not  obtained  in  one 
hour  from  any  of  the  above  doses,  they  may  then  be  repeated.  The 
body  should  be  warmly  clothed  and  perspiration  induced.  Blankets 
dipped  in  very  hot  water  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  has 
been  added  should  be  placed  around  the  belly  and  covered  with  dry 
blankets,  or  the  abdomen  may  be  rubbed  with  stimulating  liniments 
or  mustard  water.  The  difficulty,  however,  of  applying  hot  blankets 
and  keeping  them  in  place  forces  us  in  most  instances  to  dispense  with 
them.  If  the  cramp  is  due  to  irritants  in  the  bowels,  a  cure  is  not 
complete  until  there  is  given  a  cathartic  of  1  ounce  of  aloes  or  1  pint 
of  linseed  oil.  Injections  into  the  rectum  of  warm  soapy  water  or 
salt  and  water  aid  the  cure. 

Kectal  injections,  clysters,  or  enemas  as  a  rule  should  be  lukewarm, 
and  from  3  to  6  quarts  are  to  be  given  at  a  time.  Thej'  may  be 
repeated  every  half  hour  if  necessary.  Great  care  is  to  be  taken  not 
to  injure  the  rectum  in  giving  such  injections.  A  large  syringe  or  a 
piece  of  rubber  hose  4  or  5  feet  long,  with  a  funnel  attached  at  one 
end,  affords  the  best  means  by  which  to  give  them.  The  pipe  of  the 
syringe  or  the  hose  introduced  into  the  rectum  must  be  blunt,  rounded, 
and  smooth.  It  is  to  be  thoroughly  oiled  and  then  carefully  pushed 
through  the  anus  in  a  slightly  upward  direction.  ISIuch  force  must 
be  avoided,  for  the  rectum  may  be  lacerated  and  serious  complications 
or  even  death  result.  Exercise  will  aid  the  action  of  the  bowels  in  this 
and  similar  colicky  troubles,  l)ut  severe  galloping  or  trotting  is  to  be 
avoided.  If  the  horse  can  have  a  loose  box  or  paddock,  it  is  the  best, 
as  he  will  then  take  what  exercise  he  wants.  If  the  patient  be  ex- 
tremely violent,  it  is  often  wise  to  restrain  him  by  leading  him  with  a 


§0  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

baiter,  since  rupturo  of  the  stomach  or  displacement  of  the  bowels 
may  result  and  complicate  the  trouble. 

(5)  Worm  colic. — Parasites  of  many  kinds  reside  in  the  intestinal 
canal  of  horses.  There  arc  three  kinds  of  tapeworms,  one  long  round- 
worm, and  several  kinds  of  smaller  roundworms.  Besides  these  are 
the  l>ot-fly  prubs  and  larva:'.  The  intestinal  worm  most  commonly 
seen  is  the  lon^  roundworm,  known  as  Ascaris  equorum.  They  are 
white  or  reddish  in  color  and  measure  from  4  to  12  inches  in  length. 
In  thickness  thoy  vary  from  the  size  of  a  rye  straw  to  that  of  a  lady's 
little  finjrer,  l)oing  thickest  at  the  middle  and  tapering  at  both  ends. 
They  arc  found  singly  or  in  groups  or  masses,  and  infest  chiefly  the 
small  intestines.     (See  PI.  III.) 

Of  the  smaller  roundAvorms,  there  may  be  mentioned  Spiroptera 
microstoma^  which  causes  ulcers  in  the  stomach;  Cylichnostoniiunrb 
tctraranthurriy  Strongylus  equinus,  and  Strongylus  vulgaris,  which 
live  in  the  large  intestines.  The  larva?  of  the  last  named  burrow  in 
the  walls  of  the  great  mesenteric  artery,  causing  aneurisms. 

The  tajwwornis,  once  setm,  are  easily  recognized.  They  are  white, 
flat,  thin,  broad,  and  j(»inted.  The  head  is  found  at  the  smaller  end 
of  the  worm.  Tapeworms  of  the  horse  measure  from  a  few  inches  to 
a  foot  in  length. 

Symptomn. — Symptoms  of  intestinal  worms  are  not  always  ob- 
served, even  when  many  parasites  are  present.  If  the  infestarion  is 
extreme,  there  may  ha  slight  colicky  pains  at  times,  or  there  may  only 
Ix;  switching  of  the  tail,  frequent  passages  of  manure,  and  some  slight 
straining,  itching  of  the  anus,  and  rubbing  of  the  tail  or  rump  against 
the  stall  or  fences;  the  hors(;  is  in  poor  condition;  does  not  shed  his 
coat;  is  hi(lelK)und  and  potbellied;  the  appetite  is  depraved,  licking 
the  walls,  biting  the  wcxxlen  work  of  the  stalls,  licking  parts  of  his 
UkIv,  eating  eartli,  and  In-ing  particularly  fond  of  salt;  the  bowels 
an-  irregular,  (•onstii)ati<)n  or  diarrhea  being  noticed.  Some  place 
much  <lejM'ndence  upon  the  syini)tom  of  itching  of  the  upper  lip,  as 
shown  by  the  hors<'  fivciucutly  tiirnitig  it  up  and  rubbing  it  upon  the 
wall  <.r  stalls.  Otiicis  again  declare  that  whenever  we  see  the  adher- 
rn(v  (,f  tt  dried  whitish  substance  about  the  anus,  worms  are  present. 
'Pie  our  symptom,  however,  that  we  should  always  look  for,  and  cer- 
tainly the  only  one  that  may  not  deceive  us,  is  seeing  the  worms  or 
their  eggs  (by  the  \\<i^  of  a  microscope)  in  the  dung. 

7'/vv,/„,.,./.-Keniedies  to  d.-stroy  intestinal  worms  are  much  more 
efficient  if  given  after  a  long  fast,  and  then  the  worm  medicine  must 
be  supple,uente<l  by  a  physic  to  carry  out  the  worms.  Among  the 
h^i  w(,nn  n.edicin..s  may  Ik-  m.-ntioned  santonin,  turpentine,  tartar 
emetn..  .reolin,  infusion  of  tobacco,  and  bitter  tonics.  To  destroy 
UiM-wonns,  ar,.ca  nut,  malefern,  and  pumpkin  seeds  are  the  best.  If 
a  horse  1.  passing  the  long  roundworms,  the  plan  of  treatment  is  to 


INDIGESTION.  61 

give  twice  daily  for  three  or  four  days  a  drench  composed  of  turpen- 
tine or  creolin  1  ounce  and  linseed  oil  2  or  3  ounces,  to  be  followed  on 
the  fourth  day  by  a  physic  of  Barbados  aloes  1  ounce,  or  one  may  give 
santonine  ^  to  2  drams,  with  calomel  1  to  2  drams.  This  dose  should 
not  be  repe'ated,  and  should  be  followed  in  six  hours  by  1  quart  of  lin- 
seed oil.  If  worms  infesting  the  large  bowels  are  present,  injections 
into  the  rectum  of  infusions  of  tobacco,  infusions  of  quassia  chips, 
one-half  pound  to  a  gallon  of  water,  once  or  twice  daily  for  a  few 
days,  and  follow  by  a  physic,  are  most  beneficial.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  intestinal  worms  are  mostly  seen  in  horses  that  are  in 
poor  condition,  and  an  essential  part  of  treatment  then  is  to  improve 
the  appetite  and  powers  of  digestion.  This  is  best  done  by  giving 
the  vegetable  tonics.  One-half  ounce  of  Peruvian  bark,  gentian,  gin- 
ger, quassia,  etc.,  is  to  be  given  twice  a  day  in  the  feed  or  as  a  drench. 

To  improve  the  general  condition  one  may  give  artificial  Carlsbad 
salts,  1  tablespoonful  in  each  feed,  and  each  dose  to  have  added  to  it 
3  to  5  grains  of  arsenious  acid. 

Bot-fly  larvae  do  not  require  special  treatment  unless  they  lodge  in 
the  rectum,  in  which  case  they  may  be  dislodged  by  injecting  tobacco 
water.  If  plenty  of  rock  salt  is  allowed  for  horses  to  lick,  they  will 
thus  be  protected  against  intestinal  parasites  to  a  slight  but  useful 
degree. 

Indigestion  or  gastro-intestinal  catarrh. — There  is  ample  rea- 
son for  considering  these  conditions  together  from  the  facts  that  they 
merge  insensibly  into  each  other  and  usually  occur  simultaneously. 
This  condition  may  be  acute — that  is,  of  sudden  onset — or  it  may  be 
chronic.  The  changes  of  structure  produced  by  this  disease  occur 
in  the  mucous-membrane  lining  of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  This 
membrane  becomes  red  from  increased  blood  supply  or  from  hemor- 
rhage into  it,  it  is  swollen,  and  is  covered  by  a  coating  of  slimy 
mucus.  In  some  especially  severe  cases  the  membrane  is  destroyed 
in  spots,  causing  the  appearance  of  ulcers  or  of  erosions. 

The  causes  of  indigestion  are  numerous,  but  nearly  all  are  the 
result  of  errors  in  feeding. 

Some  horses  are  naturally  endowed  with  weak  digestive  organs, 
and  such  are  predisposed  to  this  condition.  Anything  that  irritates 
the  stomach  or  intestines  may  cause  this  disease.  Foods  that  the 
animal  is  unaccustomed  to,  sudden  changes  of  diet,  imperfectly  cured, 
unripe,  or  damaged  foods  are  all  fruitful  causes,  and  so  are  worms. 
In  suckling  foals  this  condition  may  come  from  some  disease  of  the 
dam  that  renders  her  .milk  indigestible  or  from  overexertion  or  over- 
heating of  the  mare.  Another  prolific  cause  is  bad  teeth,  making 
mastication  imperfect,  and  thus  causing  the  horse  to  swallow  his  food 
in  a  condition  unfit  for  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices.  Working  a 
horse  too  soon  or  too  hard  after  feeding  may  cause  either  colic  or 


^  DISEASES    OP    THE    HORSE. 

indigestion.  Any  condition  that  reduces  the  vitality  of  the  horse, 
such  as  disease,  overwork,  poor  food,  or  lack  of  care,  may  indirectly 
bring  on  indigestion  by  weakening  the  digestive  organs. 

Symptoms. — Indigestion  is  characterized  by  irregular  appetite; 
refusing  all  food  at  times,  and  at  others  eating  ravenously;  the  appe- 
tite is  not  only  irregular,  but  is  often  depraved;  there  is  a  disposition 
on  the  i>art  of  the  horse  to  eat  unusual  substances,  such  as  wood, 
soiled  bedding,  or  even  his  own  feces ;  the  bowels  are  irregular  to-day, 
loose  and  bad  smelling,  to-morrow  bound;  grain  is  often  passed  whole 
in  the  feces,  and  the  hay  passed  in  balls  or  impacted  masses,  under- 
going but  little  change;  the  horse  frequently  passes  considerable 
quantities  of  wind  that  has  a  sour  odor.  The  animal  loses  flesh,  the 
skin  presents  a  hard,  dry  appearance  and  seems  very  tight  (hide- 
bound). If  the  stomach  is  very  seriously  involved,  the  horse  may 
yawn  by  stretching  the  head  forward  and  upward  and  by  turning 
outward  the  upper  lip.  There  may  be  more  or  less  colicky  pain.  In 
the  chronic  cases  there  is  mental  depression ;  the  horse  is  sluggish  and 
dull.  The  abdomen  gradually  becomes  smjiU,  giving  a  "  tucked  up  " 
appearance,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  becomes  flaccid  and  pendulous. 

Treatment. — One  should  commence  with  the  food — its  quality, 
quantity,  and  time  of  feeding;  examine  the  water  supply,  and  see, 
l)e,sides,  that  it  is  given  before  feeding;  then  carefully  observe  the 
condition  of  the  mouth  and  teeth ;  and,  continuing  the  observations  as 
Ijcst  we  may,  endeavor  to  locate  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  If  the  teeth 
are  sharp  or  irregular  they  must  be  rasped  down;  if  any  are  decayed 
Jhey  must  l>e  extracted;  if  indigestion  is  due  to  ravenous  eating  or 
lK)lting,  the  ftHxl  must  then  be  given  from  a  large  manger  where  the 
grain  can  lx».  spread  and  the  horse  thus  compelled  to  eat  slowly. 

Any  irritation,  such  as  worms,  undigested  food,  etc.,  that  is 
o|M'rating  as  causes  are  to  be  removed  by  appropriate  treatment,  as 
advised  elsewhere.  If  there  is  a  tendency  to  distention  of  the  stomach 
and  Im)\vo1s,  with  gas,  during  indigestion,  the  following  may  be  used: 
IJaking  stxla,  jKJwdercd  ginger,  and  powdered  gentian,  equal  parts. 
These  un?  to  Ix;  thoroughly  mixed  and  given  in  heaping  tablespoonful 
doM-s,  twice  a  day,  iHjforo  feeding.  This  powder  is  best  given  by 
dijvs<)lving  the  above  quantity  in  a  half  pint  of  water  and  given  as  a 
drench. 

As  a  digestive  tonic  the  following  is  good:  Glauber's  sjilts,  2 
ix>unds;  rommon  salt,  1  ixiund ;  baking  soda,  one-half  pound.  Of 
this  a  heaping  tablespoonful  may  be  given  in  each  feed.  If  diarrhea 
exists,  the  treatment  advis<'(l  Im'Iow  may  be  used. 

OiARRiiKA.— Diarrhea  is  due  to  indigestion  or  intestinal  catarrh  or 
to  irnution  of  the  U.wels  from  eating  moldy  or  musty  food,  drinking 
Htagnant  water,  diM-ased  condition  of  the  teeth,  eating  irritating  sub- 
atances,  to  U-ing  kei)t  on  low,  marshy  pastures,  and  exposure  during 


SUPERPUBGATION.  63 

cold  nights,  or  low,  damp  stables.  Some  horses  are  predisposed  to 
scour  and  are  called  "  washy  "  by  horsemen ;  they  are  those  with  long 
bodies,  long  legs,  and  narrow,  flat  sides.  Horses  of  this  build  are 
almost  sure  to  scour  if  fed  or  watered  immediately  before  being  put  to 
work.  Fast  or  road  work,  of  course,  aggravates  this  trouble.  Diar- 
rhea may  exist  as  a  complication  of  other  diseases  as  pneumonia  and 
influenza,  for  instance,  and  again  during  the  diseases  of  the  liver. 

The  symptoms  are  the  frequent  evacuations  of  liquid  stools,  with  or 
without  pronounced  abdominal  pain,  loss  of  appetite,  emaciation,  etc. 

Treatment  is  at  times  very  simple,  but  requires  the  utmost  care  and 
judgment.  If  due  to  faulty  food  or  water  it  is  sufficient  to  change 
these.  If  it  results  from  some  irritant  in  the  intestines,  this  is  best 
gotten  rid  of  by  the  administration  of  an  oleaginous  purge,  for  which 
nothing  is  better  than  castor  oil,  although  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  used 
if  the  case  is  not  severe.  The  diarrhea  often  disappears  with  the  ces- 
sation of  the  operation  of  the  medicine.  If,  however,  purging  con- 
tinues, it  may  be  checked  by  giving  wheat  flour  in  water,  starch 
water,  white-oak  bark  tea,  chalk,  opium,  or  half-dram  doses  of  sul- 
phuric acid  in  one-half  pint  of  water  twice  or  thrice  daily.  Good 
results  follow  the  use  of  powdered  opium  2  drams  and  subnitrate  of 
bismuth  1  ounce,  repeated  three  times  a  day.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered in  all  cases  to  look  to  the  water  and  feed  the  horse  is  receiving. 
If  either  of  these  is  at  fault  it  is  at  once  to  be  discontinued.  We 
should  feed  sparingly  of  good,  easily  digested  foods.  With  that 
peculiar  build  of  nervous  horses  that  scour  on  the  road  but  little  can 
be  done,  as  a  rule.  They  should  be  watered  and  fed  as  long  as  possi- 
ble before  going  on  a  drive.  If  there  is  much  flatulency  accompany- 
ing diarrhea,  baking  soda  or  other  alkaline  medicines  may  effect  a 
cure,  while  if  the  discharges  have  a  very  disagreeable  odor,  this  can 
be  corrected  by  1  ounce  of  sulphite  of  soda  or  dram  doses  of  creolin  in 
water,  repeated  twice  a  day.  Be  slow  to  resort  to  either  the  vege- 
table or  mineral  astringents,  since  the  majority  of  cases  will  yield  to 
change  of  food  and  water  or  the  administration  of  oils.  Afterwards 
feed  upon  wheat-flour  gruel  or  other  light  foods.  The  body  should 
be  warmly  clothed. 

SuPERPURGATioN. — Tliis  is  the  designation  of  that  diarrhea,  or  flux 
from  the  bowels,  that,  at  times,  is  induced  by  and  follows  the  action 
of  a  physic.  It  is  accompanied  by  much  irritation  or  even  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels  and  is  always  of  a  serious  character.  Although  in 
rare  instances  it  follows  from  a  usual  dose  of  physic  and  where  every 
precaution  has  been  taken,  it  is  most  likely  to  result  under  the  follow- 
ing circumstances:  Too  large  a  dose  of  physic;  giving  physics  to 
horses  suffering  from  pneumonia,  influenza,  or  other  debilitating  dis- 
eases; riding  or  driving  a  horse  when  purging;  exposure  or  drafts  of 
cold  air ;  or  giving  large  quantities  of  cold  water  while  the  physic  is 


^  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

oj>eratinp.  There  is  ahvays  danger  of  Riperpurgation  if  a  physic  is 
jrivon  to  a  horse  suffering  from  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 
Small  and  often-repeated  physics  are  also  to  be  avoided,  as  they  pro- 
dntv  debility  and  great  depression  of  the  system  and  predispose  to 
this  disonler.  \\lien  a  physic  is  to  bo  given  one  should  rest  the  horse 
and  give  him  sloppy  food  until  the  medicine  begins  to  operate;  clothe 
the  Ixxly  with  a  warm  blanket;  keep  out  of  drafts;  give  only  warm 
water  in  small  quantities.  After  a  horse  has  purged  from  twelve  to 
twonty-four  hours  it  can  mostly  be  stopped,  or  "  set,"  as  horsemen 
say,  by  fee<ling  on  dry  oats  and  hay.  Should  the  purging  continue, 
however,  it  is  l)fest  treated  by  giving  demulcent  drinks — linseed  tea 
and  oatmeal  or  wheat-flour  gruel.  After  this  the  astringents  spoken 
of  for  diarrhea  may  be  given.  Besides  this  the  horse  is  to  receive 
brandy  in  doses  of  from  2  to  4  ounces,  with  milk  and  eggs,  four  or 
live  times  a  day. 

I^iminitis  "  founder"  is  a  frequent  sequel  of  superpurgation  and 
is  to  be  guarded  against  by  removing  the  shoes  and  standing  the  horse 
on  moist  sawdust  or  some  similar  bedding. 

Dyskntkrv. — This  disease,  sometimes  called  "bloody  flux,"  is  an 
intestinal  disease  attended  with  fever,  occasional  abdominal  pains, 
and  fluid  discharges  mingled  with  blood.  Discharges  in  dysentery 
are  coffee  colored  or  bloody,  liquid,  and  very  offensive  in  odor,  and 
passed  with  much  straining.  It  is  rare  in  the  horse,  but  is  sometimes 
(|uite  prevah'rit  among  foals. 

CauHtt*. — Probably  the  most  common  cause  is  keeping  young  horses 
in  parti<'ular  for  a  long  time  on  low,  wet,  marshy  pastures,  without 
other  feed  (a  diarrhea  of  long  standing  sometimes  terminates  in  dys- 
enter>-)  ;  exp</sur(5  during  col<l,  wot  weather;  decomposed  foods;  stag- 
nant water  that  contains  large  quantities  of  decomposing  vegetable 
matter;  low,  damp,  and  dark  stables,  particularly  if  crowded;  the 
existence  of  some  diwase,  as  tulKTcidosis  of  the  abdominal  form.  In 
ruckling  f«):ils  it  may  conie  from  feeding  the  dam  on  irritant  foods  or 
from  di-^-ase  of  the  udder.  In  other  foals  it  may  be  produced  by 
exiKisun'  to  <(.ld  and  damp,  to  irritant  food,  or  to  worms. 

.Vym///o///.v.— '11,,.  initial  syinptom  is  a  chill,  which  probably  escapes 
notie<.  in  the  majority  of  instances.  'I'he  discharges  are  offensive  and 
for  th.^  m.^>t  part  liquid,  although  it  is  conimon  to  find  lumps  of  solid 
fe<^d  matt«T  floating  iti  this  liquid  portion;  shreds  of  miicous  mem- 
bmne  and  I.1(mh|  may  Ih.  passed,  or  the  evacuations  may  Ikj  muco-puru- 
lent;  there  is  much  straining,  and,  rarely,  symptoms  of  abdominal 
pain:  th."  siil,j..,t  lies  down  a  gieat  <leal  :*the'pulse  is  quickened  and 
the  t..m,H.ratMre  elevated.  Thirst  is  a  prominent  symptom.  In  the 
adult,  d.-all.  ranly  follows  under  two  to  three  weeks,  but  in  foals  the 
dis«>as4.  may  fiKJ  in  ,|,.„fl,  nU>'v  a  few  days. 

Trvntm,>nt.~\\n^  is  mo-t  unsatisfactory,  and  I  am  inclined  to  place 


GASTRO-ENTERITTS.  65' 

more  dependence  upon  the  care  and  feed  than  any  medication  that 
may  be  adopted.  First  of  all  the  horse  must  be  placed  in  a  dry, 
warm,  yet  well-ventilated  stable ;  the  skin  is  to  receive  attention  by 
frequent  rubbings  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  with  blankets,  and 
bandages  to  the  legs.  The  water  must  be  pure  and  given  in  small 
quantities ;  the  food,  that  which  is  light  and  easily  digested.  Medic- 
inally, give  at  first  a  light  dose  of  castor  oil,  about  one-half  pint,  to 
which  has  been  added  2  ounces  of  laudanum.  The  vegetable  or  min- 
Bral  astringents  are  also  to  be  given.  Starch  injections  containing 
laudanum  often  afford  great  relief.  The  strength  must  be  kept  up 
3y  milk  punches,  eggs,  beef  tea,  oatmeal  gruel,  etc.  In  spite  of  the 
best  care  and  treatment,  however,  dysentery  is  likely  to  prove  fatal. 
In  the  case  of  nurslings,  the  dam  should  be  placed  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition or,  failing  in  this,  milk  should  be  had  from  another  mare  or 
from  a  cow. 

Gastro-enteritis. — This  condition  consists  in  an  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines.  Instead  of  being  confined  to  the  mucous, 
3r  lining,  membrane,  as  in  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  the  inflammatory 
process  extends  deeper  and  may  even  involve  the  entire  thickness  of 
the  wall  of  the  organ. 

This  disease  may  be  caused  by  irritant  food,  hot  drinks,  sudden 
chilling,  moldy  or  decayed  foods,  foul  water,  parasites,  or  by  chemical 
poisons.  It  may  also  complicate  some  general  diseases,  especially 
infectious  diseases,  as  anthrax,  influenza,  rabies,  or  petechial  fever. 
Long-continued  obstruction  of  the  bowels  or  displacement  resulting 
in  death  are  preceded  by  enteritis. 

The  symptoms  differ  somewhat  with  the  cause  and  depend  also,  to 
some  extent,  upon  the  chief  location  of  the  inflammation.  In  general 
the  animal  stops  eating  or  eats  but  little;  it  shows  colicky  pain; 
fever  develops ;  the  pulse  and  respiration  become  rapid ;  the  mucous 
membrane  becomes  red;  the  mouth  is  hot  and  dry.  Pressure  upon 
the  abdomen  may  cause  pain.  Intestinal  sounds  can  not  be  heard  at 
the  flank.  There  is  constipation  in  the  earlier  stages  that  is  followed 
later  by  diarrhea.  The  extremities  become  cold.  Sometimes  the 
feces  are  coated  with  or  contain  shreds  of  fibrin,  looking  like  scraps 
of  dead  membrane,  and  they  have  an  evil,  putrid  odor.  If  the  disease 
is  caused  by  moldy  or  damaged  food  there  may  be  great  muscular 
weakness  with  partial  paralysis  of  the  throat,  as  shown  by  inability 
to  swallow.  If  chemical  poisons  are  the  cause,  this  fact  may  be 
s:hown  by  the  sudden  onset  of  the  disease,  the  history  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  a  poison  or  the  entire  absence  of  known  cause,  the  rapid 
development  of  threatening  symptoms,  the  involvement  of  a  series  of 
animals  in  the  absence  of  a  contagious  disease,  and  the  special  symp- 
toms and  alterations  known  to  be  produced  by  certain  poisons.     To 

H.  Doc.  795,  50-2 5 


00  DISEASES   OP  THE   HORSE. 

make  tliis  chain  of  evidence  complete,  the  poison  may  be  discovered 
in  the  organs  of  the  horse  by  chemical  analysis.  In  nearly  all  cases 
of  pistro-enteritis  there  is  nervous  depression. 

The  poisons  that  are  most  irritant  to  the  digestive  tract  are  arsenic, 
corrosive  sublimate,  sugar  of  lead,  sulphate  of  copper,  sulphate  or 
cliloridf  of  zinc,  lye  or  other  strong  alkalies,  mineral  acids,  and, 
among  the  vegetable  poisons,  tobacco,  lobelia,  and  water  hemlock. 

The  treatment  will  depend  upon  the  cause,  but  if  this  can  not  be 
detected,  certain  general  indications  may  be  observed.  In  all  cases 
food  should  be  given  in  small  amounts  and  should  be  of  the  most 
soothing  description,  as  oatmeal  gruel,  flaxseed  tea,  hay  tea,  fresh 
pniss,  or  rice  water.  The  skin  should  be  well  rubbed  with  wisps  of 
straw  and  alcohol,  to  equalize  the  distribution  of  the  blood;  the  legs, 
after  being  rubbed  until  warm,  should  be  bandaged  in  raw  cotton  or 
with  woolen  bandages.  The  horse  should  be  warmly  blanketed.  It  is 
well  to  apply  to  the  abdomen  blankets  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and 
f re<juently  changed ;  or  mustard  paste  may  be  rubbed  on  the  skin  of 
tiie  Ijelly.  Internally,  opium  is  of  service  to  allay  pain,  check  secre- 
tion, and  soothe  the  inflamed  membrane.  The  dose  is  from  1  to  2 
drams,  given  every  three  or  four  hours.  If  there  is  constipation,  the 
opium  should  l>e  mixed  with  30  grains  of  calomel.  Subnitrate  of 
bismuth  may  be  given  with  the  opium  or  separately  in  2-dram  doses. 
Stinnilants,  such  as  alcohol,  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  or  camphor 
may  Iw  given  in  2-ounce  doses,  mixed  with  warm  water  to  make  a 
dri'nch. 

If  putrid  food  has  Ijeen  consumed,  creolin  may  be  administered  in 
doses  of  2  drams,  mixed  with  1  pint  of  warm  water  or  milk.  If  there 
is  obstinate  constipation  and  a  laxative  must  be  employed,  it  should 
lie  sweet  or  castor  oil,  from  1  pint  to  1  quart.  For  the  various 
fH>i.sons  the  remedies  arc  as  follows:  Arsenic^  oxyhydrate  of  iron 
solution,  1  pint  to  1  quart,  or  calcined  magnesia  one-half  ounce  in  1 
I)int  of  water;  corroxire  sublimate,  the  whites  of  a  dozen  eggs  or  2 
oimres  of  flowers  of  sulphur;  siiffar  of  lead,  Glauber's  salts,  1  pound 
in  1  quart  of  warm  water,  to  be  followed  with  iodide  of  potash,  3 
drams  at  a  dose,  in  water,  three  times  daily  for  five  days;  sulphate  of 
iuppn;  milk,  the  whites  of  eggs,  or  reduced  iron;  sulphate  of  chlo- 
ride of  zinc,  milk,  the  whites  of  eggs,  or  calcined  magnesia;  lye  or 
alkalirM,  rw  rauMtir  potanh  or  mda,  vinegar,  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and 
linM-efi  (oa,  with  opium,  3  drams;  mineral  acids,  chalk,  or  calcined 
nnignesiii,  or  baking  sotla;   later  give  linseed  tea  and  opium. 

IlEMoRKiioms,  (,K  iMLK.^.— These  are  rare,  comparatively,  in  horses. 
I  hey  are  diagnoM-d  by  the  appearance  of  l)right-red  irregular  tumors 
after  .ij'feration.  which  may  remain  visible  at  all  times  or  l)e  seen  only 
when  thf  h<.rs<.  is  down  or  after  passing  his  manure.  They  are  mostly 
due  to  constipation,  to  irritation,  or  injuries,  or  folloW   from  the 


HERNIA,  OR   RUPTURE.  67 

severe  straining  during  dysenterjs,  I  have  observed  them  to  follow 
from  severe  labor  pains  in  the  mare. 

Treatment. — Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  bowels ; 
they  should  be  soft,  but  purging  is  to  be  avoided.  The  tumors 
should  be  washed  in  warm  water  and  thoroughly  cleansed,  after  which 
scarify  them  and  gently  but  firmly  squeeze  out  the  liquid  that  will  be 
seen  to  follow  the  shallow  incisions.  After  thus  squeezing  these 
tumors  and  before  replacing  through  the  anus,  bathe  the  parts  with 
some  anodyne  wash.  For  this  purpose  the  glycerite  of  tannin  and 
laudanum  in  equal  parts  is  good.  Mucilaginous  injections  into  the 
rectum  may  be  of  service  for  a  few  days. 

Hernia,  ok  rupture. — There  are  several  different  kinds  of  hernias 
that  require  notice,  not  all  of  which,  however,  produce  serious  symp- 
toms or  results.  Abdominal  hernias,  or  ruptures,  are  divided  into 
reducible^  irreducible^  and  strangulated.,  according  to  condition;  and 
into  inguinal.,  scrotal.,  ventral.,  urribilical.,  and  diaphragmatic,  accord- 
ing to  their  situation.  A  hernia  is  reducible  when  the  displaced  organ 
can  be  returned  to  its  natural  location.  It  consists  of  a  soft  swelling, 
without  heat,  pain,  or  any  uneasiness,  generally  larger  on  full  feed, 
and  decreases  in  size  as  the  bowels  become  empty.  An  irreducible 
hernia  is  one  that  can  not  be  returned  into  the  abdomen,  and  yet  does 
not  cause  any  pain  or  uneasiness.  Strangulated  hernia  is  one  where 
the  contents  of  the  sac  are  greatly  distended,  or  where  from  pressure 
upon  the  blood  vessels  of  the  imprisoned  portion  the  venous  circula- 
tion is  checked  or  stopped,  thereby  causing  congestion,  swelling,  in- 
flammation, and,  if  not  relieved,  gangrene  of  the  part  and  death  of 
the  animal.  According  to  the  time  or  mode  of  origin,  hernias  may  be 
congenital  or  acquired. 

Congenital  scrotal  hernia. — Not  a  few  foals  are  noticed  from  birth 
to  have  an  enlarged  scrotum,  which  gradually  increases  in  size  until 
about  the  sixth  month,  sometimes  longer.  Sometimes  the  scrotum  of 
a  six-months-old  colt  is  as  large  as  that  of  an  adult  stallion,  and 
operative  treatment  is  considered.  This  is  unnecessary  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  as  this  enlargement  often  disappears  by  the  time 
the  colt  has  reached  his  second  year.  Any  interference,  medicinal  or 
surgical,  is  worse  than  useless.  If  the  intestine  contained  within  the 
scrotum  should  at  any  time  become  strangulated.,  it  must  then  be 
treated  the  same  as  in  an  adult  horse. 

Scrotal  hernia  is  caused  by  dilatation  of  the  sheath  of  the  testicle, 
combined  with  relaxation  of  the  fibrous  tissues  surrounding  the  in- 
guinal ring,  thus  allowing  the  intestine  to  descend  to  the  scrotum. 
At  first  this  is  intermittent,  appearing  during  work  and  returning 
when  the  horse  is  at  rest.  For  a  long  time  this  form  of  hernia  may 
not  cause  the  least  uneasiness  or  distress.  In  course  of  time,  however, 
the  imprisoned  gut  becomes  filled  with  feces,  its  return  into  the  ab- 


^  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

clominal  cavity  is  prevented,  and  -it  becomes  strangulated.  While 
the  pit  is  thus  filling  the  horse  often  appears  dull,  is  disinclined  to 
move,  appetite  is  impaired,  and  there  is  rumbling  and  obstruction  of 
the  bowels.  Colicky  symptoms  now  supervene.  Strangulation  and 
its  consequent  train  of  symptoms  do  not  always  follow  in  scrotal 
hernia,  for  often  horses  have  this  condition  without  suflfering  incon- 
venience for  years. 

hujuinal  hernia  is  but  an  incomplete  scrotal  hernia,  and,  like  the 
latter,  may  exist  and  cause  no  signs  of  distress,  or,  again,  it  may  be- 
come strangulated  and  cause  the  death  of  the  animal.  Inguinal  hernia 
is  seen  mostly  in  stallions,  next  in  geldings,  and  very  rarely  in  the 
mare.  Bearing  in  mind  that  scrotal  hernia  is  seen  only  in  entire 
horses,  we  can  proceed  to  detail  the  symptoms  of  both  strangulated, 
inguinal,  and  scrotal  hernia  at  the  same  time.  When,  during  the 
existence  of  colicky  symptoms,  we  find  a  horse  kicking  with  his  hind 
feet  while  standing  or  lying  upon  his  back,  we  should  look  to  the 
inguinal  region  and  scrotum.  If  scrotal  hernia  exists  the  scrotum 
will  l)e  enlargj'd  and  lobulated ;  by  pressure  we  may  force  a  portion  of 
the  contents  of  the  gut  back  into  the  abdomen,  eliciting  a  gurgling 
sound.  If  wo  take  a  gentle  but  firm  hold  upon  the  enlarged  scrotum 
and  then  have  an  assistant  cause  the  horse  to  cough,  the  swelling  will 
be  felt  to  expand  and  as  quickly  contract  again. 

The  history  of  these  cases  will  materially  aid  us,  as  the  owner  can 
often  assure  us  of  preceding  attacks  of  "  colic,"  more  or  less  severe, 
that  have  Ix'cn  instantaneously  relieved  in  some  (to  him)  unaccounta- 
ble manner.  The  colicky  symptoms  of  these  hernias  are  not  diagnos- 
tic, but,  prolwibly,  more  closely  resemble  those  of  enteritis  than  any 
other  l)ow('l  diseases.  The  diagnosis  can,  in  many  cases,  be  made  only 
by  a  vet^'rinarian,  when  he  has  recourse  to  a  rectal  examination ;  the 
l>owels  cjin  here  l>e  felt  entering  the  internal  abdominal  ring. 

Trfotment  of  inguinal  hernia. — If  the  reader  can  be  sure  of  the 
existence  of  hernia,  he  should  secure  the  horse  upon  its  back,  and, 
with  n  hand  in  the  rectum,  endeavor  to  catch  hold  of  the  wandering 
l«)wel  nn<l  pull  it  gently  back  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  Pres- 
Kim-  should  l)e  made  upon  the  scrotum  during  this  time.  If  these 
means  fail  a  veterinarian  must  l)e  called  to  reduce  the  hernia  by 
means  of  ineisifig  the  inguinal  ring,  replacing  the  intestines,  and 
ra'^rnte.  using  <lanips  and  performing  the  "  covered  operation." 

1  fntrnl  h»  rnia.— In  this  form  of  hernia  the  protrusion  is  through 
mmo  accidental  opening  or  rupture  of  the  abdominal  wall.  It  may 
cK-r-ur  at  nny  part  of  the  Mly  except  at  the  umbilicus,  and  is  caused 
by  kicks  blows,  hooks,  severe  jumping  or  pulling,  etc.  Ventral 
hernia  is  most  common  in  pregnant  mares,  and  is  here  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  f,.tns  or  some  degenerative  changes  taking  place  in  the 
abdominal  coab*.     It  is  recognized  by  the  appearance  of  a  swelling. 


•HERNIA,  OR   RUPTURE.  69 

at  the  base  of  which  can  be  felt  the  opening  or  rent  in  the  abdominal 
tunics,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  swelling  containing  the  intestines . 
can  be  made  to  disappear  when  the  animal  is  placed  in  a  favorable 
position. 

Treatment  of  ventral  hernia. — In  many  instances  there  is  no  occa- 
sion for  treatment,  and  again,  where  the  hernial  sac  is  extensive,  treat- 
ment is  of  no  avail.  If  the  hernia  is  small,  a  cure  may  be  attempted 
by  the  methods  to  be  described  in  treating  of  umbilical  hernia.  If 
one  is  fortunate  enough  to  be  present  when  the  hernia  occurs,  and 
particularly  if  it  is  not  too  large,  he  may,  by  the  proper  application 
of  a  pad  and  broad  bandage,  effect  a  perfect  cure. 

JJrribilical  hernia  is  the  passing  of  any  portion  of  the  bowel  or 
omentum  ("  caul  ")  through  the  navel,  forming  a  "  tumor  "  at  tliis 
point.  This  is  often  congenital  in  our  animals,  and  is  due  to  the  im- 
perfect closure  of  the  umbilicus  and  to  the  position  of  the  body. 
Many  cases  of  umbilical  hernia,  like  inguinal  and  scrotal  of  the  con- 
genital kind,  disappear  entirely  by  the  time  the  animal  reaches  its 
second  or  third  year.  Advancing  age  favors  cure  in  these  cases  from 
the  fact  that  the  omentum  (swinging  support  of  the  bowels)  is  pro- 
portionally shorter  in  adults  than  in  foals,  thus  lifting  the  intestines 
out  of  the  hernial  sac  and  allowing  the  opening  in  the  walls  to  close. 
Probably  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  umbilical  hernia  in  foals 
is  the  practice  of  keeping  them  too  long  from  their  dams,  causing 
them  to  fret  and  worry,  and  to  neigh,  or  cry,  by  the  hour.  The  con- 
traction of  the  abdominal  muscles  and  pressure  of  the  intestines  dur- 
ing neighing  seem  to  open  the  umbilicus  and  induce  hernia.  Acci- 
dents may  cause  umbilical  hernia  in  adults  in  the  same  manner  as 
ventral  hernia  is  produced,  though  this  is  very  rare. 

Treatment  of  umbilical  hernia. — In  the  treatment  of  umbilical 
hernia  it  should  be  remembered  that  congential  hernias  are  often 
removed  with  age,  but  probably  congenital  umbilical  hernias  less  fre- 
quently than  others.  Among  the  many  plans  of  treatment  are  to  be 
mentioned  the  application  of  a  pad  over  the  tumor,  the  pad  being 
held  in  place  by  a  broad  tight  bandage  placed  around  the  animal's 
body.  The  chief  objection  to  this  is  the  difficulty  in  keeping  the  pad 
in  its  place.  Blisters  are  often  applied  over  the  swelling,  and.  as 
the  skin  hardens  and  contracts  by  the  formation  of  scabs,  an  artificial 
bandage  or  pressure  is  produced  that  at  times  is  successful.  Another 
treatment  that  has  gained  considerable  repute  of  late  years  consists 
in  first  clipping  off  the  hair  over  the  swelling.  Nitric  acid  is  then 
applied  by  a  small  brush,  using  only  enough  to  moisten  the  skin. 
This  sets  up  a  deep-seated  adhesive  inflammation,  which,  in  very 
many  cases,  closes  the  opening  in  the  navel.  Still  another  plan  is  to 
inject  a  solution  of  common  salt  by  means  of  the  hypodermic  syringe 
at  three  or  four  points  about  the  base  of  the  swelling.     This  acts  in 


yQ  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

the  Mine  manner  as  the  preceding,  but  may  cause  serious  injury  if 
the  syringe  or  solution  is  not  sterile. 

Others,  again,  after  keeping  the  animal  fasting  for  a  few  hours, 
cast  and  secure  it  upon  its  back ;  the  bowel  is  then  carefully  returned 
into  the  abdomen.  The  skin  over  the  opening  is  pinched  up  and  one 
or  two  skewers  are  run  through  the  skin  from  side  to  side  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  umbilical  opening.  These  skewers  are  kept  in  place 
by  passing  a  cord  around  the  skin  between  them  and  the  abdomen 
and  securely  tied.  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  draw  these  cords 
too  tight,  as  this  would  cause  a  speedy  slough  of  the  skin,  the  intes- 
tines would  extrude,  and  death  result.  If  properly  applied,  an  adhe- 
sion is  established  between  the  skin  and  the  umbilicus  which  effectually 
closes  the  orifice.  Special  clamps  are  provided  for  taking  up  the 
fold  of  the  skin  covering  the  hernial  sac  and  holding  it  until  the  ad- 
hesion is  formed. 

Diaphragmatic  hernia. — ^This  consists  of  the  passage  of  any  of  the 
abdominal  viscera  through  a  rent  in  the  diaphragm  (midriff)  into 
the  cavity  of  the  thorax.  It  is  rather  a  rare  accident  and  one  often 
impossible  to  diagnose  during  life.  Colicky  symptoms,  accompanied 
by  great  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  the  peculiar  position  so  often 
assumed  (that  of  sitting  upon  the  haunches)  are  somewhat  character- 
istic of  this  trouble,  though  these  symptoms,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
may  be  present  during  diseases  of  the  stomach  or  anterior  portion  of 
the  bowels.  Even  could  we  pronounce,  with  certainty,  this  form  of 
hernia,  there  is  little  or  nothing  that  can  be  done.  Leading  the  horse 
up  a  very  steep  gangway  or  causing  him  to  rear  up  may  possibly  cause 
the  hernial  portion  to  return  to  its  natural  position.  This  is  not 
enough,  however;  it  must  be  kept  there. 

Pkritoxitis. — Peritonitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  serous  mem- 
brane lining  the  cavity  of  and  covering  the  viscera  contained  within 
ihe  aMomen.  It  is  very  rare  to  see  a  case  of  primary  peritonitis.  It 
IS,  however,  somewhat  common  as  a  secondary  disease  from  extension 
of  the  inflaniniatory  action  involving  organs  covered  by  the  perito- 
neum. IVritonitis  is  often  caused  by  injuries,  as  punctured  wounds  of 
the  alxlomen,  s.'vore  l)lows  or  kicks,  or,  as  is  still  more  common,  fol- 
lowing tlie  operation  of  castration.  It  follows  strangulated  hernia, 
invagination,  or  rupture  of  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  or  womb. 

.S'ym;)//>m.*.— Peritonitis  is  mostly  preceded  by  a  chill;  the  horse  is 
not  dis|K>sed  to  move,  and,  if  compelled  to  do  so,  moves  with  a  stiff  or 
^•n-  gait :  he  paws  with  the  front  feet  and  may  strike  at  his  belly  with 
the  hind  ones:  lios  down  very  carefully;  as  the  pain  is  increased  while 
down,  he  maintains  during  most  of  the  time  the  standing  position;  he 
walks  uneasily  ak.ut  the  stall.  Constipation  is  usuallv  present.  Pres- 
sure on  the  Wily  raus<>s  acute  pain,  and  the  horse  will  bite,  strike,  or 
kick  if  .so  disturbed;  the  aUlomen  is  tucked  up;  the  extremities  are 


DROPSY    OF    THE   ABDOMEN. 


71 


fine  and  cold.  The  temperature  is  higher  than  normal,  reaching  from 
102°  to  104°  F.  The  pulse  in  peritonitis  is  rather  characteristic ;  it  is 
quickened,  beating  from  seventy  to  ninety  beats  per  minute,  and  is 
hard  and  wiry.  This  peculiarity  of  the  pulse  occurs  in  inflammation 
of  the  serous  membrane,  and  if  accompanied  by  colicky  symptoms, 
and,  in  particular,  if  following  any  injuries,  accidental  or  surgical,  of 
the  peritoneum,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  peritonitis  is  present. 
Peritonitis  in  the  horse  is  mostly  fatal  when  it  is  at  all  extensive.  If 
death  does  not  occur  in  a  short  time,  the  inflammation  assumes  a 
chronic  form,  in  which  there  is  an  extensive  effusion  of  water  in  the 
cavity  of  the  belly,  constituting  what  is  known  as  ascites^  and  which, 
as  a  rule,  results  in  death. 

The  treatment  of  peritonitis  is  to  be  somewhat  like  that  of  enteri- 
tis. Opium  in  powder,  1  to  2  drams,  with  calomel,  one-half  dram,  is 
to  be  given  every  two,  tPiree,  or  four  hours,  and  constitutes  the  main 
dependence  in  this  disease.  Extensive  counterirritants  over  the  belly, 
consisting  of  mustard  plasters,  applications  of  mercurial  ointment, 
turpentine  stupes,  or  even  mild  blisters,  are  recommended.  Purga- 
tives must  never  be  given  during  this  complaint.  Should  we  desire  to 
move  the  bowels,  it  can  be  done  by  gentle  enemas,  though  it  is  seldom 
necessary  to  resort  even  to  this. 

Ascites,  or  dropsy  of  the  abdomen. — This  is  seen  as  a  result  of 
subacute  or  chronic  peritonitis,  but  may  be  due  to  diseases  of  the 
liver,  kidneys,  heart,  or  lungs.  There  will  be  found,  on  opening  the 
cavity  of  the  belly,  a  large  collection  of  yellowish  or  reddish  liquid; 
from  a  few  quarts  to  several  gallons  may  be  present.  It  may  be  clear 
in  color,  though  generally  it  is  yellowish  or  of  a  red  tint,  and  contains 
numerous  loose  flakes  of  coagulable  lymph. 

Symptoms. — ^There  is  slight  tenderness  on  pressure;  awkward  gait 
of  the  hind  legs ;  the  horse  is  dull,  and  may  have  occasional  very  slight 
colicky  pains,  shown  by  looking  back  and  striking  at  the  belly  with 
the  hind  feet.  Oftener,  however,  these  colicky  symptoms  are  absent. 
Diarrhea  often  precedes  death,  but  during  the  progress  of  the  disease 
the  bowels  are  alternately  constipated  and  loose.  On  percussing  the 
abdominal  walls  we  find  that  dullness  exists  to  the  same  height  on 
both  sides  of  the  belly ;  by  suddenly  pushing  or  striking  the  abdomen 
we  can  hear  the  rushing  or  flooding  of  water.  If  the  case  is  an  ad- 
vanced one,  the  horse  is  potbellied  to  the  extreme,  and  dropsical 
swellings  are  seen  under  the  belly  and  upon  the  legs. 

Treatment  is,  as  a  rule,  unsatisfactory.  Saline  cathartics,  as  Ep- 
som or  Glauber's  salts,  and  diuretics,  ounce  doses  of  saltpeter,  may  be 
given.  If  a  veterinarian  is  at  hand  he  will  withdraw  the  accumula- 
tion of  water  by  tapping  and  then  endeavor  to  prevent  its  recurrence 
(though  this  is  almost  sure  to  follow)  by  giving  three  times  a  day 
saltpeter,  1  ounce,  and  iodide  of  potash,  1  dram,  and  by  the  applica- 


72  DISEASES    OP   THE   HOB8E. 

tion  of  mustard  or  blisters  over  the  abdominal  walls.  Tonics,  min- 
eral and  vejjeUble,  are  also  indicated.  Probably  the  best  tonic  is  one 
consisting  of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  gentian,  and  ginger  in  equal 
parts;  a  heaping  tablespoonful  of  the  mixture  is  given  as  a  drench  or 
mixed  with  the  feed,  twice  a  day.  Good  nutritious  foods  and  gentle 
eiercis«  complete  the  treatment. 

DI8KASES  OF  THE   LIVER. 

The  liver  of  the  horse  is,  in  the  United  States,  but  rarely  the  seat 
of  disease,  and  when  we  consider  how  frequently  the  liver  of  man  is 
affe<-ted  this  can  not  but  appear  strange.  The  absence  of  the  gall 
bladder  nuiy  account  to  a  certain  extent  for  his  freedom  from  liver 
diseases;  as  ovcrdistention  of  this  and  the  presence  in  it  of  calculi 
(stones)  in  man  is  a  frequent  source  of  trouble.  In  domestic  animals, 
as  in  man,  hot  climates  tend  to  produce  diseases  of  the  liver,  just  as  in 
cold  climates  lung  diseases  prevail.  Not  only  are  diseases  of  the  liver 
rare  in  horses  in  temperate  climates,  but  they  are  also  very  obscure, 
and  in  many  cases  pass  totally  unobserved  until  after  death.  There 
are  some  symptoms,  however,  which,  when  present,  should  make  us 
examine  the  liver  as  carefully  as  possible.  These  are  jaundice 
(yellowness  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth,  nose,  and  eyes) 
antl  the  condition  of  the  dung,  it  being  light  in  color  and  pasty  in 
api)earance. 

IIki'atitih,  or  infi^mmation  of  the  liver. — This  disease  may  be 
general  or  local,  and  may  assume  an  acute  or  chronic  form. 

The  Hi/mptoms  of  acute  hepatitis  are :  Dullness ;  the  horse  is  suffer- 
ing from  some  internal  pain,  but  not  of  a  severe  type;  constipated  and 
clay-colored  dung  balls;  scanty  and  high-colored  urine;  and  general 
febrile  symptoms.  If  lying  down,  he  is  mostly  found  on  the  left  side ; 
looks  occasionally  toward  the  right  side,  which,  upon  close  inspection, 
may  Ik*  found  to  Ix*  slightly  enlarged  over  the  posterior  ribs,  where 
pain  u|K)n  pressure  is  also  evinced.  Obscure  lameness  in  front,  of  the 
right  leg  nK)stLy,  may  be  a  symptom  of  hepatitis.  The  horse,  toward 
the  la-t,  rei'ls  or  staggers  in  his  gait  and  falls  backward  in  a  fainting 
fit,  during  one  of  which  lie  finally  succumbs.  Death  is  sometimes  due 
Ut  rupture  of  the  enveloping  coat  of  the  liver  or  of  some  of  its  blood 

VCHwls. 

r//.M<>*._ Among  the  causes  that  lead  to  this  disease  we  must  men- 
tion first  tlie  stimulating  effect  of  overfeeding,  particularly  during 
hot  weather.  Hone's  that  are  well  fed  and  receive  but  little  exercise 
•re  the  l)est  subjects  for  diseases  of  this  organ.  We  must  add  to 
thesw  eauses  the  more  mechanical  ones,  as  injuries  on  the  right  side 
over  the  liver,  worm-^  in  the  liver,  gallstones  in  the  biliary  ducts,  for- 
eign bo.lie«^-as  needle-  or  nails  that  have  Ijeen  swallowed  and  in  their 
wanderings  have  entered  tiic  liver— and,  lastly,  in  some  instances,  the 


DISEASES   OF   THE   LIVEE.  73^ 

jxtension  of  inflammation  from  neighboring  parts,  thus  involving 
his  organ.  Acute  hepatitis  may  terminate  in  chronic  inflammation, 
ibscesses,  rupture  of  the  liver,  or  may  disappear,  leaving  behind  no 
irace  of  disease  whatever. 

Treatment. — This  should  consist,  at  first,  of  the  administration  of  1 
)unce  of  Barbados  aloes  or  other  physic.  General  blood-letting,  if 
lad  recourse  to  early,  must  prove  of  much  benefit  in  acute  inflamma- 
ion  of  the  liver.  The  vein  in  the  neck  (jugular)  must  be  opened, 
md  from  4  to  6  quarts  of  blood  may  be  drawn.  Saline  medicines,  as 
jrlauber's  salts  or  the  artificial  Carlsbad  salt,  is  indicated.  These 
nay  be  given  with  the  feed  in  tablespoonful  doses.  The  horse  is  to 
3e  fed  sparingly  on  soft  food,  bran  mashes  chiefly.  If  treatment 
proves  successful  and  recovery  takes  place,  see  to  it  that  the  horse 
ifterwards  gets  regular  exercise  and  that  his  food  is  not  of  a  too 
tiighly  nutritious  character  and  not  excessive. 

Jaundice,  icterus,  or  the  yellows. — This  is  a  condition  caused 
by  the  retention  and  absorption  of  bile  into  the  blood.  It  was  for- 
merly considered  to  be  a  disease  of  itself,  but  is  now  regarded  as  a 
symptom  of  disorder  of  the  liver.  "  The  yellows  "  is  observed  by 
looking  at  the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  when  it  will  be  seen  that  these 
parts  are  yellowish  instead  of  the  pale-pink  color  of  health.  In  white 
or  light-colored  horses  the  skin  even  may  show  this  yellow  tint.  The 
urine  is  saffron  colored,  the  dung  is  of  a  dirty-gray  color,  and  con- 
stipation is  usually  present.  Jaundice  may  be  present  as  a  symptom 
of  almost  any  inflammatory  disease.  We  know  that  when  an  animal 
has  fever  the  secretions  are  checked,  the  bile  may  be  retained  and 
absorbed  throughout  the  system,  and  yellowness  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes follows.  Jaundice  may  also  exist  during'  the  presence  of 
simple  constipation,  hepatitis,  biliary  calculi,  abscesses,  hardening 
of  the  liver,  etc. 

Treatment. — When  jaundice  exists  we  must  endeavor  to  rid  the 
system  of  the  excess  of  bile,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by  giving 
purgatives  that  act  upon  the  liver.  Calomel,  2  drams,  with  aloes,  7 
drains,  should  be  given.  Glauber's  salts  in  handful  doses  once  or 
twice  a  day  for  a  week  is  also  effective.  May  apple,  rhubarb,  castor 
oil,  and  other  cathartics  that  act  upon  the  first  or  small  bowels  may 
be  selected.  We  must  be  careful  to  see  that  the  bowels  are  kept  open 
by  avoiding  hard,  dry,  bulky  foods. 

Rupture  of  the  liver. — This  is  known  to  occur  at  times  in  the 
horse,  most  frequently  in  old  fat  horses  and  those  that  get  but  little 
exercise.  Horses  that  have  suffered  from  chronic  liver  disease  for 
years  eventually  present  symptoms  of  colic  and  die  quite  suddenly. 
Upon  post-mortem  examination  we  discover  that  the  liver  had  rup- 
tured. The  cicatrices,  or  scars,  that  are  often  found  upon  the  liver 
indicate  that  this  organ  may  suffer  small  rupture  and  yet  the  horse 


74  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOBSE. 

recover  from  it.  This  result  can  not  obtain,  however,  if  the  rent  or 
tear  is  extensive,  since  in  such  cases  death  must  quickly  follow  from 
hemorrhage,  or,  later,  from  ixjritonitis.  Enlarged  liver  is  particu- 
larly liable  to  rupture. 

Causes. — ^The  immediate  causes  of  rupture  appear  to  be  excessive 
muscular  exertion,  as  leaping  a  fence,  a  fall,  a  blow  from  a  collision,  a 
kick  from  a  horse,  or  sudden  distention  of  the  abdomen  with  gas. 

The  ftijmptoms  of  rupture  of  the  liver  will  depend  upon  the  extent 
of  the  laceration.  If  slight,  there  will  be  simply  the  symptoms  of 
abdominal  pain,  looking  back  to  the  sides,  lying  down,  etc. ;  if  exten- 
sive, the  horse  is  dull  and  dejected,  has  no  appetite,  breathing  be- 
comes sliort  and  catching,  he  sighs  or  sobs,  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes are  pale,  extremities  cold,  pulse  fast,  small,  and  weak  or 
nmning  down.  Countenance  now  shows  much  distress,  he  sweats 
profusely,  totters  in  his  gait,  props  his  legs  wide  apart,  reels,  stag- 
gers, and  falls.  He  may  get  up  again,  but  soon  falls  dead.  The  rapid 
running-down  pulse,  paleness  of  the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  sighing, 
stertorous  breathing,  tottering  gait,  etc.,  are  symptoms  by  which  we 
know  that  the  animal  is  dying  from  internal  hemorrhage. 

Trcatm4int. — But  little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatment.  Opium 
in  powder,  in  doses  of  2  drams  every  two  or  three  hours,  may  be 
given,  with  the  idea  of  preventing  as  much  as  possible  all  movements 
of  internal  organs.  If  there  is  reason  to  suspect  internal  bleeding, 
we  should  give  large  and  frequent  doses  of  white-oak  bark  tea,  dram 
doses  of  tannic  or  gallic  acid,  or  the  same  quantity  of  sugar  of  lead, 
every  half  hour  or  hour.  Fluid  extract  of  ergot  or  tincture  of  the 
chloride  of  iron,  in  ounce  doses,  may  be  selected.  Cold  water  dashed 
upon  the  right  side  or  injected  into  the  rectum  is  highly  spoken  of  as 
a  means  of  che<;king  the  hemorrhage. 

liiiJARY  (AL(  I  LI,  OR  GAixsTONEs. — Thcsc  are  rarely  found  in  the 
horse,  but  may  occupy  the  hepatic  ducts,  giving  rise  to  jaundice  and 
to  colicky  pains.  There  are  no  absolutely  diagnostic  symptoms,  but 
should  one  find  a  hf>r.se  that  suffers  from  repeated  attacks  of  colic, 
accompanied  by  symptoms  of  violent  pain,  and  that  during  or  follow- 
mg  those  attacks  the  animal  is  jaundiced,  it  is  possible  that  gallstones 
are  present.  There  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  done  except  to  give 
miHlicmcs  to  overcome  pain,  trusting  that  these  concretions  may  pass 
on  to  the  iKiwels,  where,  from  their  small  size,  they  will  not  occasion 
any  inamvenience. 

I)iRRA8KH  or  TiiE  PANCREAS  AND  SPLEEN. — Discascs  of  the  paucrcas 
»nd  spleen  are  so  rare,  or  their  symptoms  so  little  understood,  that  it 
M  impossible  to  write  anything  concerning  either  of  these  organs  and 
their  simple  rliseases  that  will  convey  to  the  reader  information  of 
practical  value. 


1 1'ltl 

.^  J  r.=?  -S  I    $    S  .?    § 


^S  <5  ,< 


1^ 
1^ 


•v^"'  Cv  c^  vji  irj  so  t<  oj  0> 


?  CK  S  ::=■  SV  S2  :*  S  i«  ^^ 


■^  <;  ^  -V,  s  ^  «>, 


PLATE  n. 


7'hf^  f)(fn/t 


jS  BIEN  &CO.N^ 


B  O  'f^  S  . 

1  Bots  in  The  slonutch. 

2  riots  in  the  (hiodcinmi 


PIRATE  m. 


OuL^vuris  eqiu. 


Strangylu^s   f-quin  us. 


Sph-optiTd  rntrrosfofiKi 


/"•-^L 


Cvl t chfu'slomnni    tel racn n th ujh 


Asrufi.y   rt/i/oz-r/ni 
INTK  STIISr^AL  WORM  S. 


JLUS  BEN  »C0  ' 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C,  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc,  in  Cornell  University. 

[Revised  in  1903  by  the  author.] 
USES    OF   THE    TJRINAEY   ORGANS. 

The  urinary  organs  constitute  the  main  channel  through  which  are 
excreted  the  nitrogenous  or  albuminoid  principles,  whether  derived 
directly  from  the  food  or  from  the  muscular  and  other  nitrogenized 
tissues  of  the  body.  They  constitute,  besides,  the  channel  through 
which  are  thrown  out  most  of  the  poisons,  whether  taken  in  by  the 
mouth  or  skin  or  developed  in  connection  with  faulty  or  natural 
digestion,  blood-forming,  nutrition,  or  tissue  destruction;  or,  finally, 
poisons  that  are  developed  within  the  body,  as  the  result  of  normal 
cell  life  or  of  the  life  of  bacteria  or  other  germs  that  have  entered  the 
body  from  without.  Bacteria  themselves  largely  escape  from  the 
body  through  the  kidneys.  To  a  large  extent,  therefore,  these  organs 
are  the  sanitary  scavengers  and  purifiers  of  the  system,  and  when 
their  functions  are  impaired  or  arrested  the  retained  poisons  quickly 
show  their  presence  in  resulting  disorders  of  the  skin  and  connective 
tissue  beneath  it,  of  the  nervous  system,  or  other  organs.  Nor  is  this 
influence  one-sided.  Scarcely  an  important  organ  of  the  body  can 
suffer  derangement  without  entailing  a  corresponding  disorder  of  the 
urinary  system.  Nothing  can  be  more  striking  than  the  mutual  bal- 
ance maintained  between  the  liquid  secretions  of  the  skin  and  kidneys 
during  hot  and  cold  weather.  In  summer,  when  so  much  liquid  ex- 
hales through  the  skin  as  sweat,  comparatively  little  urine  is  passed, 
whereas  in  winter,  when  the  skin  is  inactive,  the  urine  is  correspond- 
ingly increased.  This  vicarious  action  of  skin  and  kidneys  is  usually 
kept  within  the  limits  of  health,  but  at  times  the  draining  off  of  the 
water  by  the  skin  leaves  too  little  to  keep  the  solids  of  the  urine  safely 
in  solution,  and  these  are  liable  to  crystallize  out  and  form  stone  and 
gravel.  Similarly  the  passage  in  the  sweat  of  some  of  the  solids  that 
normally  leave  the  body,  dissolved  in  the  urine,  serves  to  irritate  the 
skin  and  produce  troublesome  eruptions. 

PROMINENT    CAUSES   OF  URINARY   DISORDERS. 

A  disordered  liver  contributes  to  the  production,  under  different 
circumstances,  of  an  excess  of  biliary  coloring  matter,  which  stains 

75 


76  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

tlie  urine;  of  an  excess  of  hippuric  acid  and  allied  products,  which 
being  less  soluble  than  urea  (the  normal  product  of  tissue  change), 
favor  the  formation  of  stone,  of  taurocholic  acid,  and  other  bodies 
that  tend,  when  in  excess,  to  destroy  the  blood  globules  and  to  cause 
irritation  of  the  kidneys  by  the  resulting  hemoglobin  excreted  in  the 
urine,  and  of  glycogen  too  abundant  to  be  burned  up  in  the  system, 
which  induces  saccharine  urine  (diabetes).  Any  disorder  leading  to 
impaired  functional  activity  of  the  lungs  is  causative  of  an  excess  of 
hippuric  acid  and  allied  bodies,  of  oxalic  acid,  of  sugar,  etc.,  in  the 
urine,  which  irritate  the  kidneys  even  if  they  do  not  produce  solid 
deposits  in  the  urinary  passages.  Diseases  of  the  nervous  system, 
and  notably  of  the  base  of  the  brain  and  of  the  spinal  cord,  induce 
various  urinary  disorders,  prominent  among  which  are  diabetes, 
chylous  urine,  and  albuminuria.  Certain  affections,  with  imperfect 
nutrition  or  destructive  waste  of  the  bony  tissues,  tend  to  charge  the 
urine  with  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  endanger  the  forma- 
tion of  stone  and  gravel.  In  all  extensive  inflammations  and  acute 
fevers  the  liquids  of  the  urine  are  diminished,  while  the  solids  (waste 
products),  which  should  form  the  urinary  secretion,  are  increased, 
and  the  surcharged  urine  proves  irritant  to  the  urinary  organs  or  the 
retained  waste  products  poison  the  system  at  large. 

Diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  by  interfering  with  the  free  onward 
flow  f)f  the  blood  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  tend  to  throw  that 
liquid  back  on  the  veins,  and  this  backward  pressure  of  venous  blood 
strongly  tends  to  disorders  of  the  kidneys.  Certain  poisons  taken 
with  the  food  and  water,  notably  that  found  in  magnesian  limestone 
an<l  those  found  in  irritant  diuretic  plants,  are  especially  injurious  to 
the  kidneys,  as  are  also  various  cryptogams,  whether  present  in  musty 
hay  or  oats.  The  kidneys  may  be  irritated  by  feeding  green  vege- 
tables covered  with  hoar  frost  or  by  furnishing  an  excess  of  food  rich 
in  phosphates  (wheat  bran,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  lentils,  rape  cake, 
cotton-seed  cake)  or  by  a  privation  of  water,  which  entails  a  concen- 
trntod  con<lition  and  high  density  of  the  urine.  Exposure  in  cold 
rain  or  snow  storms,  cold  drafts  of  air,  and  damp  beds  are  liable  to 
further  disorder  an  already  overworked  or  irritable  kidney.  Finally, 
sprains  of  th«'  back  and  loins  may  cause  bleeding  from  the  kidneys  or 
innnniiTiati(»n. 

The  right  kidney,  weighing  23^  ounces,  is  shaped  like  a  French 
bean,  and  extends  from  (!»<•  loins  forward  to  l)eneath  the  heads  of  the 
last  two  ribs.  The  left  kidney  (Plate  IV)  resembles  a  heart  of  cards, 
and  exton.ls  from  the  loins  forward  ben<'alh  the  head  of  the  last  rib 
only.  Earh  consists  of  three  distinct  parts— (a)  the  external  (corti- 
cal), or  vasiidar  part,  in  which  the  blood  vessels  form  elaborate 
capdlnry  networks  within  thr  dilated  globular  sacs  which  form  the 
beginnings  of  the  secreting  (uriuiferous)   tubes  and  on  the  surface 


PLATE  IV. 


n, Cortical  (or  \-n^ralari portion  ;     t).  Medullary  t  or  tubuifu- 1  portion 
c,  Peripheral  portion  of  thf  latter-,    d.Jntej'ior- of  the  pelvis ,    (i',tl', 
Arms  of  the  pelvis;  e,  Border  of  the  ciTSt;  f.fnfiindihidufn.f/.l'relrr. 


(*o.Marx.del,aftcr  U'Arboval.p.669. 


Julius  B.ES  »   CO  N> 


LC)N'GlTri)lNAI>  SKf'TION  THROUC.H  KIDNEY 


DISEASES    OF    THE    URTNAKY    ORGANS.  77 

of  the  sinuous  secreting  tubes  leading  from  the  sacs  inWard  toward 
the  second,  or  medullary,  part  of  the  organ;  (&)  the  internal  (medul- 
lary) part,  made  up  in  the  main  of  blood  vessels,  lymphatics,  and 
nerves  extending  between  the  notch  on  the  inner  border  of  the  kid- 
ney to  and  from  the  outer  vascular  portion,  in  which  the  secretion 
of  urine  is  almost  exclusively  carried  on;  and  (<^)  a  large  saccular 
reservoir  in  the  center  of  the  kidney,  into  which  all  uriniferous  tubes 
pour  their  secretions  and  from  which  the  urine  is  carried  away  through 
a  tube  g  (ureter),  which  passes  out  of  the  notch  at  the  inner  border  of 
the  kidney  and  which  opens  by  a  valve-closed  orifice  into  the  roof  of 
the  bladder  just  in  front  of  its  neck.  The  bladder  is  a  dilatable 
reservoir  for  the  retention  of  the  urine  until  the  discomfort  of  its 
presence  causes  its  voluntary  discharge.  It  is  kept  closed  by  circu- 
lar muscular  fibers  surrounding  its  neck  or  orifice,  and  is  emptied  by 
looped  muscular  fibers  extending  in  all  directions  forward  from  the 
neck  around  the  blind  anterior  end  of  the  sac.  From  the  bladder 
the  urine  escapes  through  a  dilatable  tube  (urethra)  which  extends 
from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  backward  on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis,  and 
in  the  male  through  the  penis  to  its  free  end,  where  it  opens  through 
a  pink  conical  papilla.  In  the  mare  the  urethra  is  not  more  than  an 
inch  in  length,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  circular  muscular  fibers 
closing  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  Its  opening  may  be  found  directly 
in  the  median  line  of  the  floor  of  the  yulva,  about  4^  inches  from  its 
external  opening. 

GENERAL    SYMPTOMS    OF    DISEASE. 

These  apply  especially  to  acute  inflammations  and  the  irritation 
caused  by  stone.  The  animal  moves  stiffly  on  the  hind  limbs,  strad- 
dles, and  makes  frequent  attempts  to  pass  urine,  which  may  be  in 
excess,  deficient  in  amount,  liable  to  sudden  arrest  in  spite  of  tiie 
straining,  passed  in  driblets,  or  entirely  suppressed.  Again,  it  may 
be  modified  in  density  or  constituents.  Difficulty  in  making  a  sharp 
turn,  or  in  lying  down  and  rising  with  or  without  groaning,  drop- 
ping the  back  when  mounted  or  when  pinched  on  the  loins  is  sugges- 
tive of  kidney  disease,  and  so  to  a  less  extent  are  swelled  legs,  dropsy, 
and  diseases  of  the  skin  and  nervous  system.  The  oiled  hand  intro- 
duced through  the  rectum  may  feel  the  bladder  beneath  and  detect 
any  overdistention,  swelling,  tenderness,  or  stone.  In  ponies  the  kid- 
neys even  may  be  reached. 

EXAMINATION   OF   THE    URINE. 

In  some  cases  the  changes  in  the  urine  are  the  sole  sign  of  disease. 
In  health  the  horse's  urine  is  of  a  deep  amber  color  and  has  a  strong 
odor.     On  a  feed  of  grain  and  hay  it  may  show  a  uniform  transpar- 


7g  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

ciicv,  while  on  a  green  ration  there  is  an  abundant  white  deposit  of 
cnrix)nate  of  lime.  Of  its  morbid  changes  the  following  are  to  be 
l(K)ked  for:  (1)  Color:  White  from  deposited  salts  of  lime;  brown  or 
red  from  blood  clots  or  coloring  matter;  yellow  or  orange  from  bile 
or  blood  pigment;  pale  from  excess  of  water;  or  variously  colored 
from  vegetable  ingredients  (santonin  makes  it  red;  rhubarb  or  senna, 
brown;  tar  or  carlwlic  acid,  green).  (2)  Density:  The  horse's  urine 
may  be  1.030  to  1.050,  but  it  may  greatly  exceed  this  in  diabetes  and 
nmv  sink  to  1.007  in  diuresis.  (3)  Chemical  reaction^  as  ascertained 
by  blue  litmus  or  red  test  papers.  The  horse  on  vegetable  diet  has 
alkaline  urine  turning  red  test  papers  blue,  while  in  the  sucking  colt 
and  the  horse  fed  on  flesh  or  on  his  own  tissues  (in  starvation  or  ab- 
j-tinence  during  disease)  it  is  acid,  turning  blue  litmus  red.  (4) 
Orfjanic  conatituents^  as  when  glairy  from  albumen  coagulable  by 
htrong  nitric  acid  and  boiling,  when  charged  with  microscopic  casts 
of  the  uriniferous  tubes,  with  the  eggs  or  bodies  of  worms,  with  sugar, 
bl<x)d,  or  bile.  (5)  In  its  salts,  which  may  crystallize  out  spontane- 
ously, or  on  boiling,  or  on  the  addition  of  chemical  reagents. 

Albuminous  urine  in  the  horse  is  usually  glairy,  so  that  it  may  be 
drawn  out  in  threads,  but  its  presence  can  always  be  tested  as  follows: 
If  the  liquid  is  opaque,  it  may  be  first  passed  through  filter  paper;  if 
very  denst'  and  already  precipitating  its  salts,  it  may  be  diluted  with 
distilled  water:  add  to  the  suspected  liquid  acetic  acid  drop  by  drop 
until  it  roddens  the  blue  litmus  paper;  then  boil  gently  in  a  test  tube; 
if  a  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  set  the  tube  aside  to  cool  and  then  add 
strong  nitric  acid.  If  the  precipitate  is  not  dissolved,  it  is  albumen; 
if  dissolvod  it  was  probably  urate  or  hippurate  of  ammonia.  Albu- 
men is  normally  present  in  advanced  gestation ;  abnormally  it  is  seen 
in  diseases  in  which  there  occurs  destruction  of  blood  globules 
(anthrax,  low  fevers,  watery  states  of  the  blood,  dropsies),  in  diseases 
ofthe  heart  and  liver  which  prevent  the  free  escape  of  blood  from  the 
veins  and  throw  bark  venous  pressure  on  the  kidneys,  in  inflamma- 
tion of  tho  lungs  and  pleura^  and  even  tympany  (bloating),  doubtless 
from  the  same  raiise,  and  in  all  congestive  or  inflammatory  diseases  of 
the  kidnoys,  aruto  or  chronic. 

Cnsis  «,f  the  nrinifcrous  tubes  can  only  be  seen  by  placing  the  sus- 
pertofl  urine  und.T  tho  microscope.  They  are  usually  very  elastic 
an«l  njobih',  waving  about  in  the  liquid  when  the  cover-glass  is 
tonrhod.  and  showing  a  uniform  clear  transparency  (waxy)  or  entan- 
pl«-d  orrular  opitholifil  colN  or  opaque  granules  or  flattened  red-blood 
glol>ulo«*  or  rlf-ar  rcfrantjent  f)il  globules.  They  may  \ye  even  densely 
opaque  from  crv^tnls  of  earthy  salts. 

PuH  colls  may  bo  found  in  the  urine  associated  with  albumen,  and 
«re  recojrniz<-d  hy  clearing  up.  when  treated  with  acetic  acid,  so  that 
each  cell  shows  two  or  three  nuclei. 


diseases  of  the  ueinary  organs.  79 

diuresis    (polttjkia,  diabetes  insipidus,  or  excessive  secretion  oe 

urine). 

This  consists  in  an  excessive  secretion  of  a  clear,  watery  urine  of  a 
low  specific  gravity  (1.007)  with  a  correspondingly  ardent  thirst,  a 
rapidly  advancing  emaciation,  and  great  loss  of  strength  and  spirit. 

Causes. — Its  causes  may  be  any  agent — ^medicinal,  alimentary,  or 
poisonous — ^which  unduly  stimulates  the  kidneys ;  the  reckless  admin- 
istration of  diuretics,  which  form  such  a  common  constituent  of  quack 
horse  powders;  acrid  diuretic  plants  in  grass  or  hay;  new  oats  still 
imperfectly  cured;  an  excess  of  roots  or  other  very  watery  food;  a 
full  allowance  of  salt  to  animals  that  have  become  inordinately  fond 
of  it;  but,  above  all,  feeding  on  hay,  grain,  or  bran  which  has  not 
been  properly  dried  and  has  become  musty  and  permeated  by  fungi. 
Thus  hay,  straw,  or  oats  secured  in  wet  seasons  and  heating  in  the  rick 
or  stack  is  especially  injurious.  Hence  this  malady,  like  coma  som- 
nolentum  (sleepy  staggers),  is  widespread  in  wet  seasons,  and  espe- 
cially in  rainy  districts. 

Symptoms. — ^The  horse  drinks  deep  at  every  opportunity  and 
passes  urine  on  every  occasion  when  stopped,  the  discharge  being 
pale,  watery,  of  a  low  density,  and  inodorous;  in  short,  it  contains  a 
great  excess  of  water  and  a  deficiency  of  the  solid  excretions.  So 
great  is  the  quantity  passed,  however,  that  the  small  amount  of 
solids  in  any  given  specimen  amounts  in  twenty-four  hours  to  far 
more  than  the  normal — a  fact  in  keeping  with  the  rapid  wasting  of 
the  tissues  and  extreme  emaciation.  The  flanks  become  tucked  up, 
the  fat  disappears,  the  bones  and  muscles  stand  out  prominently, 
the  skin  becomes  tense  and  hidebound,  and  the  hair  erect,  scurfj', 
and  deficient  in  luster.  The  eye  becomes  dull  and  sunken,  the  spirits 
are  depressed,  the  animal  is  weak  and  sluggish,  sweats  on  the  slightest 
exertion,  and  can  endure  little.  The  subject  may  survive  for  months, 
or  he  may  die  early  of  exhaustion.  In  the  slighter  cases,  or  when  the 
cause  ceases  to  operate,  he  may  make  a  somewhat  tardy  recovery. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  stopping  the  ingestion  of  the  faulty 
drugs,  poisons,  or  food,  and  supplying  sound  hay  and  grain  free  from 
all  taint  of  heating  or  mustiness.  A  liberal  supply  of  boiled  flaxseed 
in  the  drinking  water  at  once  serves  to  eliminate  the  poison  and  to 
sheathe  and  protect  the  irritated  kidneys.  Tonics  like  sulphate  or 
phosphate  of  iron  (2  drams  morning  and  evening)  and  powdered 
gentian  or  Peruvian  bark  (4  drams)  help  greatly  by  bracing  the 
system  and  hastening  repair.  To  these  may  be  added  agents  calcu- 
lated to  destroy  the  fungus  and  eliminate  its  poisonous  products. 
In  that  form  which  depends  on  musty  food  nothing  acts  better  than 
large  doses  of  iodide  of  potassium  (2  drams),  while  in  other  cases 
creosote,  carbolic  acid  (1  dram),  or  oil  of  turpentine  (4  drams) 
properly  diluted,  may  be  resorted  to. 


go  D18BASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

ftAtX-HARINK  DIABKTES    (DIABETES   MELL1TU8,   GLYCOSUraA,   OR  INOSURIA). 

This  is  primarily  u  disease  of  the  nervous  system  or  liver  rather 
than  of  the  kidneys,  yet,  as  the  most  prominent  symptom  is  the  sweet 
urine,  it  may  be  treated  here. 

Causes. — Its  causes  are  varied,  but  resolve  themselves  largely  into 
disorder  of  the  liver  or  disorder  of  the  brain.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  functions  of  the  liver  is  the  formation  of  glycogen,  a  prin- 
ciple allied  to  grape  sugar,  and  passing  into  it  by  further  oxidation  in 
the  blood.  This  is  a  constant  flinction  of  the  liver,  but  in  health  the 
resulting  sugar  is  burned  up  in  the  circulation  and  does  not  appear  in 
tlie  urine.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  defective, 
as  in  certain  diseases  of  the  lungs,  the  whole  of  the  sugar  does  not 
undergo  combustion  and  the  excess  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  Also 
in  certain  forms  of  enlarged  liver  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  is 
more  than  can  be  disposed  of  in  the  natural  way,  and  it  appears  in  the 
urine.  A  temporary  sweetness  of  the  urine  often  occurs  after  a 
hearty  meal  on  starchy  food,  but  this  is  due  altogether  to  the  super- 
abundant supply  of  the  sugar-forming  food,  lasts  for  a  few  hours 
only,  and  has  no  pathological  significance.  In  many  cases  of  fatal 
glycosuria  the  liver  is  found  to  be  enlarged,  or  at  least  congested,  and 
it  is  found  that  the  disorder  can  be  produced  experimentally  by 
agencies  which  produce  an  increased  circulation  through  the  liver. 
Thus  liernard  produced  glycosuria  by  pricking  the  oblong  medulla  at 
the  base  of  the  brain  close  to  the  roots  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve, 
whicli  happens  to  be  also  the  nerve  center  (vaso-motor)  which  presides 
over  the  contractions  of  the  minute  blood  vessels.  The  pricking  and 
irritation  of  this  center  leads  to  congestion  of  the  liver  and  the  exces- 
Kive  production  of  sugar.  Irritation  carried  to  this  point  through  the 
pneumogastric  nerve  causes  saccharine  urine,  and,  in  keeping  with 
this,  disease  of  the  pancreas  has  been  found  in  this  malady.  The  com- 
plete removal  of  the  pancreas,  however,  determines  glycosuria,  the 
organ  having  in  health  an  inhibitive  action  on  sugar  production  by 
the  liver.  The  sanie  result  follows  the  reflection  of  irritation  from 
other  sources,  as  from  ditTerent  ganglia  (corpora  striata, optic  thalami, 
pons,  cerebellum,  cerebrum)  of  the  brain.  Similarly  it  is  induced  by 
interruption  of  the  nervous  control  along  the  vaso-motor  tracts,  as  in 
destruction  of  the  up|K>r  or  lower  cervical  sympathetic  ganglion,  by 
cutting  the  nervous  branch  connecting  these  two,  in  injury  to  the 
Hpinal  marrow  in  the  interval  l>etween  the  brain  and  the  second  or 
fourth  dorsal  vertebra,  or  in  disease  of  the  celiac  plexus,  which 
directly  presides  over  the  liver.  Certain  chemical  poisons  also  cause 
saarharine  urine,  notably  w(K)rara,  strychnia,  morphia,  phosphoric 
and.  alcohol,  ether,  rjuinia.  chloroform,  ammonia,  arsenic,  and 
phlorizin. 

Symptom^.— Ww  symptoms  are  ardent  thirst  and  profuse  secretion 


SACCHABINE    DIABETES    ( SWEET   TJKINE).  81' 

of  a  pale  urine  of  a  high  density  (1.060  and  upward),  rapid  loss  of 
condition,  scurfy,  unthrifty  skin,  costiveness  or  irregularity  of  the 
bowels,  indigestion,  and  the  presence  in  the  urine  of  a  sweet  princi- 
ple— ^grape-sugar  or  inosite,  or  both.  This  may  be  most  promptly  de- 
tected by  touching  the  tip  of  the  tongue  with  a  drop.  Sugar  may  be 
detected  simply  by  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  liquid  yeast  to  4  ounces  of 
the  urine  and  keeping  it  lightly  stopped  at  a  temperature  of  70° 
to  80°  F.  for  twelve  hours,  when  the  sugar  will  be  found  to  have  been 
changed  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  The  loss  of  density  will 
give  indication  of  the  amount  of  sugar  transformed ;  thus  a  density  of 
1.035  in  a  urine  which  was  formerly  1.060  would  indicate  about  15 
grains  of  sugar  to  the  fluid  ounce. 

Inosite,  or  muscle  sugar,  frequently  present  in  the  horse's  urine,  and 
even  replacing  the  glucose,  is  not  fermentable.  Its  presence  may  be 
indicated  by  its  sweetness  and  the  absence  of  fermentation  or  by  Gal- 
lois's  test.  Evaporate  the  suspected  urine  at  a  gentle  heat  almost  to 
dryness,  then  add  a  drop  of  a  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate  and  evapo- 
rate carefully  to  dryness,  when  a  yellowish  residue  is  left  that  is 
changed  on  further  cautious  heating  to  a  deep  rose  color,  which  dis- 
appears on  cooling  and  reappears  on  heating. 

In  advanced  diabetes,  dropsies  in  the  limbs  and  under  the  chest  and 
belly,  puffy,  swollen  eyelids,  cataracts,  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  weak,  uncertain  gait,  and  drowsiness  may  be  noted. 

Treatment  is  most  satisfactory  in  cases  dependent  on  some  curable 
disease  of  liver,  pancreas,  lungs,  or  brain.  Thus,  in  liver  diseases,  a 
run  at  pasture  in  warm  weather,  or  in  winter  a  warm,  sunny,  well- 
aired  stable,  with  sufficient  clothing  and  laxatives  (sulphate  of  soda, 
1  ounce  daily)  and  alkalies  (carbonate  of  potassium,  one-fourth 
ounce)  may  benefit.  To  this  may  be  added  mild  blistering,  cupping, 
or  even  leeching  over  the  last  ribs.  Diseases  of  the  brain  or  pancreas 
may  be  treated  according  to  their  indications.  The  diet  should  be 
mainly  albuminous,  such  as  wheat  bran  or  middlings,  pease,  beans, 
vetches,  and  milk.  Indeed,  an  exclusive  milk  diet  is  one  of  the  very 
best  remedial  agencies.  It  may  be  given  as  skimmed  milk  or  butter- 
milk, and  in  the  last  case  combines  an  antidiabetic  remedy  in  the  lactic 
acid.  Under  such  an  exclusive  diet  recent  and  mild  cases  are  often 
entirely  restored,  though  at  the  expense  of  an  attack  of  rheumatism. 
Codeia,  one  of  the  alkaloids  of  opium,  is  strongly  recommended  by 
Doctor  Tyson.  The  dose  for  the  horse  would  be  10  to  15  grains  thrice 
daily.  In  cases  in  which  there  is  manifest  irritation  of  the  brain, 
bromide  of  potassium,  4  drams,  or  ergot  one-half  ounce,  may  be  re- 
sorted to.  Salicylic  acid  and  salicylate  of  sodium  have  proved  useful 
in  certain  cases;  also  phosphate  of  sodium.  Bitter  tonics  (especially 
nux  vomica  one-half  dram)  are  useful  in  improving  the  digestion  and 
general  health. 

H.  Doc,  795,  59-2 6 


82  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

BLOGOY  URINE,  OR   HEMATURIA. 

Cause. — As  seen  in  the  horse,  bloody  urine  is  usually  the  direct 
result  of  mechanical  injuries,  as  sprains  and  fractures  of  the  loins, 
lacerations  of  the  sublumbar  muscles  (psoas),  irritation  caused  by 
stone  in  the  kidney,  ureter,  bladder,  or  urethra.  It  may,  however, 
occur  with  acute  congestion  of  the  kidney,  with  tumors  in  its  sub- 
stance, or  with  papilloma  or  other  diseased  growth  in  the  bladder. 
Acrid  diuretic  plants  present  in  the  food  may  also  lead  to  the  escape 
of  blood  from  the  kidney.  The  predisposition  to  this  affection  is, 
however,  incomparably  less  than  in  the  case  of  the  ox  or  the  sheep, 
the  difference  being  attributed  to  the  greater  plasticity  of  the  horse's 
blood  in  connection  with  the  larger  quantity  of  fibrin. 

The  blood  may  be  present  in  small  clots  or  in  more  or  less  intimate 
admixture  with  the  urine.  Its  condition  may  furnish  some  indication 
as  to  its  source ;  thus,  if  from  the  kidneys  it  is  more  likely  to  be  uni- 
formly diffused  through  the  urine,  while  as  furnished  by  the  bladder 
or  passages  clots  are  more  likely  to  be  present.  Again,  in  bleeding 
from  the  kidney,  minute  cylindrical  clots  inclosing  blood  globules 
and  formed  in  the  uriniferous  tubes  can  be  detected  under  the  micro- 
scope. Precision  also  may  be  approximated  by  observing  whether 
there  is  coexisting  fracture,  sprain  of  the  loins,  or  stone  or  tumor  in 
the  bladder  or  urethra. 

Treatment. — The  disease  being  mainly  due  to  direct  injury,  treat- 
ment will  consist,  first,  in  removing  such  cause  whenever  possible,  and 
then  in  applying  general  and  local  styptics.  Irritants  in  food  must  be 
avoided,  sprains  appropriately  treated,  and  stone  in  bladder  or 
urethra  removed.  Then  give  mucilaginous  drinks  (slippery  elm,  lin- 
seed tea)  freely,  and  styptics  (tincture  of  chloride  of  iron  3  drams, 
acetate  of  lead  one-half  dram,  tannic  acid  one-half  dram,  or  oil  of 
turpentine  1  ounce).  If  the  discharge  is  abundant,  apply  cold  water 
to  the  loins  and  keep  the  animal  perfectly  still. 

HEMOGLOBINURIA     (aZOTURIA,    AZOTEMIA,    POISONING    BY    ALBUMINOIDS). 

Like  diabetes,  this  is  rather  a  disease  of  the  liver  and  blood-form- 
ing functions  than  of  the  kidney,  but  as  prominent  symptoms  are  loss 
of  control  over  the  hind  limbs  and  the  passage  of  ropy  and  dark- 
colored  urine,  the  vulgar  idea  is  that  it  is  a  disorder  of  the  urinary 
organs.  It  is  a  complex  affection  directly  connected  with  a  plethora 
in  the  blood  of  nitrogenized  constituents,  with  extreme  nervous  and 
muscular  disorder  and  the  excretion  of  a  dense  reddish  or  brownish 
urine.  It  is  directly  connected  with  high  feeding,  especially  on 
highly  nitrogenized  food  (oats,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  cotton-seed 
meal),  and  with  a  period  of  idleness  in  the  stall  under  full  rations. 
The  disease  is  never  seen  at  pasture,  rarely  under  constant  daily  work. 


BLOODY   TJEINE,  OR    HEMATTJEIA.  83 

even  though  the  feeding  be  high,  and  the  attack  is  usually  precipi- 
tated by  taking  the  horse  from  the  stable  and  subjecting  it  to  exercise 
or  work.  The  poisoning  is  not  present  when  taken  fi*om  the  stable,  as 
the  horse  is  likely  to  be  noticeably  lively  and  spirited,  but  he  will 
usually  succumb  under  the  first  hundred  yards  or  half  mile  of  exer- 
cise. It  seems  as  if  the  aspiratory  power  of  the  chest  under  the 
sudden  exertion  and  accelerated  breathing  speedily  drew  from  the 
gorged  liver  and  abdominal  veins  (portal)  the  accumulated  store  of 
nitrogenous  matter  in  an  imperfectly  oxidized  or  elaborated  condi- 
tion, and  as  if  the  blood,  surcharged  with  these  materials,  was  unable 
to  maintain  the  healthy  functions  of  the  nerve  centers  and  muscles. 
It  has  been  noticed  rather  more  frequently  in  mares  than  horses, 
attributable,  perhaps,  to  the  nervous  excitement  attendant  on  heat, 
and  to  the  fact  that  the  unmutilated  mare  is  naturally  more  excitable 
than  the  docile  gelding. 

Lignieres  has  found  in  hemoglobinuria  a  streptococcus  which  pro- 
duced nephritis,  bloody  urine,  and  paraplegia  in  experimental  ani- 
mals, including  horses. 

Symptoms. — In  the  milder  forms  this  affection  may  appear  as  a 
lameness  in  one  limb,  from  indefinite  cause,  succeeding  to  some  sud- 
den exertion  and  attended  by  a  dusky-brown  color  of  the  membranes 
of  the  eye  and  nose  and  some  wincing  when  the  last  ribs  are  struck. 
The  severe  forms  come  on  after  one  or  two  days  of  rest  on  a  full 
ration,  when  the  animal  has  been  taken  out  and  driven  one  hundred 
paces  or  more.  The  fire  and  life  with  which  he  had  left  the  stable 
suddenly  give  place  to  dullness  and  oppression,  as  shown  in  heaving 
flanks,  dilated  nostrils,  pinched  face,  perspiring  skin,  and  trembling 
body.  The  muscles  of  the  loins  or  haunch  become  swelled  and  rigid, 
the  subject  moves  stiffly  or  unsteadily,  crouches  behind,  the  limbs 
being  carried  semiflexed,  and  he  soon  drops,  unable  to  support  him- 
self. When  down,  the  body  and  limbs  are  moved  convulsively,  but 
there  is  no  power  of  coordination  of  movement  in  the  muscles.  The 
pulse  and  breathing  are  accelerated,  the  eyes  red  with  a  tinge  of 
brown,  and  the  urine,  if  passed,  is  seen  to  be  highly  colored,  dark 
brown,  red,  or  black,  but  it  contains  neither  blood  clots  nor  globules. 
The  color  is  mainly  due  to  hemoglobin  and  other  imperfectly  elabo- 
rated constituents  of  the  blood. 

It  may  end  fatally  in  a  few  hours  or  days,  or  a  recovery  may  ensue, 
which  is  usually  more  speedy  and  perfect  if  it  has  set  in  at  an  early 
stage.  In  the  late  and  tardy  recoveries  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind 
limbs  may  last  for  months.  A  frequent  sequel  of  these  tardy  cases  is 
an  extensive  wasting  of  the  muscles  leading  up  from  the  front  of  the 
stifle  (those  supplied  by  the  crural  nerve)  and  a  complete  inability  to 
stand. 

Prevention. — The  prevention  of  this  serious  affection  lies  in  re- 


g4  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

siricting  the  diet  and  giving  daily  exercise  when  the  animal  is  not  at 
work.  A  horse  that  has  had  one  attack  should  never  be  left  idle  for 
a  single  day  in  the  stall  or  barnyard.  When  a  horse  has  been  con- 
demned to  absolute  rei^ose  on  good  feeding  he  may  have  a  laxative 
(one-half  to  1  pound  Glauber's  salts),  and  have  graduated  exercise, 
beginning  with  a  short  walk  and  increasing  day  by  day. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  the  mild  cases  may  consist  in  a  laxa- 
tive, graduated  daily  exercise,  and  a  daily  dose  of  saltpeter  (1  ounce). 
Sudden  attacks  will  sometimes  promptly  subside  if  taken  on  the  in- 
stant and  the  subject  kept  still  and  calmed  by  a  dose  of  bromide  of 
potassium  (4  drams)  and  sweet  spirits  of  niter  (1  ounce).  The 
latter  has  the  advantage  of  increasing  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys. 
Iodide  of  potassium  in  one-half  ounce  doses  every  four  hours  has 
succeeded  well  in  some  hands.  In  severe  cases,  as  a  rule,  it  is  desira- 
ble to  Ix^gin  treatment  by  a  dose  of  aloes  (4  to  6  drams)  with  the 
alx>ve-named  dose  of  bromide  of  potassium,  and  this  latter  may  be 
continued  at  intervals  of  four  or  six  hours,  as  may  be  requisite  to 
calm  the  nervous  excitement.  Fomentations  with  warm  water  over 
the  loins  are  always  useful  in  calming  the  excitable  conditions  of  the 
spinal  cord,  muscles,  liver,  and  kidneys,  and  also  in  favoring  secre- 
tion from  the  two  latter.  On  the  second  day  diuretics  may  be  re- 
sorted to,  such  as  saltpeter  one-half  ounce,  and  powdered  colchicum 
one-half  dram,  to  be  repeated  twice  daily.  A  laxative  may  be  re- 
peated in  three  or  four  days  should  the  bowels  seem  to  demand  it, 
and  as  the  nervous  excitement  disappears  any  remaining  muscular 
weakness  or  paralysis  may  be  treated  by  one-half  dram  doses  of  nux 
vomica  twice  a  day  and  a  stimulating  liniment  (aqua  ammonia  and 
sw«H>t  oil  in  e<iual  proportions)  rubbed  on  the  torpid  muscles. 

During  the  course  of  the  disease  friction  to  the  limbs  is  useful,  and 
in  the  advarued  paralytic  stage  the  application  of  electricity  along 
the  line  of  the  affected  muscles.  AMien  the  patient  can  not  stand  he 
mu.st  have  a  thick,  soft  l)ed,  and  should  be  turned  from  side  to  side 
at  least  every  twelve  liojirs.  As  soon  as  he  can  be  made  to  stand  he 
may  l>e  heliKid  up  and  even  supported  in  a  sling. 

ArrTK   INFI.AMMATIOX   OF  THK   Kn>NEY8,  OR   ACUTE   NEPHRITIS. 

Inflammations  of  tlie  kidneys  have  been  differentiated  widely,  ac- 
cording a.s  they  were  acute  or  chronic,  parenchymatous  or  tubal,  sup- 
purative or  not^  with  increased  or  shrunken  kidney,  etc.;  but  in  a 
work  like  the  present  utility  will  be  consulted  by  classing  all  under 
acute  or  chronic  infammation. 

C auMcn. —Thf-  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  are  extremely 
varie<l.  Congestion  occurs  from  the  altered  and  irritant  products 
passed  through  these  orgjins  during  recovery  from  inflammations  of 
other  organs  and  during  fevers.     This  may  last  only  during  the  exist- 


INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    KIDNEYS.  86 

ence  of  its  cause,  or  may  persistand  become  aggravated.  Heart  dis- 
ease, throwing  the  blood  pressure  back  on  the  veins  and  kidneys,  is 
another  cause.  Disease  of  the  ureter  or  bladder,  preventing  the 
escape  of  urine  from  the  kidney  and  causing  increased  fullness  and 
tension  in  its  pelvis  and  tubes,  will  determine  inflammation.  Decom- 
position of  the  detained  urine  in  such  cases  and  the  production  of 
ammonia  and  other  irritants  must  also  be  named.  In  elimination  of 
bacteria  through  the  kidney,  the  latter  is  liable  to  infection  with  con- 
sequent inflammation.  The  advance  of  bacteria  upward  from  the 
bladder  to  the  kidneys  is  another  cause.  The  consumption  in  hay  or 
other  fodder  of  acrid  or  irritant  plants,  including  fungi,  the  absorp- 
tion of  cantharidine  from  a  surface  blistered  by  Spanish  flies,  the 
reckless  administration  of  diuretics,  the  presence  of  stones  in  the 
kidney,  exposure  of  the  surface  to  cold  and  wet,  and  the  infliction  of 
blows  or  sprains  on  the  loins,  may  contribute  to  its  production.  Liver 
disorders  which  throw  on  the  kidneys  the  work  of  excreting  irritant 
products,  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  heart  from  which  clots  are  car- 
ried, to  be  arrested  in  the  small  blood  vessels  of  the  kidney,  and 
injuries  and  paralysis  of  the  spinal  cord,  are  additional  causes. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  more  or  less  fever,  manifest  stiff- 
ness of  the  back  and  straddling  gait  with  the  hind  limbs,  difficulty  in 
lying  down  and  rising,  or  in  walking  in  a  circle,  the  animal  sometimes 
groaning  under  the  effort,  arching  of  the  loins  and  tucking  up  of  the 
flank,  looking  back  at  the  abdomen  as  if  from  colicky  pain,  and  ten- 
derness of  the  loins  to  pinching,  especially  just  beneath  the  bony 
processes  6  inches  to  one  side  of  the  median  line.  Urine  is  passed 
frequently,  a  small  quantity  at  a  time,  of  a  high  color,  and  sometimes 
mixed  with  blood  or  even  pus.  Under  the  microscope  it  shows  the 
microscopic  casts  referred  to  under  general  symptoms.  If  treated  by 
acetic  acid,  boiling,  and  subsequent  addition  of  strong  nitric  acid,  the 
resulting  and  persistent  precipitate  indicates  the  amount  of  albumen. 
The  legs  tend  to  swell  from  the  foot  up,  also  the  dependent  parts 
beneath  the  belly  and  chest,  and  effusions  of  liquid  may  occur  within 
the  chest  or  abdomen.  In  the  male  animal  the  alternate  drawing  up 
and  relaxation  of  the  testicles  in  the  scrotum  are  suggestive,  and  in 
small  horses  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the  rectum  may  reach  tha 
kidney  and  ascertain  its  sensitiveness. 

Treatment  demands,  first,  the  removal  of  any  recognized  cause. 
Then,  if  the  suffering  and  fever  are  high,  2  to  4  quarts  of  blood  may 
be  abstracted  from  the  jugular  vein;  in  weak  subjects  or  unless  in 
high  fever  this  should  be  omitted.  Next  relieve  the  kidneys  so  far 
as  possible  by  throwing  their  work  on  the  bowels  and  skin.  A  pint 
of  castor  oil  is  less  likely  than  either  aloes  or  salts  to  act  on  the  kid- 
neys. To  affect  the  skin  a  warm  stall  and  heavy  clothing  may  be 
supplemented  by   dram   doses  of   Dover's  powder.     Pain   may   be 


gg  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

soothed  by  drain  doses  of  bromide"  of  potassium.  Boiled  flaxseed 
may  bo  added  to  the  drinking  water,  and  also  thrown  into  the  rectum 
as  an  injection,  and  blankets  saturated  with  hot  water  should  be  per- 
sistently applied  to  the  loins.  This  may  be  followed  by  a  very  thin 
pidp  of  the  best  ground  mustard  made  with  tepid  water,  rubbed  in 
against  the  direction  of  the  hair  and  covered  up  with  paper  and  a 
blanket.  This  may  be  kept  on  for  an  hour,  or  until  the  skin  thickens 
and  the  hair  stands  erect.  It  may  then  be  rubbed  or  sponged  off  and 
the  blanket  reapplied.  When  the  action  of  the  bowels  has  been 
started  it  may  be  kept  up  by  a  daily  dose  of  2  or  3  ounces  of 
Glauber's  salts. 

During  recovery  a  course  of  bitter  tonics  (nux  vomica  1  scruple, 
ground  gentian  root  4  drams)  should  be  given.  The  patient  should 
also  be  guarded  against  cold,  wet,  and  any  active  exertion  for  some 
time  after  all  active  symptoms  have  subsided. 

CUBONIC    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    KIDNEYS. 

Causea. — Chrojiio  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  is  more  commonly 
associated  with  albuiiu'u  and  casts  in  the  urine  than  the  acute  form, 
and  in  some  instances  these  conditions  of  the  urine  may  be  the  only 
prominent  symptoms  of  the  disease.  Though  it  may  supervene  on 
blows,  injuries,  and  exposures,  it  is  much  more  commonly  connected 
with  faulty  conditions  of  the  system — as  indigestion,  heart  disease, 
lung  or  liver  disease,  imperfect  blood  formation,  or  assimilation;  in 
short,  it  is  rather  the  attendant  on  a  constitutional  infirmity  than  on 
a  simple  hx-al  injury. 

It  may  Ixj  associated  with  various  forms  of  diseased  kidneys,  as 
Klirinkage  (atrophy),  increase  (hypertrophy),  softening,  red  conges- 
tion, white  enlargement,  etc.,  so  that  it  forms  a  group  of  diseases 
rathiT  than  a  disease  by  itself. 

Stjmjttonui. — The  symptoms  may  include  stiffness,  weakness,  and 
incre-ased  sensibility  of  the  loins,  and  modified  secretion  of  urine 
(increase  or  suppression),  or  the  flow  may  be  natural.  Usually  it 
contains  albumen,  the  amount  furnishing  a  fair  criterion  of  the  grav- 
ity of  the  affection,  and  microscopic  casts,  also  most  abundant  in  bad 
casi's.  Dropsy,  manifested  in  s-welled  legs,  is  a  significant  symptom, 
and  if  the  effusion  takes  phice  along  the  lower  line  of  the  body  or  in 
chest  or  abdomen,  the  significance  is  increased.  A  scurfy,  unthrifty 
skin,  lack-luster  hair,  inability  to  sustain  severe  or  continued  exer- 
tion. iKK)r  or  irrcgtilar  app<'tite,  loss  of  fat  and  flesh,  softness  of  the 
nniscl«»8,  and  pallor  of  the  eyes  and  nose  are  equally  suggestive.  So 
titv  skin  oruptions  of  various  kinds.  Any  one  or  more  of  these  symp- 
toms would  warrant  an  «'xaniination  of  the  urine  for  albumen  and 
casts,  th«'  finding  of  which  signifies  renal  inflannnation. 

Treatment  of  these  cases  is  not  always  satisfactory,  as  the  cause  is 


DISEASES    OF    THE    KIDNEYS   AND    BLADDER.  87 

liable  to  be  maintained  in  the  disorders  of  important  organs  else- 
where. If  any  such  coincident  disease  of  another  organ  or  function 
can  be  detected,  that  should  be  treated  first  or  simultaneously  with 
this  affection  of  the  kidneys.  In  all  cases  the  building  up  of  the 
general  health  is  important.  Hence  a  course  of  tonics  may  be  given 
(phosphate  of  iron  2  drams,  nux  vomica  20  grains,  powdered  gentian 
root  4  drams,  daily)  or  60  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  or  nitromuriatic 
acid  may  be  given  daily  in  the  drinking  water.  If  there  is  any  ele- 
vated temperature  of  the  body  and  tenderness  of  the  loins,  fomenta- 
tions may  be  applied,  followed  by  a  mustard  pulp,  as  for  acute 
inflammation,  and  even  in  the  absence  of  these  indications  the  mus- 
tard may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage  at  intervals  of  a  few  days. 
In  suppression  of  urine,  fomentations  with  warm  water  or  with  infu- 
sion of  digitalis  leaves  is  a  safer  resort  than  diuretics,  and  cupping 
over  the  loins  may  also  benefit.  To  apply  a  cup,  shave  the  skin  and 
oil  it;  then  take  a  narrow-mouthed  glass,  rarify  the  air  within  it  by 
introducing  a  taper  in  full  flame  for  a  second,  withdraw  the  taper 
and  instantly  apply  the  mouth  of  the  glass  to  the  skin  and  hold  it 
closely  applied  till  the  cooling  tends  to  form  a  vacuum  in  the  glass 
and  to  draw  up  the  skin,  like  a  sucker. 

As  in  the  acute  inflammation,  every  attention  must  be  given  to 
secure  warm  clothing,  a  warm  stall,  and  pure  air. 

TUMORS    OF    THE    KIDNEYS. 

Tumors,  whether  malignant  or  simple,  would  give  rise  to  sjrmptoms 
resembling  some  form  of  inflammation,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  recog- 
nized during  life. 

PARASITES. 

To  parasites  of  the  kidney  belong  the  echinococcusj  the  larval,  or 
bladder  worm,  stage  of  the  small  echinococcus  tapeworm  of  the  dog; 
also  the  Cysticercus  fistularis,  another  bladder  worm  of  an  unknown 
tapeworm;  in  these  there  is  the  possibility  of  the  passage  with  the 
urine  of  a  detached  head  of  the  bladder  worm  or  of  some  of  its  micro- 
scopic booklets,  which  might  be  found  in  the  sediment  of  the  urine 
and  thus  establish  a  diagnosis.  Dioctoj)hyme  renale^  the  largest  of 
roundworms,  has  been  found  in  the  kidney  of  the  horse.  Its  presence 
can  only  be  certified  by  the  passage  of  its  microscopic  eggs  or  of  the 
entire  worm.  Immature  stages  of  roundworms,  either  Strongylus 
equinus  or  a  related  species,  may  be  found  in  the  renal  artery  or  in. 
the  kidney  itself. 

SPASM  OF  THE  NECK  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

This  affection  consists  in  spasmodic  closure  of  the  outlet  from  the 
bladder  by  tonic  contraction  of  the  circular  muscular  fibers.  It  may 
be  accompanied  by  a  painful  contraction  of  the  muscles  on  the  body 


gg  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

of  tlie  bladder;  or,  if  the  organ  is  already  unduly  distended,  these 
will  be  affected  with  temporary  paralysis.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the 
horse,  but  by  no  means  unknown  in  the  mare. 

Causes. The  cau>^es  are  usually  hard  and  continuous  driving  with- 
out opportunity  for  passing  urine,  cold  rainstorms,  drafts  of  cold  air 
when  i)erspiring  and  fatigued,  the  administration  of  Spanish  fly  or 
the  application  of  extensive  blisters  of  the  same,  abuse  of  diuretics, 
the  presence  of  acrid  diuretic  plants  in  the  fodder,  and  the  presence 
of  stone  in  the  bladder.  As  most  mares  refuse  to  urinate  while  in 
harness,  they  should  be  unhitched  at  suitable  times  for  urination. 
Spasms  of  the  bowels  are  always  attended  by  spasm  of  the  bladder, 
hence  the  free  passage  of  water  is  usually  a  symptom  of  relief. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  frequent  stretching  and  straining 
to  urinate,  with  no  result  or  a  slight  dribbling  only.  These  vain 
efforts  are  attended  by  pain  and  groaning.  On  resuming  his  natural 
|)osition  the  animal  is  not  freed  from  the  pain,  but  moves  uneasily, 
paws,  shakes  the  tail,  kicks  at  the  abdomen  with  his  hind  feet,  looks 
back  to  the  flank,  lies  down  and  rises,  arches  the  back,  and  attempts 
to  urinate  as  before.  If  the  oiled  hand  is  introduced  into  the  rectum 
the  greatly  distended  bladder  may  be  felt  beneath,  and  the  patient 
will  often  shrink  when  it  is  handled. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  irritation  of  the  urinary  organs  is 
often  present  in  impaction  of  the  colon  with  solid  matters,  because 
the  impacted  intestine  under  the  straining  of  the  patient  is  forced 
backward  into  the  jielvis  and  presses  upon  and  irritates  the  bladder. 
In  such  cases  the  horse  stands  with  his  fore  limbs  advanced  and  the 
hind  ones  stretched  back  beyond  the  natural  posture,  and  makes  fre- 
(jueut  efforts  to  urinate,  with  varying  success.  Unpracticed  observers 
naturally  conclude  that  the  secondary  urinary  trouble  is  the  main  and 
only  one,  and  the  intestinal  impaction  and  obstruction  is  too  often 
neglected  until  it  is  irremediable.  In  cases  where  the  irritation  has 
caused  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  and  overdistention  of  that 
organ,  the  mislake  is  still  more  easily  made;  hence  it  is  important  in 
all  cases  to  examine  for  the  impacted  bowel,  forming  a  bend,  or  loop, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  pelvis  and  usually  toward  the  left  side.  The 
impacted  intestine  f<M»ls  soft  and  doughy,  and  is  easily  indented  with 
the  knuckles,  forming  a  marked  contrast  with  the  tense,  elastic,  resil- 
ient, overdistended  bladder. 

It  remains  to  b<!  noted  that  similar  symptoms  may  be  determined 
by  a  stone  or  seVxiceous  mass,  or  stricture  obstrflcting  the  urethra,  or 
in  the  newlwrn  by  thickened  mucus  in  that  duct  and  by  the  pressure 
of  hanU-nod.  impacted  feces  in  the  rectum.  In  obstruction,  the  hard, 
impacted  bo<ly  can  usually  be  felt  by  tracing  the  urethra  along  the 
lower  and  post«'rior  surface  of  the  penis  and  forward  to  the  median 
line  of  the  floor  of  the  ix;lvis  to  the  neck  of  the  bladder.    That  part 


pi.A'rj'j  V. 


Stiiiclun'  olllic  Kidney.   lJia£>raiimuili(  . 

(I  ■  M((ti'U)iry  /<i\>  /■;  It.  Hiui/i(ia/\\-   ■.'///<■:  c.Corlico/  /(/\-i-;-.    /.  /-.'.cir.  (c/}    Uihc.  '.'.(f;ic/: 
lilt/  (in  t/ir  .stiiiiniif  o/'rriti(<  p(i/iU/<i ;  .iJ-'w^-t  hrudi.'/i  n/  /litiii-i-tit'o/! :   'i .Scct'/n/  /'i r//ic/i 
ijf  l)i/iirc<ilioii ,  .'i/l'/iirt/  brraic/i  oT  hiliimttto/i    o,Sirrii///if  (o//r<///ii/  !ii/<c     T.Jii/ic 
tional  tiihit/r :  •^.A.sivufli'ni/  portio/i  c/'  Urnlf.s  /t>o/>;  .'),  Ih\^-rfni(i/t;/  /lorfmn  <,''  l/rn.',  .\ 
l(wp,  l(>,Liiop  nf'f/riilc:  ll.('oii\-ol(if(</  tiifmh' :  !?,  M(il/>u//ii<in  /yv/'/asyY,  , /V/jVy,,/,'  ,',,■ 
trrv: /^t.  D/'ri/ic/i    .siipplyirif/  t/ir  f/ionicfii/i :   IJ .  A/'/frcfif  \i\';sc/  ot'thr  plitiiKfii  h       Id, 
lij'nnrh    f/nini/   f/irrif/y  to  t/if   i<ipilliuii\s :  17,ytriiu//it  urtr/iO/iw   <¥>niffi(/   i/iii-<(f\- 
liii/ii   t/ir  rrntil  mh'ry :  IH:.Str(ii(iht  (ir!(/ii)l/-  ro/iil/ip  ('ront   tlir  n/'li  nfil    \  r.w.y,/  ,'l' Iff' 
(floinrfiilii.s;  /.0,SO(//f//?r  (i/if/tti/r  (o/iiuiti  fru/n  'he  r</pi//fffy  /'/<". ///.v,   ','(>  \'ii.si  .i/tti- 
loop  oT t/ic  pymniuhs-; :^'l, HfJcrerit  xr.v.vr/  ol't/ic  c/loiiur-dlii.s  cioi/ip  l<>  ihc  •  •api//<iry 
p/f.fi/.f/  V'^.Ca/iilfary pU;rii.'i  pf  l/ir   p/oiiuruhir  piiii  or' C/if    loz-fict//    .■^■ii/>.',f<i't<( 
-'■ij'<ipillii/-y  plans  of  Ihr  f)yr-a/>fi(l,'i  of  Ferret  n  :  ["/.('orltetil  ple.eiis  i>f'l/ie  kitf/iey, 
['.'), X'e'i'ie  .s(eltii(tte :  ?f/,\eiii  ronufif/  /rt>//i  l/i<    e(///tl/<trit.'>  t>l  (lie  rtirie.r  :   JT  iiilir 
(ohii/dr  \  ei/i  :    i"!^',  \'riri    rem\'i/ii/  t/ie  \y  /iiir  r--  itite      '0,  I'eiittr  ri'ctiii 

.Vt'/e  :  Jfir  .s/ifttled  /'itrl  o/'l/ir  iiri/i<ir\-  fliiefs  repre.'-ienf  (fir  riiirt  in    '</i/'/i    i.'ir 
I  ;>if/ic/itt//i  l.s-  /<i('l<l<<i  ri/i<i  (i/  a  prii/iiiifi/-  ii/i/ntii  ■<  n  ■  • 


(;i-<,.  Miaxalt.M- IiArl.(,v!u  .    p:!?'-'-        :i71 


i  u:£»(>  CO  N  ' 


MlC-I?(),S('(>rU'  AXATOM^'  OI"  K'lDXK^'. 


PLu^TE  VI. 


Keiial    Olonici-ulii.s . 
a, Artery  of  t/u:  (/l/>/rw/-i//i/.v;  l),Mrcatvh  supplyiru/  thr  af'/?Ttnt 
vessel  of  the  gtornertitn^s;  c,  Affcrenf  irvsvsc/  oft/ic  i/(ofncru/e , 

d ,  Artery  ffoin</  di/-ccUy  fo  the  capiMary  plr.i-ii.s  of  the  coi  ticxi 

xiih.'i'taTtrr ;  p.,Capi//ory  p/e.vt/S;  t]  Gtomrniliis . 


Hcii.il  ('.loiiicruhis  Nvilh  its  iLl'lrrciilvTssclsjiiKlcnci-fiils. 
(ilSninch    >>t'  rriK/l  nrtei-\  :   />.  A/'/rre/i  /    \-o.v.se/(>f!/ic 
i/l  i<iii<rulii.^  :  (•  .  (Hctneriilii.s  :  d ,  Af/crcnt   iv-.s-.viv'  uo 
iiiu  i/if!'  lo/pi/.-^c/e  I  .('t'  M<d/>i</hi . 


(!►•<).  Maix.tilti'i- DA^^l0^^ll     p  ;*7:i.        :?71  . 


jUL;oS  SIEN  8.C0  n  ^ 


Mlt'HOSCOl'K"  AXA'IOMYOF  KIDNEY 


P/ioA-fjhtilJv  rf//<-{ela.s\  ufiv  cifiii  ruic/eius. 


-PIvATE  ML 


X  '.M.=. 


1    1 


/^rfuii  cu.s/.s .   Sri////'  (l('f}/-i\Y(/  of 
cfiith/  /ill  III .  I'wo  (//v  (fi'<p/'f(/'f(ir'i'(/ 
/m//i  //if  ///-csr/irt'  oft/rale  o/'.sotf./ 


Sf/VI//////  f't'/U  CfhS-  t/.vi  // 
//I  /•r//itn  ■ifli/  ,•<///•////. 


Il.iiii.-.s,<!.-l  filUT  HurliH-1  DAilx-vnl 


JUCUS  Bit-"  *  . 


CALC'LTLl  ANi:)  INS'I-RUMENT  FOR  REMt>V.\L 


PARALYSIS  OP  THE  BLADDEB.  89 

of  the  urethra  between  the  seat  of  obstruction  and  the  bladder  is 
usually  distended  with  urine,  and  feels  enlarged,  elastic,  and  fluctu- 
ating. 

Treatment. — Treatment  may  be  begun  by  taking  the  animal  out  of 
harness.  This  failing,  spread  clean  litter  beneath  the  belly  or  turn 
the  patient  out  on  the  dung  heap.  Some  seek  to  establish  sympa- 
thetic action  by  pouring  water  from  one  vessel  into  another  with 
dribbling  noise.  Others  soothe  and  distract  the  attention  by  slow 
whistling.  Friction  of  the  abdomen  with  wisps  of  straw  may  suc- 
ceed, or  it  may  be  rubbed  with  ammonia  and  oil.  These  failing,  an 
injection  of  2  ounces  of  laudanum  or  of  an  infusion  of  1  ounce  of 
tobacco  in  water  may  be  tried.  In  the  mare  the  neck  of  the  bladder  is 
easily  dilated  by  inserting  two  oiled  fingers  and  slightly  parting  them. 
In  the  horse  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the  rectum  may  press 
from  before  backward  on  the  anterior  or  blind  end  of  the  bladder. 
Finally,  a  well-oiled  gum-elastic  catheter  may  be  entered  into  the 
urethra  through  the  papilla  at  the  end  of  the  penis  and  pushed  on 
carefully  until  it  has  entered  the  bladder.  To  effect  this  the  penis 
must  first  be  withdrawn  from  its  sheath,  and  when  the  advancing  end 
of  the  catheter  has  reached  the  bend  of  the  urethra  beneath  the  anus 
it  must  be  guided  forward  by  pressure  with  the  hand,  which  guidance 
must  be  continued  onward  into  the  bladder,  the  oiled  hand  being 
introduced  into  the  rectum  for  this  purpose.  The  horse  catheter,  3^ 
feet  long  and  one-third  inch  in  diameter,  may  be  bought  of  a  surgical 
instrument  maker. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

Paralysis  of  the  body  of  the  bladder  with  spasm  of  the  neck  has 
been  described  under  the  last  heading,  and  may  occur  in  the  same  way 
from  overdistention  in  tetanus,  acute  rheumatism,  paraplegia,  and 
hemiplegia,  in  which  the  animal  can  not  stretch  himself  to  stale,  and 
in  cystitis,  affecting  the  body  of  the  bladder  but  not  the  neck.  In  all 
these  cases  the  urine  is  suppressed.  It  also  occurs  as  a  result  of 
disease  of  the  posterior  end  of  the  spinal  marrow  and  with  broken 
back,  and  is  then  associated  with  palsy  of  the  tail,  and,  it  may  be,  of 
the  hind  limbs. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  a  constant  dribbling  of  urine  when 
the  neck  is  involved,  the  liquid  running  down  the  inside  of  the  thighs 
and  irritating  the  skin.  When  the  neck  is  unaffected  the  urine  is 
retained  until  the  bladder  is  greatly  overdistended,  when  it  may  be 
expelled  in  a  gush  by  the  active  contraction  of  the  muscular  walls  of 
the  abdomen ;  but  this  never  empties  the  bladder,  and  the  oiled  hand 
introduced  through  the  rectum  may  feel  the  soft,  flabby  organ  still 
half  full  of  urine.  This  retained  urine  is  liable  to  decompose  and 
give  off  ammonia,  which  dissolves  the  epithelial  cells,  exposing  the 


90  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

raw  mucous  membrane  and  causing  the  worst  type  of  cystitis.  Sup- 
pression and  incontinence  of  urine  are  common  also  to  obstruction 
of  the  urethra  by  stone  or  otherwise;  hence  this  source  of  fallacy 
should  be  excluded  by  manual  examination  along  the  whole  course 
of  that  duct. 

Treatment. — Treatment  is  only  applicable  in  cases  in  which  the  de- 
termining cause  can  be  abated.  In  remedial  sprains  of  the  back  or 
disease  of  the  spinal  cord  these  must  have  appropriate  treatment,  and 
the  urine  must  be  drawn  off  frequently  with  a  catheter  to  prevent 
overdistention  and  injur}^  to  the  bladder.  If  the  paralysis  persists 
after  recovery  of  the  spinal  cord,  or  if  it  continues  after  relief  of 
spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  apply  a  pulp  of  mustard  and  water 
over  the  back  part  of  the  belly  in  front  of  the  udder,  and  cover  with 
a  rug  until  the  hair  stands  erect.  In  the  male  the  mustard  may  be 
applied  between  the  thighs  from  near  the  anus  downward.  Daily 
doses  of  2  drams  extract  of  belladonna  or  of  2  grains  powdered 
Spanish  fly  may  serve  to  rouse  the  lost  tone.  These  failing,  a  mild 
current  of  electricity  daily  may  succeed. 

INPXJ^MMATION   OF   THE   BLADDER    (CYSTITIS,   OR   UROCYSTITIS) . 

Cystitis  may  be  slight  or  severe,  acute  or  chronic,  partial  or  general. 
It  may  be  caused  by  abuse  of  diuretics,  especially  such  as  are  irritat- 
ing (cantharides,  turi)entine,  copaiba,  resin,  etc.),  by  the  presence  of 
a  stone  or  gravel  in  the  bladder,  the  irritation  of  a  catheter  or  other 
foreign  body  introduced  from  without,  the  septic  ferment  (bac- 
terium) introduced  on  a  filthy  catheter,  the  overdistention  of  the 
h)ladder  by  retained  urine,  the  extrication  of  ammonia  from  retained 
decomposing  urine,  resulting  in  destruction  of  the  epithelial  cells  and 
irritation  of  the  raw  surface,  and  a  too  concentrated  and  irritating 
urine.  The  application  of  Spanish  flies  or  turpentine  over  a  too  ex- 
tensive surface,  sudden  exposure  of  a  perspiring  and  tired  horse  to 
cold  or  wet,  and  the  })resence  of  acrid  plants  in  the  fodder  may  cause 
cystitis,  as  tliey  may  nephritis.  Finally,  inflammation  may  extend 
from  a  diseased  vagina  or  urethra  to  the  bladder. 

Symptomn. — The  symptoms  are  slight  or  severe  colicky  pains;  the 
animal  moves  his  hind  feet  uneasily  or  even  kicks  at  the  abdomen, 
looks  around  at  his  flank,  and  may  even  lie  down  and  rist?  fivijuently. 
More  characteristic  are  freijuentiy  repeated  efforts  to  urinate,  result- 
ing in  the  discharge  of  a  little  clear,  or  red.  or  more  commonly  floc- 
eulent  urine,  always  in  jet«,  and  accompanied  by  signs  of  pain,  which 
persist  after  the  discharge,  as  shown  in  contimied  straining,  groan- 
ing, and  perhaps  in  movements  of  the  feet  and  tail.  The  penis  hangs 
from  the  sheath,  or  in  the  mare  the  vulva  is  frequently  ojMjned  and 
closed,  as  after  urination.  The  animal  winces  when  the  abdomen  is 
pressed  in  the  region  of  the  sheath  or  udder,  and  the  bladder  is  found 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BIADDEB.  91 

to  be  sensitive  and  tender  when  pressed  with  the  oiled  hand  intro- 
duced through  the  rectum  or  vagina.  In  the  mare  the  thickening  of 
the  walls  of  the  bladder  may  be  felt  by  introducing  one  finger  through 
the  urethra.  The  discharged  urine,  which  may  be  turbid  or  even  oily, 
contains  an  excess  of  mucus,  with  flat  shreds  of  membrane,  with  scaly 
epithelial  cells,  and  pus  corpuscles,  each  showing  two  or  more  nuclei 
when  treated  with  acetic  acid,  but  there  are  no  microscopic  tubular 
casts,  as  in  nephritis.  If  due  to  stone  in  the  bladder,  that  will  be 
found  on  examination  through  rectum  or  vagina. 

Treatment  implies,  first,  the  removal  of  the  cause,  whether  poisons 
in  food  or  as  medicine,  the  removal  of  Spanish  flies  or  other  blistering 
agents  from  the  skin,  or  the  extraction  of  stone  or  gravel.  If  the 
urine  has  been  retained  and  decomposed  it  must  be  completely  evac- 
uated through  a  clean  catheter,  and  the  bladder  thoroughly  washed 
out  with  a  solution  of  1  dram  of  borax  in  a  quart  of  water.  This 
must  be  repeated  twice  daily  until  the  urine  no  longer  decomposes, 
because  so  long  as  ammonia  is  developed  in  the  bladder  the  protecting 
layer  of  epithelial  cells  will  be  dissolved  and  the  surface  kept  raw 
and  irritable.  The  diet  must  be  light  (bran  mashes,  roots,  fresh 
grass),  and  the  drink  impregnated  with  linseed  tea,  or  solution  of 
slippery  elm  or  marsh  mallow.  The  same  agents  may  be  used  to 
inject  into  the  rectum,  or  they  may  even  be  used  along  with  borax  and 
opium  to  inject  into  bladder  (gum  arable  1  dram,  opium  1  dram, 
tepid  water  1  pint).  Fomentations  over  the  loins  are  often  of  great 
advantage,  and  these  may  be  followed  or  alternated  with  the  appli- 
cation of  mustard,  as  in  paralysis ;  or  the  mustard  may  be  applied  on 
the  back  part  of  the  abdomen  below  or  between  the  thighs  from  the 
anus  downward.  Finally,  when  the  acute  symptoms  have  subsided, 
a  daily  dose  of  buchu  1  dram  and  nux  vomica  one-half  dram  will 
serve  to  restore  lost  tone. 

IRRITABLE   BLADDER. 

Some  horses,  and  especially  mares,  show  an  irritability  of  the  blad- 
der and  nerve  centers  presiding  over  it  by  frequent  urination  in  small 
quantities,  though  the  urine  is  not  manifestly  changed  in  character 
and  no  more  than  the  natural  amount  is  passed  in  the  twenty- four 
hours.  The  disorder  appears  to  have  its  source  quite  as  frequently 
in  the  generative  or  nervous  system  as  in  the  urinary.  A  troublesome 
and  dangerous  form  is  seen  in  mayes,  which  dash  off  and  refuse  all 
control  by  the  rein  if  driven  with  a  full  bladder,  but  usually  prove 
docile  if  the  bladder  has  been  emptied  before  hitching.  In  other  cases 
the  excitement  connected  with  getting  the  tail  over  the  reins  is  a  pow- 
erful determining  cause.  The  condition  is  marked  in  many  mares 
during  the  period  of  "  heaty 

An  oleaginous  laxative  (castor  oil  1  pint)  will  serve  to  remove  any 


92  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

cause  of  irritation  in  the  digestive  organs,  and  a  careful  dieting  will 
avoid  continued  irritation  by  acrid  vegetable  agents.  The  bladder 
should  be  examined  to  see  that  there  is  no  stone  or  other  cause  of  irri- 
tation, and  the  sheath  and  penis  should  be  washed  with  soapsuds,  any 
sebaceous  matter  removed  from  the  bilocular  cavity  at  the  end  of  the 
penis,  and  the  whole  lubricated  with  sweet  oil.  Irritable  mares  should 
be  induced  to  urinate  before  they  are  harnessed,  and  those  that  clutch 
the  lines  under  the  tail  may  have  the  tail  set  high  by  cutting  the  cords 
on  its  lower  surface,  or  it  may  be  prevented  getting  over  the  reins  by 
having  a  strap  carried  from  its  free  end  to  the  breeching.  Those 
proving  trouble„some  when  "  in  heat  "  may  have  4-dram  doses  of  bro- 
mide of  potassium,  or  they  may  be  served  by  the  male  or  castrated. 
Sometimes  irritability  may  l)e  lessened  by  daily  doses  of  belladonna 
extract  (1  dram),  or  a  better  tone  may  be  given  to  the  parts  by  balsam 
copaiba  (1  dram). 

DISEASED    OROWTHS    IN    THE    BLADDER. 

Theise  may  be  of  various  kinds,  malignant  or  simple.  In  the  horse 
I  have  found  villous  growths  from  the  mucous  membrane  especially 
troublesome.  They  may  be  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane  by  a 
narrow  neck  or  by  a  broad  base  covering  a  great  part  of  the  organ. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  frequent  straining,  passing  of  urine 
and  blood  with  occasionally  gravel.  An  examination  of  the  bladder 
with  the  hand  in  the  rectum  will  detect  the  new  growth,  which  may 
\ie  distinguished  from  a  hard  resistant  stone.  In  mares,  in  which  the 
finger  can  be  inserted  into  the  bladder,  the  recognition  is  still  more 
satisfactory.  The  polypi  attached  by  narrow  necks  may  be  removed 
by  surgical  operation,  but  for  those  with  broad  attachments  treatment 
is  eminently  unsatisfactory. 

DISCIIARCJE    OK    TRINE    liV    THE    NAVEL,    OR    PERSISTENT    URACHUS. 

This  occurs  only  in  the  newborn,  and  consists  in  the  nonclosure  of 
the  natJiral  channel  (urachus),  through  which  the  urine  is  discharged 
into  the  outer  water  bag  (allantois)  in  fetal  life.  At  that  early  stage 
of  the  animal  existence  the  bladder  re.sembles  a  long  tube,  which  is 
prolonged  through  the  navel  string  and  opens  into  the  outermost  of 
the  two  water  bags  in  which  the  fetus  floats.  In  this  way  the  urine 
is  prevente<l  from  entering  the  inner  water  bag  (amnion),  where  it 
would  mingle  with  the  liquids,  bathing  the  skin  of  the  fetus  and  cause 
irritation.  At  birth  this  channel  closes  up,  and  the  urine  takes  the 
course  normal  to  extra-uterine  life.  Imperfect  closure  is  more  fre- 
quent in  males  than  in  females,  lx>cause  of  the  great  length  and  small 
rahU'r  <»f  the  male  urethra  and  its  consequent  tendency  to  obstruction. 
In  the  female  there  may  l)e  a  discharge  of  a  few  drops  only  at  a  time, 
whde  in  the  male  the  urine  will  be  expelled  in  strong  jets  coincidently 
with  the  contractions  of  the  bladder  and  walls  of  the  abdomen. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLADDEB.  93 

The  first  care  is  to  ascertain  if  the  urethra  is  pervious  by  passing  a 
human  catheter.  This  determined,  the  open  urachus  may  be  firmly 
closed  by  a  stout  waxed  thread,  carried  with  a  needle  through  the  tis- 
sues back  of  the  opening  and  tied  in  front  of  it  so  as  to  inclose  as  little 
skin  as  possible.  If  a  portion  of  the  navel  string  remains,  the  tying 
of  that  may  be  all  sufficient.  It  is  important  to  tie  as  early  as  possible 
so  as  to  avoid  inflammation  of  the  navel  from  contact  with  the  urine. 
In  summer  a  little  carbolic-acid  water  or  tar  water  may  be  applied  to 
keep  off  the  flies. 

EVERSION    or    THE    BLADDER. 

This  can  only  occur  in  the  female.  It  consists  in  the  turning  of  the 
organ  outside  in  through  the  channel  of  the  urethra,  so  that  it  appears 
as  a  red,  pear-shaped  mass  hanging  from  the  floor  of  the  vulva  and 
protruding  externally  between  its  lips.  It  may  be  a  mass  like  the  fist, 
or  it  may  swell  up  to  the  size  of  an  infant's  head.  On  examining  its 
upper  surface  the  orifices  of  the  urethra  may  be  seen,  one  on  each  side, 
a  short  distance  behind  the  neck,  with  the  urine  oozing  from  them 
drop  by  drop. 

This  displacement  usually  supervenes  on  a  flaccid  condition  of  the 
bladder,  the  result  of  paralysis,  overdistention,  or  severe  compression 
during  a  difficult  parturition. 

The  protruding  organ  may  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  1  ounce  of 
laudanum  and  a  teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart  of  water,  and 
returned  by  pressing  a  smooth,  rounded  object  into  the  fundus  and 
directing  it  into  the  urethra,  while  careful  pressure  is  made  on  the 
surrounding  parts  with  the  other  hand.  If  too  large  and  resistant  it 
may  be  wound  tightly  in  a  strip  of  bandage  about  2  inches  broad 
to  express  the  great  mass  of  blood  and  exudate  and  diminish  the  bulk 
of  the  protruded  organ  so  that  it  can  be  easily  pushed  back.  This 
method  has  the  additional  advantage  of  protecting  the  organ  against 
bruises  and  lacerations  in  the  effort  made  to  return  it.  After  the 
return,  straining  may  be  kept  in  check  by  giving  laudanum  (1  to  2 
ounces)  and  by  applying  a  truss  to  press  upon  the  lips  of  the  vulva. 
( See  E version  of  the  womb. )  The  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  stall  a 
few  inches  lower  in  front  than  behind,  so  that  the  action  of  gravity 
Avill  favor  retention. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    URETHRA     (URETHRITIS,    OR    GLEET ) . 

This  affection  belongs  quite  as  much  to  the  generative  organs,  yet 
it  can  not  be  entirely  overlooked  in  a  treatise  on  urinary  disorders. 
It  may  be  induced  by  the  same  causes  as  cystitis  (which  see)  ;  by  the 
passage  and  temporary  arrest  of  small  stones,  or  gravel ;  by  the  irri- 
tation caused  by  foreign  bodies  introduced  from  without;  by  blows  on 
the  penis  by  sticks,  stones,  or  by  the  feet  of  a  mare  that  kicks  while 
being  served;  by  an  infecting  inflammation  contracted  from  a  mare 


94  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

served  in  the  first  few  days  after  parturition  or  one  suflFering  from 
leucorrhea ;  by  infecting  matter  introduced  on  a  dirty  catheter,  or  by 
the  extension  of  inflammation  from  an  irritated  bilocular  cavity  filled 
■with  hardened  sebaceous  matter,  or  from  an  uncleansed  sheath. 

Symptomg. — The  symptoms  are  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of 
the  sheath  and  penis ;  difficulty,  pain,  and  groaning  in  passing  urine, 
which  is  liable  to  sudden  temporary  arrests  in  the  course  of  micturi- 
tion, and  later  a  whitish  mucopurulent  oozing  from  the  papilla  on  the 
end  of  the  penis.  There  is  a  tendency  to  erection  of  the  penis,  and  in 
cases  contracted  from  a  mare  the  outer  surface  of  that  organ  will 
show  more  or  less  extensive  sores  and  ulcers.  Stallions  suffering  in 
this  way  will  refuse  to  mount,  or  having  mounted  will  fail  to  com- 
plete the  act  of  coition.  If  an  entrance  is  effected  infection  of  the 
mare  is  liable  to  follow. 

Treatment  in  the  early  stages  consists  in  a  dose  of  physic  (aloes  6 
drams)  and  fomentations  of  warm  water  to  the  sheath  and  penis.  If 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  infection,  inject  the  urethra 
twice  daily  with  borax  1  dram,  water  1  quart,  using  it  tepid.  Where 
the  mucopurulent  discharge  indicates  the  supervention  of  the  second 
stage,  a  more  astringent  injection  may  be  employed  (nitrate  of  silver 
20  grains,  water  1  quart),  and  the  same  may  be  applied  to  the  surface 
of  the  penis  and  inside  the  sheath.  Balsam  of  copaiba  (1  dram  daily) 
may  also  be  given  with  advantage  after  the  purulent  discharge  has 
appeared. 

Every  stallion  suffering  from  urethritis  should  be  withheld  from 
service,  as  should  mares  with  leucorrhea. 

STRICTURE    OF    THE    URETHRA. 

This  is  a  permanent  narrowing  of  the  urethra  at  a  given  point,  the 
result  of  previous  inflammation,  caused  by  the  passage  or  arrest  of  a 
gtone,  or  gravel,  by  strong  astringent  injections  in  the  early  nonsecret- 
ing  stages  of  urethritis,  or  by  contraction  of  the  lining  membrane 
occurring  during  the  healing  of  ulcers  in  neglected  inflammations  of 
that  canal.  The  trouble  is  shown  by  the  passage  of  urine  in  a  fine 
stream,  with  straining,  pain,  and  groaning,  and  by  frequent  painful 
erections.  It  must  Ik;  remedied  by  mechanical  dilatation,  with  cathe- 
ters jus-t  large  enough  to  pass  with  gentle  force,  to  be  inserted  once  a 
day,  and  to  be  used  of  larger  size  as  the  passage  will  admit  them. 
The  catheter  should  l)e  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  washed  in  a  borax 
solution  and  well  oiled  before  it  is  introduced. 

UKINABY   CALCULI    (sTONE,   OR   ORAVEL). 

These  consist  in  some  of  the  solids  of  the  urine  that  have  been  pre- 
cipitated from  the  urine  in  the  form  of  crystals,  which  remain  apart 
as  a  fine  powdery  mass,  or  magma,  or  aggregate  into  calculi,  or  stones, 
of  varying  size.    Their  composition  is  therefore  determined  in  differ- 


STONE,  OR   GRAVEL.  95 

ent  animals  by  the  salts  or  other  constituents  found  dissolved  in  the 
healthy  urine,  and  by  the  additional  constituents  which  may  be 
thrown  off  in  solution  in  the  urine  in  disease.  In  this  connection  it  is 
important  to  observe  the  following  analysis  of  the  horse's  urine  in 
health: 

Water  —-^ 918.  5 

Urea 13.4 

Uric  acid  and  urates ,1 

Hippuric  acid 20.4 

Lactic  acid  and  lactates 1.  2 

Mucus  and  organic  matter 22.0 

Sulphates   (alkaline) 1.2 

Phosphates  (lime  and  soda) .2 

Chlorides  (sodium) 1.0 

Carbonates  (potash,  magnesia,  lime) 16.  0 


1000.0 


The  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  present  in  large  amount  in  the  urine 
of  horses  fed  on  green  fodder,  is  practically  insoluble,  and  therefore 
forms  in  the  passages  after  secretion,  and  its  microscopic  rounded 
crystals  give  the  urine  of  such  horses  a  milky  whiteness.  It  is  this 
material  which  constitutes  the  soft,  white,  pultaceous  mass  that  some- 
times fills  the  bladder  to  repletion  and  requires  to  be  washed  out.  In 
hay-fed  horses  carbonates  are  still  abundant,  while  in  those  mainly 
grain- fed  they  are  replaced  by  hippurates  and  phosphates — the  prod- 
ucts of  the  wear  of  tissues — the  carbonates  being  the  result  of  oxida- 
tion of  the  vegetable  acids  in  the  food.  Carbonate  of  lime,  therefore, 
is  a  very  common  constituent  of  urinary  calculi  in  herbivora,  and  in 
many  cases  is  the  most  abundant  constituent. 

Oxalate  of  lime,  like  carbonate  of  lime,  is  derived  from  the  burning 
up  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  of  the  food  in  the  system,  one  impor- 
tant factor  being  the  less  perfect  oxid'ation  of  the  carbon.  Indeed, 
Fiistenberg  and  Schmidt  have  demonstrated  on  man,  horse,  ox,  and 
rabbit  that,  under  the  full  play  of  the  breathing  (oxidizing)  forces, 
oxalic  acid,  like  other  organic  acids,  is  resolved  into  carbonic  acid. 
In  keeping  with  this  is  the  observation  of  I^ehmann,  that  in  all  cases 
in  which  man  suffered  from  interference  with  the  breathing  oxalate 
of  lime  appeared  in  the  urine.  An  excess  of  oxalate  of  lime  in  the 
urine  may,  however,  claim  a  different  origin.  Uric  and  hippuric 
acids  are  found  in  the  urine  of  camivora  and  herbivora,  respectively, 
as  the  result  of  the  healthy  wear  (disassimilation)  of  nitrogenous  tis- 
sues. But  if  these  products  are  fully  oxidized,  tliey  are  thrown  out 
in  the  form  of  the  more  soluble  urea  rather  than  as  these  acids. 
WTien  uric  acid  out  of  the  body  is  treated  with  peroxide  of  lead  it  is 
resolved  into  urea,  allantoin,  and  oxalic  acid,  and  Wcehler  and  Frer- 
richs  found  that  the  administration  of  uric  acid  not  only  increased 


9Q  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

the  excretion  of  urea,  but  also  of  oxalic  acid.  It  may  therefore  be 
inferred  that  oxalic  acid  is  not  produced  from  the  carbonaceous  food 
nlone,  but  also  from  the  disintegration  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues  of 
the  body.  An  important  element  of  its  production  is,  however,  the 
imperfect  perfonnance  of  the  breathing  functions,  and  hence  it  is 
liable  to  result  from  diseases  of  the  chest  (heaves,  chronic  bronchitis, 
etc.).  This  is,  above  all,  likely  to  prove  the  case  if  the  subject  is  fed 
to  excess  on  highly  carbonaceous  foods  (grass  and  green  food  generr 
ally,  jwtatoes,  etc.). 

Carl)onate  of  magnesia,  another  almost  constant  ingredient  of  the 
urinar}'  calculi  of  the  horse,  is  formed  the  same  way  as  the  carbon- 
ate of  lime — from  the  excess  of  carbonaceous  food  (organic  acids) 
becoming  oxidized  into  carbon  dioxide,  which  unites  with  the  mag- 
nesia derived  from  the  food. 

The  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  are  not  abundant  in  urinary 
calculi  of  the  horse,  the  phosphates  being  only  present  to  excess  in 
the  urine  in  two  conditions — (a)  when  the  ration  is  excessive  and 
specially  rich  in  phosphorus  (wheat  bran,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  rape 
cake,  oil  cake,  cotton-seed  cake)  ;  and  (b)  when,  through  the  morbid 
destructive  changes  in  the  living  tissues,  and  especially  of  the  bones, 
a  great  amount  of  phosphorus  is  given  off  as  a  waste  product.  Under 
these  conditions,  however,  the  phosphates  may  contribute  to  the  for- 
mation of  calculi,  and  this  is,  above  all,  likely  if  the  urine  is  retained 
in  the  bladder  until  it  has  undergone  decomposition  and  given  off 
ammonia.  The  ammonia  at  once  unites  with  the  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia to  form  a  double  salt^ — phosphate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia — 
which,  l)eing  insoluble,  is  at  once  precipitated.  The  precipitation  of 
tliis  salt  is,  however,  rare  in  the  urine  of  the  horse,  though  much 
more  frequent  in  that  of  man  and  sheep. 

These  are  the  chief  mineral  constituents  of  the  urine  which  form 
inpre<lients  in  the  hoi-se's  calculi,  for  though  iron  and  manganese  are 
usually  present  it  is  only  in  minute  quantities. 

The  excess  of  mineral  matter  in  a  specimen  of  urine  unquestion- 
ably contril)ntes  to  the  formation  of  calculi,  just  as  a  solution  of  such 
matters  out  of  the  body  is  increasingly  disposed  to  throw  them  down 
m  the  form  of  crystals  as  it  becomes  more  concentrated  and  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  the  condition  of  saturation.  Hence,  in  consider- 
ing the  causes  of  calculi  we  can  not  ignore  the  factor  of  an  excessive 
ratmn,  rich  in  mineral  matters  and  in  carbonaceous  matters  (the 
source  of  carl»onates  and  much  of  the  oxalates),  nor  can  we  overlook 
the  concentration  of  the  urine  that  comes  from  dry  food  and  priva- 
tion of  water,  or  from  the  existence  of  fever  which  causes  suspension 
of  the  secretion  of  water.  Tn  these  cases,  at  least  the  usual  amount  of 
solids  is  thrr.wn  off  by  the  kidneys,  and  as  the  water  is  diminished 
there  is  danger  of  its  approaching  the  point  of  supersaturation,  when 


STONE,  OR    GRAVEL.  97 

the  dissolved  solids  must  necessarily  be  thrown  down.  Hence,  calculi 
are  more  common  in  stabled  horses  fed  on  dry  grain  and  hay,  in  those 
denied  a  sufficiency  of  water  or  that  have  water  supplied  irregularly, 
in  those  subjected  to  profuse  perspiration  (as  in  summer),  and  in 
those  suffering  from  a  watery  diarrhea.  On  the  whole,  calculi  are 
most  commonly  found  in  winter,  because  the  horses  are  then  on  dry 
feeding,  but  such  dry  feeding  is  even  more  conducive  to  them  in 
summer  when  the  condition  is  aggravated  by  the  abundant  loss  of 
water  by  the  skin. 

In  the  same  way  the  extreme  hardness  of  the  water  in  certain  dis- 
tricts must  be  looked  upon  as  contributing  to  the  concentration  of  the 
urine  and  correspondingly  to  the  production  of  stone.  The  carbon- 
ates, sulphates,  etc.,  of  lime  and  magnesia  taken  in  the  water  must  be 
again  thrown  out,  and  just  in  proportion  as  these  add  to  the  solids  of 
the  urine  they  dispose  it  to  precipitate  its  least  soluble  constituents. 
Thus,  the  horse  is  very  obnoxious  to  calculi  on  certain  limestone  soils, 
as  over  the  calcareous  formations  of  central  and  western  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  in  America ;  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Derbyshire, 
Shropshire,  and  Gloucestershire,  in  England ;  of  Poitou  and  Landes, 
in  France ;  and  Munich,  in  Bavaria. 

But  the  saturation  of  the  urine  from  any  or  all  of  these  conditions 
can  only  be  looked  on  as  an  auxiliary  cause,  and  not  as  in  itself  an 
efficient  one,  except  on  the  rarest  occasions.  For  a  more  direct  and 
immediate  cause  we  must  look  to  the  organic  matter  which  forms  a 
large  proportion  of  all  urinary  calculi.  This  consists  of  mucus,  albu- 
men, pus,  hyaline  casts  of  the  uriniferous  tubes,  epithelial  cells,  blood, 
etc.,  mainly  agents  that  belong  to  the  class  of  colloid  or  noncrystallme 
bodies.  A  horse  may  live  for  months  and  years  with  the  urine  habit- 
ually of  a  high  density  and  having  the  mineral  constituents  in  excess 
without  the  formation  of  stone  or  gravel ;  and  again  one  with  dilute 
urine  of  low  specific  gravity  will  have  a  calculus. 

Rainey,  Ord,  and  others  furnish  the  explanation.  They  not  only 
show  that  a  colloid  body,  like  mucus,  albumen,  pus,  or  blood,  deter- 
mined the  precipitation  or  the  crystalline  salts  in  the  solution,  but 
they  determined  the  precipitation  in  the  form  of  globules,  or  spheres, 
capable  of  developing  by  further  deposits  into  calculi.  Heat  intensi- 
fies this  action  of  the  colloids,  and  a  colloid  in  a  state  of  decomposition 
is  specially  active.  The  j^resence,  therefore,  of  developing  fungi  and 
bacteria  must  be  looked  upon  as  active  factors  in  causing  calculi. 

In  looking,  therefore,  for  the  immediate  causes  of  calculi  we  must 
consider  especially  all  those  conditions  which  determine  the  presence 
of  albumen,  blood,  and  excess  of  mucus,  pus,  etc.,  in  the  urine.  Thus 
diseases  of  distant  organs  leading  to  albuminuria,  diseases  of  the  kid- 
neys and  urinary  passages  causing  the  escape  of  blood  or  the  forma- 
H.  Doc.  795,  50-2 7 


gg  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

lion  of  mucus  or  pus,  l^ecome  direct  causes  of  calculi.  Foreign  bodies 
of  all  kinds  in  the  bladder  or  kidney  have  long  been  known  as  deter- 
mining causes  of  calculi  and  as  forming  the  central  nucleus.  This  is 
now  explained  by  the  fact  that  these  bodies  are  liable  to  carry  bacte- 
ria into  the  passages  and  thus  determine  decomposition,  and  they  are 
further  liable  to  irritate  the  mucous  membrane  and  become  enveloped 
in  a  coating  of  mucus,  pus,  and  perhaps  blood. 

The  fact  that  horses  appear  to  suffer  from  calculi,  especially  on  the 
magnesian  limestones,  the  same  districts  in  which  they  suffer  from 
goiter,  may  be  similarly  explained.  The  unknown  poison  which  pro- 
duces goiter  presumably  leads  to  such  changes  in  the  blood  and  urine 
as  will  furnish  the  colloid  necessary  for  precipitation  of  the  urinary 
salts  in  the  form  of  calculi. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    UBINABY    CALCULI. 

These  have  been  named  according  to  the  place  where  they  are 
found,  renal  (kidney),  xiretral  (ureter),  vesical  (bladder),  urethral 
(urethra),  and  preputial  (sheath,  or  prepuce).  They  have  been 
otherwise  named  according  to  their  most  abundant  chemical  constit- 
uent, carbonate  of  lime,  oxalate  of  lime,  and  phosphate  of  lime  calculi. 
The  stones  formed  of  carbonates  or  phosphates  are  usually  smooth 
on  the  surface,  though  they  may  be  molded  into  the  shape  of  the 
cavity  in  which  they  have  been  formed;  thus  those  in  the  pelvis  of 
the  kidney  may  have  two  or  three  short  branchlike  prolongations, 
while  those  in  the  bladder  are  round,  oval,  or  slightly  flattened  upon 
each  other.  Calculi  containing  oxalate  of  lime,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  a  rough,  open,  crystalline  surface,  which  has  gained  for  them 
the  name  of  mulberry  calculi,  from  a  supposed  resemblance  to  that 
fruit.  These  are  usually  covered  with  more  or  less  mucus  or  blood, 
produced  by  tlie  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  by  their  rough 
surfaces.  The  color  of  calculi  varies  from  white  to  yellow  and  deep 
brown,  the  sliades  depending  mainly  on  the  amount  of  the  coloring 
matter  of  blood,  bile,  or  urine  which  they  may  contain. 

Renal  calculi. — Thest?  may  consist  of  minute,  almost  microscopic, 
deposits  in  the  uriniferous  tuljes  in  the  substance  of  the  kidney,  but 
more  commonly  they  are  large  masses  and  lodged  in  the  pelvis.  The 
larger  calculi,  sometimes  weighing  12  to  24  ounces,  are  molded  in  the 
jH'lvis  of  the  kidney  into  a  cylindroid  mass,  with  irregular  rounded 
swellings  at  intervals.  Some  have  a  deep  brown,  rough,  crystalline 
surface  of  oxalate  of  lime,  while  others  have  a  smooth,  pearly  white 
aspect  from  carlx>iuite  of  lime.  A  smaller  calculus,  which  has  been 
called  coralline,  is  also  cylindroid,  with  a  number  of  brown,  rough, 
crj'stalhne  oxalate  of  lime  branches  and  whitish  depressions  of  car- 
bonate. These  var>'  in  size  from  15  grains  to  nearly  2  ounces.  Less 
frequently  are  found  masses  of  very  hard,  brownish  white,  rounded, 


STONE,  OR   GRAVEL.  99 

pealike  calculi.  These  are  smoother,  but  on  the  surface  crystals  of 
oxalate  of  lime  may  be  detected  with  a  lens.  Some  renal  calculi  are 
formed  of  more  distinct  layers,  more  loosely  adherent  to  each  other, 
and  contain  an  excess  of  mucus,  but  no  oxalate  of  lime.  Finally,  a 
loose  aggregation  of  small  masses,  forming  a  very  friable  calculus, 
is  found  of  all  sizes  within  the  limits  of  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney. 
These,  too,  are  in  the  main  carbonate  of  lime  (84  to  88  per  cent)  and 
without  oxalate. 

Symptoms  of  renal  calculi  are  violent  colicky  pains,  appearing  sud- 
denly, very  oft^n  in  connection  with  exhausting  work  or  the  drawing 
of  specially  heavy  loads,  and  in  certain  cases  disappearing  with  equal 
suddenness.  The  nature  of  the  colic  becomes  more  manifest  if  it  is 
associated  with  stiffness  of  the  back  and  hind  limbs,  frequent  passage 
of  urine,  and,  above  all,  the  passage  of  gravel  with  the  urine,  espe- 
cially at  the  time  of  the  access  of  relief.  The  passage  of  blood  and 
pus  in  the  urine  is  equally  significant.  If  the  irritation  of  the  kid- 
ney goes  on  to  active  inflammation,  then  the  symptoms  of  nephritis 
are  added. 

Uretral  calculi. — These  are  so  called  because  they  are  found  in  the 
passage  leading  from  the  kidney  to  the  bladder.  They  are  simply 
small  renal  calculi  which  have  escaped  from  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney 
and  have  become  arrested  in  the  ureter.  They  give  rise  to  symptoms 
almost  identical  with  those  of  renal  calculi,  with  this  difference,  that 
the  colicky  pains,  caused  by  the  obstruction  of  the  ureter  by  the 
impacted  calculus,  are  more  violent,  and  if  the  calculus  passes  on 
into  the  bladder  the  relief  is  instantaneous  and  complete.  If  the 
ureter  is  completely  blocked  for  a  length  of  time,  the  retained  urine 
may  give  rise  to  destructive  inflammation  in  the  kidney,  which  may 
end  in  the  entire  absorption  of  that  organ,  leaving  only  a  fibrous 
capsule  containing  an  urinous  fluid.  If  both  the  ureters  are  similarly 
blocked,  the  animal  will  die  of  uremic  poisoning. 

Treatment  of  renal  and  uretral  calculi. — Treatment  is  unsatisfac- 
tory, as  it  is  only  the  small  calculi  that  can  pass  through  the  ureters 
and  escape  into  the  "bladder.  This  may  be  favored  by  agents  which 
will  relax  the  walls  of  the  ureters  by  counteracting  their  spasm  and 
even  lessening  their  tone,  and  by  a  liberal  use  of  water  and  watery 
fluids  to  increase  the  urine  and  the  pressure  upon  the  calculus  from 
behind.  One  or  2  ounces  of  laudanum,  or  2  drams  of  extract  of  bella- 
donna, may  be  given  and  repeated  as  it  may  be  necessary,  the  relief  of 
the  pain  being  a  fair  criterion  of  the  abating  of  the  spasm.  To  the 
same  end  use  warm  fomentations  across  the  loins,  and  these  should  be 
kept  up  persistently  until  relief  is  obtained.  These  act  not  alone  by 
soothing  and  relieving  the  spasm  and  inflammation,  but  they  also 
favor  the  freer  secretion  of  a  more  watery  urine,  and  thus  tend  to 
carry  off  the  smaller  calculi.    To  further  secure  this  object  give  cool 


100  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

water  freely,  and  let  the  food  be  only  such  as  contains  a  large  propor- 
tion of  liquid,  gruels,  mashes,  turnips,  beets,  apples,  pumpkins, 
ensilage,  succulent  grasses,  etc.  If  the  acute  stage  has  passed  and 
the  presence  of  the  calculus  is  manifested  only  by  the  frequent  passage 
of  urine  with  gritty  particles,  by  stiffness  of  the  loins  and  hind  limbs, 
and  by  tenderness  to  pressure,  the  most  promising  resort  is  a  long  run 
at  pasture  where  the  grasses  are  fresh  and  succulent.  The  long- 
continued  secretion  of  a  watery  urine  will  sometimes  cause  the  break- 
ing down  of  a  calculus,  as  the  imbibition  of  the  less  dense  fluid  by  the 
organic  spongelike  framework  of  the  calculus  causes  it  to  swell  and 
thus  lessens  its  cohesion.  The  same  end  is  sought  by  the  long-con- 
tinued use  of  alkalies  (carbonate  of  potassium),  and  of  acids 
(muriatic),  each  acting  in  a  different  way  to  alter  the  density  and 
cohesion  of  the  stone.  But  it  is  only  exceptionally  that  any  of  these 
methods  is  entirely  satisfactory.  If  inflanmiation  of  the  kidneys 
develops,  treat  as  advised  under  that  head. 

Stone  in  the  bladder  (vesical  calculus,  or  cystic  calculus). — These 
may  be  of  any  size  up  to  over  a  pound  in  weight.  One  variety  is 
rough  and  crystalline  and  has  a  yellowish  white  or  deep-brown  color. 
These  contain  about  87  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime,  the  remainder 
being  carbonate  of  magnesia,  oxalate  of  lime,  and  organic  matter. 
The  phosphatic  calculi  are  smooth  and  white  and  formed  of  thin 
concentric  layers  of  great  hardness  extending  from  the  nucleus  out- 
ward. Besides  the  phosphate  of  lime  these  contain  the  carbonates  of 
lime  and  magnesia  and  organic  matter.  In  some  cases  the  bladder 
contains  and  may  be  even  distended  by  a  soft  pultaceous  mass  made 
up  of  minute  round  granules  of  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 
This,  when  removed  and  dried,  makes  a  firm,  white,  and  stony  mass. 
Sometimes  this  magma  is  condensed  into  a  solid  mass  in  the  bladder 
by  reason  of  the  binding  action  of  the  mucus  and  other  organic 
matter,  and  thon  forms  a  conglomerate  stone  of  nearly  uniform  con- 
sistency and  without  stratification. 

Symptoms  of  stone  in  the  bladder. — ^The  symptoms  of  stone  in  the 
hlnddor  are  more  obvious  than  those  of  renal  calculus.  The  rough 
mullx'rry  calculi  especially  lead  to  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
and  frequent  passing  of  urine  in  small  quantities  and  often  mingled 
with  mucus  or  blood  or  (x^ntaining  minute  gritty  particles.  At  times 
the  flow  is  suddenly  arrested,  though  the  animal  continues  to  strain 
and  the  bladder  is  not  quite  emptied.  In  the  smooth  phosphatic 
variety  the  irritation  is  much  less  marked  and  may  even  be  altogether 
aWnt.  With  the  pultaceous  deposit  in  the  bladder  there  is  incon- 
tmenw  of  urino,  which  dribbles  away  continually  and  keeps  the  hair 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  thighs  matted  with  soft  magma.  In  all  cases 
nlikfi  tho  oalnilus  may  Ijo  felt  by  the  examination  of  the  bladder  with 
the  oile<i  hand  in  the  rectum.    The  pear-shaped  outline  of  the  bladder 


STONE,  OR   GRAVEL.  101 

can  be  felt  beneath,  and  within  it  the  solid  oval  body.  It  is  most 
easily  recognized  if  the  organ  is  half  full  of  liquid,  as  then  it  is  not 
grasped  by  the  contracting  walls  of  the  bladder,  but  may  be  made  to 
move  from  place  to  place  in  the  liquid.  If  a  pultaceous  mass  is 
present  it  has  a  soft,  doughy  feeling,  and  when  pressed  an  indentation 
is  left. 

In  the  mare  the  hard  stone  may  be  touched  by  the  finger  introduced 
through  the  short  urethra. 

Treatment  of  stone  in  the  hladder. — The  treatment  of  stone  in  the 
bladder  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  offending  body.  In  the  mare 
this  is  easily  effected  with  the  lithotomy  forceps.  These  are  slightly 
warmed  and  oiled,  and  carried  forward  along  the  floor  of  the  passage 
of  the  vulva  for  4  inches,  when  the  orifice  of  the  urethra  will  be  felt 
exactly  in  the  median  line.  Through  this  the  forceps  are  gradually 
pushed  with  gentle  oscillating  movement  until  they  enter  the  bladder 
and  strike  against  the  hard  surface  of  the  stone.  The  stone  is  now 
grasped  between  the  blades,  care  being  taken  to  include  no  loose  fold 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  it  is  gradually  withdrawn  with  the 
same  careful  oscillating  motions  as  before.  Facility  and  safety  in 
seizing  the  stone  will  be  greatly  favored  by  having  the  bladder  half 
full  of  liquid,  and  if  necessary  one  oiled  hand  may  be  introduced 
into  the  rectum  or  vagina  to  assist.  The  resulting  irritation  may  be 
treated  by  an  injection  of  laudanum,  1  ounce  in  a  pint  of  tepid  water. 

The  removal  of  the  stone  in  the  horse  is  a  much  more  difficult  pro- 
ceeding. It  consists  in  cutting  into  the  urethra  just  beneath  the  anus 
and  introducing  the  lithotomy  forceps  from  this  forward  into  the 
bladder,  as  in  the  mare.  It  is  needful  to  distend  the  urethra  with 
tepid  water  or  to  insert  a  sound  or  catheter  to  furnish  a  guide  upon 
which  the  incision  may  be  made,  and  in  case  of  a  large  stone  it  may 
be  needful  to  enlarge  the  passage  by  cutting  in  a  direction  upward 
and  outward  with  a  probe-pointed  knife,  the  back  of  which  is  slid 
along  in  the  groove  of  a  director  until  it  enters  the  bladder. 

The  horse  may  be  operated  upon  in  the  standing  position,  being 
simply  pressed  against  the  wall  by  a  pole  passed  from  before  back- 
ward along  the  other  side  of  the  body.  The  tepid  water  is  injected 
into  the  end  of  the  penis  until  it  is  felt  to  fluctuate  under  the  pressure 
of  the  finger,  in  the  median  line  over  the  bone  just  beneath  the  anus. 
The  incision  is  then  made  into  the  center  of  the  fluctuating  canal,  and 
from  above  downward.  When  a  sound  or  catheter  is  used  as  a  guide 
it  is  inserted  through  the  penis  until  it  can  be  felt  through  the  skin 
at  the  point  where  the  incision  is  to  be  made  beneath  the  anus.  The 
skin  is  then  rendered  tense  by  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
pressing  on  the  two  sides  of  the  sound,  while  the  right  hand,  armed 
with  a  scalpel,  cuts  downward  onto  the  catheter.  This  vertical  in- 
cision into  the  canal  should  escape  wounding  any  important  blood 


]02  DISEASES   OF  THE   HORSE. 

ves.scl.  It  is  in  making  the  obliquely  lateral  incision  in  the  subse- 
quejit  dilatation  of  the  urethra  and  neck  of  the  bladder  that  such 
danger  is  to  be  apprehended. 

If  the  stone  is  too  large  to  be  extracted  through  the  urethra  it  may 
be  broken  down  with  the  lithotrite  and  extracted  piecemeal  with  the 
forceps.  The  lithotrite  is  an  instrument  composed  of  a  straight  stem 
bent  for  an  inch  or  more  to  one  side  at  its  free  end  so  as  to  form  an 
obtuse  angle,  and  having  on  the  same  side  a  sliding  bar  moving  in  a 
groove  in  the  stem  and  operated  by  a  screw  so  that  the  stone  may  b6 
seized  between  the  two  blades  at  its  free  extremity  and  crushed  again 
and  again  into  pieces  small  enough  to  extract.  Extra  care  is  required 
to  avoid  injury  to  the  urethra  in  the  extraction  of  the  angular  frag- 
ments, and  the  gravel  or  powder  that  can  not  be  removed  in  this  way 
must  be  washed  out  as  advised  below. 

\Mien  a  pultaceous  magma  of  carbonate  of  lime  accumulates  in  the 
bladder  it  must  be  washed  out  by  injecting  water  through  a  catheter 
by  means  of  a  force  i:)ump  or  a  funnel,  shaking  it  up  with  the  hand 
introduced  through  the  rectum  and  allowing  the  muddy  liquid  to  flow 
out  through  the  tube.  This  is  to  be  repeated  until  the  bladder  is 
empty  and  the  water  comes  away  clear.  A  catheter  with  a  double 
tul>e  is  sometimes  used,  the  injection  passing  in  through  the  one  tube 
and  escaping  through  the  other.  But  the  advantage  is  more  ap- 
parent than  real,  as  the  retention  of  the  water  until  the  magma  has 
been  shaken  up  and  mixed  with  it  hastens  greatly  its  complete  evacu- 
ation. 

To  prevent  the  formation  of  a  new  deposit  any  fault  in  feeding 
(dry  grain  and  hay  with  privation  of  water,  excess  of  beans,  pease, 
wheat  bran,  etc.)  and  disorders  of  stomach,  liver,  and  lungs  must 
be  corrected,  (rive  abundance  of  soft  drinking  water,  encouraging 
the  animal  to  drink  by  a  handful  of  salt  daily;  let  the  food  be  laxa- 
tive, consisting  largely  of  roots,  apples,  pumpkins,  ensilage,  and  give 
daily  in  the  drinking  water  a  dram  of  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda. 
Powdered  gentian  root  (3  drams  daily)  will  also  serve  to  restore  the 
tone  of  the  stomach  and  system  at  large. 

Urethral  calculus  {stone  in  the  urethra). — This  is  less  frequent  in 
horses  than  in  cattle  and  sheep,  owing  to  the  larger  size  of  the  urethra 
in  the  horse  and  the  absence  of  the  S-shaped  curve  and  vermiform 
HpfH'udix.  The  calculi  arrested  in  the  urethra  are  never  formed 
there,  but  consist  of  cystic  calculi  which  have  been  small  enough  to 
pass  through  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  but  too  large  to  pass  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  urethra  and  escape.  Such  calculi  therefore 
are  primarily  formed  either  in  the  bladder  or  kidney,  and  have  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  other  calculi  found  in  those  organs. 
They  may  l>e  arrested  at  any  point  of  the  urethra,  from  the  neck  of 
the  bladder  back  to  the  bend  of  the  tube  beneath  the  anus,  and  from 


STONE,  OB   GRAVEL.  103 

that  point  down  to  the  extremity  of  the  penis.  I  have  found  them 
most  frequently  in  the  papilla  on  the  extreme  end  of  the  penis,  and 
immediately  behind  this. 

SyTnptoTns  of  urethral  calculus. — The  symptoms  are  violent  strain- 
ing to  urinate,  but  without  any  discharge,  or  with  the  escape  of  water 
in  drops  only.  Examination  of  the  end  of  the  penis  will  detect  the 
swelling  of  the  papilla  or  the  urethra  behind  it,  and  the  presence  of 
a  hard  mass  in  the  center.  A  probe  inserted  into  the  urethra  will 
strike  against  the  gritty  calculus.  If  the  stone  has  been  arrested 
higher  up,  its  position  may  be  detected  as  a  small,  hard,  sensitive 
knot  on  the  line  of  the  urethra,  in  the  median  line  of  the  lower  surface 
of  the  penis,  or  on  the  floor  of  pelvis  in  the  median  line  from  the 
neck  of  the  bladder  back  to  the  bend  of  the  urethra  beneath  the  anus. 
In  any  case  the  urethra  between  the  neck  of  the  bladder  and  the  point 
of  obstruction  is  likely  to  be  filled  with  fluid,  and  to  feel  like  a  dis- 
tended tube  fluctuating  on  pressure. 

Treatment  of  urethral  calculus  may  be  begun  by  an  attempt  to 
extract  the  calculi  by  manipulation  of  the  papilla  on  the  end  of  the 
penis.  This  failing,  the  calculus  may  be  seized  with  a  pair  of  fine- 
pointed  forceps  and  withdrawn  from  the  urethra ;  or,  if  necessary,  a 
probe-pointed  knife  may  be  inserted  and  the  urethra  slightly  dilated, 
or  even  laid  open,  and  the  stone  removed.  If  the  stone  has  been 
arrested  higher  up  it  must  be  extracted  by  a  direct  incision  through 
the  walls  of  the  urethra  and  down  upon  the  nodule.  If  in  the  free 
(protractile)  portion  of  the  penis,  that  organ  is  to  be  withdrawn  from 
its  sheath  until  the  nodule  is  exposed  and  can  be  incised.  If  behind 
the  scrotum,  the  incision  must  be  made  in  the  median  line  between 
the  thighs  and  directly  over  the  nodule,  the  skin  having  been  rendered 
tense  by  the  fingers  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand.  If  the  stone  has 
been  arrested  in  the  intrapelvic  portion  of  the  urethra,  the  incision 
must  be  made  beneath  the  anus  and  the  calculus  extracted  with  for- 
ceps, as  in  stone  in  the  bladder.  The  wound  in  the  urethra  maj'^  be 
stitched  up,  and  usually  heals  slowly  but  satisfactorily.  Healing  will 
be  favored  by  washing  two  or  three  times  daily  with  a  solution  of  a 
teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  pint  of  water. 

Preputial  calculus  {calculus  in  the  sheath^  or  hilocular  cavity). — 
These  are  concretions  in  the  sheath,  though  the  term  has  been  also 
applied  to  the  nodule  of  sebaceous  matter  which  accumulates  in  the 
blind  pouches  (bilocular  cavity)  by  the  sides  of  the  papilla  on  the  end 
of  the  penis.  Within  the  sheath  the  concretion  may  be  a  soft,  cheesy- 
like  sebaceous  matter,  or  a  genuine  calculus  of  carbonate,  oxalate, 
phosphate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  organic 
matter.  These  are  easily  removed  with  the  fingers,  after  which  the 
sheath  should  be  washed  out  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  and 
smeared  with  sweet  oil. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 

By  W.  H.  Habbauoh,  V.  S. 
[ReTised  In  1903  by  Leonard  Pearson,  B.  S.,  V.  M.  D.] 

The  organs  pertaining  to  the  respiratory  function  may  be  enu- 
merated in  natural  order  as  follows:  The  nasal  openings,  or  nostrils; 
the  nasal  chambers,  through  which  the  air  passes  in  the  head;  the 
sinuses  in  the  head,  communicating  with  the  nasal  chambers;  the 
pharynx,  common  to  the  functions  of  breathing  and  swallowing; 
the  larynx,  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe;  the  trachea,  or  windpipe;  the 
bronchi  (into  which  the  windpipe  divides),  two  tubes  leading  from 
the  windpipe  to  the  right  and  left  lungs,  respectively;  the  bronchial 
tubes,  which  penetrate  and  convey  air  to  all  parts  of  the  lungs;  the 
lungs. 

The  pleura  is  a  thin  membrane  that  envelops  the  lung  and  lines  the 
walls  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  The  diaphragm  is  a  muscular  structure, 
completely  separating  the  contents  of  the  thoracic  cavity  from  those 
of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  essentially  a  muscle  of  inspiration, 
and  the  principal  one.  Other  muscles  aid  in  the  mechanism  of 
respiration,  but  the  diseases  or  injuries  of  them  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  diseases  imder  consideration. 

Just  within  the  nasal  openings  the  skin  becomes  gradually  but  per- 
ceptibly finer,  until  it  is  succeeded  by  the  mucous  membrane.  Near 
the  junction  of  the  skin  and  membrane  is  a  small  hole,  presenting 
the  appearance  of  having  been  made  with  a  punch;  this  is  the 
opening  of  the  lachrymal  duct,  a  canal  that  conveys  the  tears  from 
the  eyes.  Within  and  ai>ove  the  nasal  openings  are  the  cavities,  or 
fissures,  called  the  false  nostrils.  The  nasal  chambers  are  completely 
separated,  the  right  from  the  left,  by  a  cartilaginous  partition,  the 
nasal  septum.  Each  nasal  chamber  is  divided  into  three  continuous 
comi)artment.s  by  two  thin,  scrolllike  turbinated  bones. 

The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  chambers,  and  in  fact  the 
entire  respiratory  trait,  is  much  more  delicate  and  more  frequently 
diseased  than  the  mucous  membrane  of  any  other  part  of  the  body. 
The  sinuM's  of  the  head  are  comi)artnients  which  communicate  with 
the  nasnl  <hamlK>rs  and  are  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  same 
moinbrano  that  lines  the  nasal  chambers;  their  presence  increases  the 
voluuH'  and  modifies  the  form  of  the  head  without  increasing  its 
weight. 

The  horse,  in  a  normal  condition,  breathes  exclusively  through  the 
nostrils.     The  organs  of  respiration  arc  more  liable  to  disease  than 
104 


DISEASES   OF   THE   KESPIEATORY   ORGANS.  105 

the  organs  connected  with  any  other  function  of  the  animal,  and,  as 
many  of  the  causes  can  be  avoided,  it  is  both  important  and  profitable 
to  know  and  study  the  causes. 

CAUSES   OF   DISEASES   OF   RESPIRATORY   ORGANS. 

The  causes  of  many  of  the  diseases  of  these  organs  may  be  given 
under  a  common  head,  because  even  a  simple  cold,  if  neglected  or 
badly  treated,  may  run  into  the  most  complicated  lung  disease  and 
terminate  fatally.  In  the  spring  and  fall,  when  the  animals  are 
changing  their  coats,  there  is  a  marked  predisposition  to  contract 
disease,  and  consequently  care  should  be  taken  at  those  periods  to 
prevent  other  exciting  causes. 

Badly  ventilated  stables  are  a  frequent  source  of  disease.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  think  that  country  stables  necessarily  have  purer  air  than 
city  stables.  Stables  on  some,  farms  are  so  faultily  constructed  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  for  the  foul  air  to  gain  an  exit.  All  stables 
should  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air,  and  be  so  arranged  that 
strong  drafts  can  not  blow  directly  on  the  animals.  In  ventilating  a 
stable,  it  is  best  to  arrange  to  remove  air  from  near  the  floor  and  admit 
it  through  numerous  small  openings  near  the  ceiling.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the  coldest  and  most  impure  air  in  the  stable  is  near 
the  floor  while  that  which  is  warmest  and  purest,  and  therefore  can 
least  be  spared  is  near  the  top  of  the  room.  In  summer,  top  exits  and 
cross  currents  should  be  provided  to  remove  excessive  heat.  Hot 
stables  are  almost  always  poorly  ventilated,  and  the  hot  stable  is  a 
cause  of  disease  on  account  of  the  extreme  change  of  temperature 
that  a  horse  is  liable  to  when  taken  out,  and  extreme  changes  of  tem- 
perature are  to  be  avoided  as  certain  causes  of  disease. 

A  cold,  close  stable  is  invariably  damp,  and  is  to  be  avoided  as 
much  as  the  hot,  close,  and  foul  stable.  Horses  changed  from  a  cold 
to  a  warm  stable  are  more  liable  to  contract  cold  than  when  changed 
from  a  warm  to  a  cold  stable.  Pure  air  is  more  essential  than 
warmth,  and  this  fact  should  be  especially  remembered  when  the 
stable  is  made  close  and  foul  to  gain  the  warmth.  It  is  more  econom- 
ical to  keep  the  horse  warm  with  blankets  than  to  prevent  the  ingress 
of  pure  air  in  order  to  make  the  stable  warm. 

Stables  should  be  well  drained  and  kept  clean.  Some  farmers 
allow  large  quantities  of  manure  to  accumulate  in  the  stable.  This  is 
a  pernicious  practice,  as  the  decomposing  organic  matter  evolves 
gases  that  are  predisposing  or  exciting  causes  of  disease.  When  a 
horse  is  overheated,  it  is  not  safe  to  allow  him  to  dry  by  evaporation ; 
rubbing  him  dry  and  gradually  cooling  him  out  is  the  wisest  treat- 
ment. When  a  horse  is  hot — covered  with  sweat — it  is  dangerous  to 
allow  him  to  stand  in  a  draft;  it  is  the  best  plan  to  walk  him  until  his 
temperature  moderates.    In  such  cases  a  light  blanket  thrown  over 


106  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

the  animal  may  prevent  a  cold.  Overwork  or  overexertion  often 
causes  the  most  fatal  cases  of  congestion  of  the  lungs.  Avoid  pro- 
longed or  fast  work  when  the  horse  is  out  of  condition  or  unaccus- 
tomed to  it.  Animals  that  have  been  working  out  in  cold  rains  should 
be  dried  and  cooled  out  and  not  left  to  dry  by  evaporation.  When 
the  temperature  of  the  weather  is  at  the  extreme,  either  of  heat  or 
cold,  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration  are  most  frequent. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  farmers  can  give  their  horses  the  par- 
ticular attention  given  to  valuable  racing  and  pleasure  horses,  but 
they  can  most  assuredly  give  them  common-sense  care,  and  this  will 
often  save  the  life  of  a  valuable  animal.  If  the  owner  properly  con- 
siders his  interests,  he  will  study  the  welfare  of  his  horses  so  that  he 
may  be  able  to  instruct  the  servant  in  details  of  stable  management. 

WOUNDS   ABOUT   THE   NOSTRILS. 

Wounds  in  this  neighborhood  are  common,  and  are  generally  caused 
by  snagging  on  a  nail  or  splinter  or  by  the  bite  of  another  horse ;  or 
by  getting  "  run  into,"  or  by  running  against  something.  Occasion- 
ally the  nostril  is  so  badly  torn  and  lacerated  that  it  is  impossible  to 
effect  a  cure  without  leaving  the  animal  blemished  for  life,  but  in  the 
majority  of  instances  the  blemish,  or  scar,  is  due  to  the  want  of  con- 
servative treatment.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  accident  the  parts 
should  be  brought  together  and  held  there  by  stitches.  If  too  much 
time  is  allowed  to  elapse,  the  swelling  of  the  parts  will  considerably 
interfere.  Never  cut  away  any  skin  that  may  be  loose  and  hanging, 
or  else  a  scar  will  certainly  remain.  Bring  the  parts  in  direct  apposi- 
tion and  place  the  stitches  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  inch  apart,  as  cir- 
cumstances may  demand.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  special  surgeons' 
silk  and  needles  for  this  operation;  good  linen  thread  or  ordinary  silk 
thread  will  answer.  The  wound  afterwards  only  requires  to  be  kept 
clean.  For  this  purpose  it  should  be  cleansed  and  discharges  washed 
away  daily  with  a  solution  made  of  carbolic  acid  1  part,  in  water  40 
parts.  If  the  horse  is  inclined  to  rub  the  wound  against  some  object 
on  account  of  the  irritability,  his  head  should  be  tied  by  means  of  two 
halter  ropes  attached  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  stall  to  prevent  him 
nibbing  the  wound  open.  The  head  should  be  so  tied  about  ten  days, 
except  when  at  work  or  eating. 

TUMORS   WITHIN    THE    NOSTRILS. 

A  small  gloV)ulnr  tumor  is  sometimes  found  within  the  false  nostril, 
undfT  that  part  of  the  skiiv  that  is  seen  to  puff  or  rise  and  fall  when  a 
horse  is  exerted  and  breathing  hard.  These  tumors  contain  matter  of 
a  chwrsy  consistency. 

Treatment.— If  the  tumor  is  well  opened  and  the  matter  squeezed 
out,  nature  will  perform  a  cure.     If  the  opening  is  made  from  the  out- 


COLD    IN    THE    HEAD    (nASAL   CATAKRh).  107 

side  through  the  skin,  it  should  be  at  the  most  dependent  part,  but 
much  the  best  way  to  open  the  tumor  is  from  the  inside.  Quiet  the 
animal,  gently  insert  your  finger  up  in  the  direction  of  the  tumor,  and 
you  will  soon  discover  that  it  is  much  larger  inside  than  it  appears  to 
be  on  the  outside.  If  necessary  put  a  twitch  on  the  ear  of  the  horse 
to  quiet  him ;  run  the  index  finger  of  your  left  hand  against  the  tumor ; 
now,  with  the  right  hand,  carefully  insert  the  knife  by  running  the 
back  of  the  blade  along  the  index  finger  of  the  left  hand  until  the 
tumor  is  reached;  with  the  left  index  finger  guide  the  point  of  the 
blade  quickly  and  surely  into  the  tumor;  make  the  opening  large. 
A  little  blood  may  flow  for  a  while,  but  it  is  of  no  consequence. 
Squeeze  out  the  matter  and  keep  the  part  clean. 

COLD  IN  THE  HEAD,  OR  NASAL  CATARRH. 

Catarrh  is  an  inflammation  of  a  mucous  membrane.  It  is  accom- 
panied by  excessive  secretion.  In  nasal  catarrh  the  inflammation 
may  extend  from  the  membrane  lining  the  nose  to  the  throat,  the  in- 
side of  the  sinuses,  and  to  the  eyes.  The  causes  are  the  general  causes 
of  respiratory  disease  enumerated  above.  It  is  especially  common  in 
young  horses  and  in  horses  not  acclimated. 

Symptoms. — The  membrane  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack  is  dry, 
congested,  and  irritable;  it  is  of  a  deeper  hue  than  natural,  pinkish 
red  or  red.  Soon  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils  makes  its 
appearance ;  the  eyes  may  also  be  more  or  less  affected  and  tears  flow 
over  the  cheeks.  The  animal  has  some  fever,  which  may  be  easily 
detected  by  means  of  a  clinical  thermometer  inserted  in  the  rectum 
or,  roughly,  by  placing  the  finger  in  the  mouth,  as  the  feeling  of  heat 
conveyed  to  the  finger  will  be  greater  than  natural. 

To  become  somewhat  expert  in  ascertaining  the  changes  of  temper- 
ature in  the  horse  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  the  finger  often  in  the 
mouths  of  horses  known  to  be  healthy.  After  you  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  warmth  of  the  mouth  of  the  healthy  animal  you  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  detecting  a  marked  increase  of  the  temperature. 
The  animal  may  be  dull;  he  sneezes  or  snorts,  but  does  not  cough 
unless  the  throat  is  affected;  he  expels  the  air  forcibly  through  his 
nostrils,  very  often  in  a  manner  that  may  be  aptly  called  "  blowing 
his  nose."  A  few  days  after  the  attack  begins  the  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  changes  from  a  watery  to  that  of  a  thick,  mucilaginous 
state,  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  and  may  be  more  or  less  profuse. 
Often  the  appetitie  is  lost  and  the  animal  becomes  debilitated. 

Treatment. — This  disease  is  not  serious  but  inasmuch  as  neglect  or 
bad  treatment  may  cause  it  to  lead  to  something  worse  or  become 
chronic,  it  should  receive  proper  attention.  The  animal  should  not  be 
worked  for  a  time.  A  few  days  of  quiet  rest,  with  pure  air  and  good 
food,  will  be  of  greater  benefit  than  most  medication.    The  value  of 


108  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

pure  air  can  not  be  overestimated,  but  drafts  must  be  avoided.  The 
benefit  derived  from  the  inhalation  of  steam  is  considerable.  This 
is  effected  by  holding  the  horse's  head  over  a  bucketful  of  boiling 
water,  so  that  the  animal  will  be  compelled  to  inhale  steam  with 
every  inhalation  of  air.  Stirring  the  hot  water  with  a  wisp  of  hay 
causes  the  steam  to  arise  in  greater  abundance.  One  may  cause  the 
horse  to  put  his  nose  in  a  bag  containing  cut  hay  upon  which  hot 
water  has  been  poured,  the  bottom  of  the  bag  being  stood  in  a  bucket, 
but  the  bag  must  be  of  loose  texture,  as  gunny  sack,  or,  if  of  canvas, 
holes  must  be  cut  in  the  side  to  admit  fresh  air. 

The  horse  may  be  made  to  inhale  steam  four  or  five  times  a  day, 
about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  each  time. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  diet.  Give  bran  mashes, 
scalded  oats,  linseed  gruel,  and  grass,  if  in  season.  If  the  horse 
evinces  no  desire  for  this  soft  diet,  it  is  better  to  allow  any  kind  of 
food  he  will  eat,  such  as  hay,  oats,  corn,  etc.,  than  to  keep  him  on 
short  rations. 

If  the  animal  is  constipated,  relieve  this  symptom  by  injections 
(enemas)  of  warm  water  into  the  rectum  three  of  four  times  a  day, 
but  do  not  administer  purgative  medicines,  excepting  of  a  mild 
character. 

For  simple  cases  the  foregoing  is  all  that  is  required,  but  if  the 
appetite  is  lost  and  the  animal  appears  debilitated  and  dull,  give  3 
ounces  of  the  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia  and  2  drams  of  pow- 
dered chlorate  of  potassium  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water  three  times  a 
day  as  a  drench.  Be  careful  when  giving  the  drench ;  do  not  pound 
the  horse  on  the  gullet  to  make  him  swallow;  be  patient,  and  take 
time,  and  do  it  right. 

If  the  weather  be  cold,  blanket  the  animal  and  keep  him  in  a  com- 
fortable stall.  If  the  throat  is  sore,  treat  as  advised  for  that  ailment, 
to  be  described  hereafter. 

If,  after  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  con- 
tinues, give  one-half  dram  of  reduced  iron  three  times  a  day.  This 
may  be  mixed  with  damp  feed.  Common  cold  should  be  thoroughly 
understood  and  intelligently  treated  in  order  to  prevent  more  danger- 
ous diseases. 

CHRONIC  CATARRH    (OR   NASAL  OLEET,  OR   COLLECTION   IN  THE   SINUSES) . 

This  is  a  subacute  or  chronic  inflammation  of  some  part  of  the 
monibrane  affected  in  common  cold,  the  disease  just  described.  It  is 
manifp-sted  by  a  persistent  discharge  of  a  thick  white  or  yellowish 
white  matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils.  The  commonest  cause  is  a 
neglecte<l  or  badly  treated  cold,  and  it  usually  follows  those  cases 
where  the  horse  has  stiff ered  exposure,  been  overworked,  or  has  not 
received  proper  food,  and,  as  a  consequence,  has  become  debilitated. 


CHRONIC    CATABRH    ( NASAL   GLEBT).  109 

Other  but  less  frequent  causes  for  this  affection  are:  Fractures  of 
the  bones  that  involve  the  membrane  of  the  sinuses,  and  even  blows 
on  the  head  over  the  sinuses.  Diseased  teeth  often  involve  a  sinus 
and  cause  a  fetid  discharge  from  the  nostril.  Violent  coughing  is 
said  to  have  forced  particles  of  food  into  the  sinus,  which  acted  as  a 
cause  of  the  disease.  Tumors  growing  in  the  sinuses  are  known  to 
have  caused  it.  It  is  also  attributed  to  disease  of  the  turbinated 
bones.  Absorption  of  the  bones  forming  the  walls  of  the  sinuses  has 
been  caused  by  the  pressure  of  pus  collecting  in  them  and  by  tumors 
filling  up  the  cavity. 

Symptoms. — Great  caution  must  be -exercised  when  examining  these 
cases,  for  the  horse  may  have  glanders,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
horses  have  been  condemned  as  glandered  when  really  there  was 
nothing  ailing  them  but  nasal  gleet.  This  affection  is  not  contagious. 
It  may  stubbornly  resist  treatment  and  last  for  a  long  time.  In 
most  cases  the  discharge  is  from  one  nostril  only,  which  may  signify 
that  the  sinuses  on  that  side  of  the  head  are  affected.  The  discharge 
may  be  intermittent,  that  is,  quantities  may  be  discharged  at  times 
and  again  little  or  none  for  a  day  or  so.  Such  an  intermittent  dis- 
charge usually  signifies  disease  of  the  sinuses.  The  glands  under 
and  between  the  bones  of  the  lower  jaw  may  be  enlarged.  The  pecul- 
iar ragged-edged  ulcer  of  glanders  is  not  to  be  found  on  the  mem- 
brane within  the  nostrils,  but  occasionally  sores  are  to  be  seen  there. 
If  there  is  any  doubt  about  it,  study  well  the  symptoms  of  glanders 
to  enable  you  to  be  at  least  competent  to  form  a  safe  opinion. 

The  eye  on  the  side  of  the  discharging  nostril  may  have  a  peculiar 
appearance  and  look  smaller  than  its  fellow.  There  may  be  an 
enlargement,  having  the  appearance  of  a  bulging  out  of  the  bone 
over  the  part  affected,  between  or  below  the  eyes.  The  breath  may 
be  offensive,  which  indicates  decomposition  of  the  matter  or  bones, 
or  disease  of  the  teeth.  A  diseased  tooth  is  further  indicated  by  the 
horse  holding  his  head  to  one  side  when  eating,  or  by  dropping  the 
food  from  the  mouth  after  partly  chewing  it.  AVhen  you  tap  on 
the  bones  between  the  eyes,  below  the  eyes,  and  above  the  back  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw,  a  hollow,  drumlike  sound  is  emitted,  but  if  the 
sinus  is  filled  with  pus  or  contains  a  large  tumor  the  sound  emitted 
will  be  the  same  as  if  a  solid  substance  were  struck;  by  this  means 
the  sinus  affected  may  be  located  in  some  instances.  The  hair  may 
be  rough  over  the  affected  part,  or  even  the  bone  may  be  soft  to 
the  touch  and  the  part  give  somewhat  to  pressure  or  leave  an  impres- 
sion where  it  is  pressed  upon  with  the  finger. 

Treatment. — The  cause  of  the  trouble  must  be  ascertained  before 
treatment  is  commenced.  In  the  many  cases  where  the  animal  is  in 
poor  condition  (in  fact,  in  all  cases)  he  should  have  the  most  nutri- 


110  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

tive  food  and  regular  exercise.  The  food,  or  box  containing  it, 
should  l>e  placed  on  the  ground,  as  the  dependent  position  of  the  head 
favors  the  discharge. 

The  cases  that  do  not  require  a  surgical  operation  must,  as  a  rule, 
have  persistent  medical  treatment.  Mineral  tonics  and  local  medica- 
tion are  of  the  most  value.  For  eight  days  give  the  following  mix- 
ture :  Reduced  iron,  3  ounces ;  powdered  nux  vomica,  1  ounce.  Mix 
and  make  into  sixteen  powders.  Give  one  powder  mixed  with  the 
food  twice  a  day.  Arsenious  acid  (white  arsenic)  in  doses  of  from 
3  to  6  grains  three  times  daily  is  a  good  tonic  for  such  cases.  Sulphur 
burnt  in  the  stable  while  the  animal  is  there  to  inhale  its  fumes  is  also 
a  valuable  adjunct.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  fumes  of  the 
burning  sulphur  are  sufficiently  diluted  with  air,  so  as  not  to  suffocate 
the  horse.  Chloride  of  lime  sprinkled  around  the  stall  is  good.  Also 
keep  a  quantity  of  the  chloride  under  the  hay  in  the  manger,  so  that 
the  gases  will  be  inhaled  as  the  horse  holds  his  head  over  the  hay 
while  eating.  Keep  the  nostrils  washed,  and  keep  the  discharge 
cleaned  away  from  the  manger  and  stall.  The  horse  may  be  caused 
to  inhale  creolin  vapor  or  the  vapor  of  compound  tincture  of  benzoin 
by  pouring  2  ounces  of  these  drugs  into  hot  water  and  fumigating  in 
the  usual  way. 

If  the  nasal  gleet  is  the  result  of  a  diseased  tooth,  the  tooth  must 
be  removed.  The  operation  of  trephining  is  the  best  possible  way  to 
remove  the  tooth  in  such  cases,  as  it  immediately  opens  the  cavity 
which  can  be  attended  to  direct.  In  all  those  cases  of  nasal  gleet 
where  sinuses  contain  either  collections  of  pus  or  tumors,  the  only 
relief  is  by  the  trephine ;  and,  no  matter  how  thoroughly  described, 
this  is  an  operation  that  will  be  very  seldom  attempted  by  the  non- 
professional. It  would  therefore  be  a  waste  of  time  to  give  the  modus 
operandi.  . 

An  absceas  involving  the  turbinated  Iwnes  is  similar  to  the  collection 
of  pus  in  the  sinuses,  and  must  be  relieved  by  trephining. 

THICKENING  OF  THE  MEMBRANE. 

This  is  sometimes  denoted  by  a  chronic  discharge,  a  snuffling  in  the 
breathing,  and  a  contraction  of  the  nostril.  It  is  a  result  of  common 
cold  and  requires  the  same  treatment  as  prescriljed  for  nasal  gleet, 
namely,  the  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper,  iodide  of  potassium, 
etc.  The  membranes  of  both  sides  may  be  affected,  but  one  side  only 
is  the  rule;  and  the  affected  side  may  he  easily  detected  by  holding 
the  hand  tightly  over  one  nostril  at  a  time.  When  the  healthy  side  is 
closed  in  this  manner,  the  breathing  through  the  affected  side  will 
demonstrate  a  decreased  caliber  or  an  obstruction. 


TUMORS   IN    NOSE   AND   PHARYNX.  Ill 

NASAL   POLYPUS. 

Tumors  with  narrow  bases  (somewhat  pear-shaped)  are  occasion- 
ally found  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  chambers,  and  are 
obstructions  to  breathing  through  the  side  in  which  they  are  located. 
They  vary  much  in  size ;  some  are  so  small  that  their  presence  is  not 
manifested,  while  others  almost  completely  fill  up  the  chamber, 
thereby  causing  a  serious  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air.  The  stem, 
or  base,  of  the  tumor  is  generally  attached  high  up  in  the  chamber, 
and  usually  the  tumor  can  not  be  seen,  but  occasionally  it  increases  in 
size  until  it  can  be  observed  within  the  nostril.  Sometimes,  instead  of 
hanging  down  toward  the  nasal  opening,  it  falls  back  into  the  phar- 
ynx. It  causes  a  discharge  from  the  nostril,  a  more  or  less  noisy 
snuffling  sound  in  breathing,  according  to  its  size,  a  discharge  of 
blood  (if  it  is  injured),  and  sneezing.  The  side  that  it  occupies  can 
be  detected  in  the  same  way  as  described  for  the  detection  of  the 
affected  side  when  the  breathing  is  obstructed  by  a  thickened  mem- 
brane. 

The  only  relief  is  removal  of  the  polypus,  which,  like  all  other 
operations,  should  be  done  by  an  expert  when  it  is  possible  to  secure 
one.  The  operation  is  performed  by  grasping  the  base  of  the  tumor 
with  suitable  forceps  and  twisting  it  round  and  round  until  it  is  torn 
from  its  attachment,  or  by  cutting  it  off  with  a  noose  of  wire.  The 
resulting  hemorrhage  is  checked  by  the  use  of  an  astringent  lotion, 
such  as  a  solution  of  the  tincture  of  iron,  or  by  packing  the  nostrils 
with  surgeon's  gauze. 

PHARYNGEAL    POLYPUS. 

This  is  exactly  the  same  kind  of  tumor  described  as  nasal  polypus, 
the  only  difference  being  in  the  situation.  Indeed,  the  stem  of  the 
tumor  may  be  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  chamber,  as 
before  explained,  or  it  may  be  attached  in  the  fauces  (opening  of  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth),  and  the  body  of  the  tumor  then  falls  into 
the  pharynx.  In  this  situation  it  may  seriously  interfere  with  breath- 
ing. Sometimes  it  drops  into  the  larynx,  causing  the  most  alarming 
symptoms.  The  animal  coughs,  or  tries  to  cough,  saliva  flows  from 
the  mouth,  the  breathing  is  performed  w4th  the  greatest  difficulty  and 
accompanied  by  a  loud  noise ;  the  animal  appears  as  if  strangled  and 
often  falls  exhausted.  When  the  tumor  is  coughed  out  of  the  larynx 
the  animal  regains  quickly  and  soon  appears  as  if  nothing  was  ailing. 
These  sudden  attacks  and  quick  recoveries  point  to  the  nature  of  the 
trouble.  The  examination  must  be  made  by  holding  the  animal's 
mouth  open  with  a  balling  iron  or  speculum  and  running  the  hand 
back  into  the  mouth.  If  the  tumor  is  within  reach,  it  must  be  re- 
moved in  the  same  manner  as  though  it  were  in  the  nose. 


112  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

BLEEDING   FROM    THE    NOSE. 

This  often  occurs  during  the  course  of  certain  diseases,  namely, 
influenza,  bronchitis,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  glanders,  etc.  But  it 
also  occurs  independent  of  other  affections;  and,  as  before  mentioned, 
is  a  symptom  of  polypus,  or  tumor,  in  the  nose. 

Injuries  to  the  head,  exertion,  violent  sneezing — causing  a  rupture 
of  a  small  blood  vessel — also  induce  it.  The  bleeding  is  almost  inva- 
riably from  one  nostril  only,  and  is  never  very  serious.  The  blood 
escapes  in  drops  (very  seldom  in  a  stream)  and  is  not  frothy,  as  when 
the  hemorrhage  is  from  the  lungs.  (See  Bleeding  from  the  lungs, 
p.  130.)  In  most  cases  bathing  the  head  and  washing  out  the  nostril 
with  cold  water  are  all  that  is  necessary.  If  the  cause  is  known,  you 
will  be  guided  according  to  circmnstances.  If  the  bleeding  continues, 
pour  ice-cold  water  over  the  face,  between  the  eyes  and  down  over 
the  nasal  chambers.  A  bag  containing  ice  in  small  pieces  applied  to 
the  head  is  often  efficient.  If  in  spite  of  these  measures  the  hemor- 
rhage continues,  try  plugging  the  nostrils  with  cotton,  tow,  or  oakum. 
Tie  a  string  around  the  plug  before  it  is  pushed  up  into  the  nostril, 
so  that  it  can  be  safely  withdrawn  after  four  or  five  hours.  If  both 
nostrils  are  bleeding,  plug  only  one  nostril  at  a  time.  If  the  hemor- 
rhage is  profuse  and  persistent,  give  a  drench  composed  of  1  dram  of 
acetate  of  lead  dissolved  in  1  pint  of  water ;  or  ergot,  1  ounce. 

•      INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   PHARYNX. 

As  already  stated,  the  pharynx  is  common  to  the  functions  of  both 
respiration  and  alimentation.  From  this  organ  the  air  passes  into  the 
larynx  and  thence  onward  to  the  lungs.  In  the  posterior  part  of  the 
pharynx  is  the  superior  extremity  of  the  gullet,  the  canal  through 
which  the  food  and  water  pass  to  the  stomach.  Inflammation  of  th« 
pharynx  is  a  complication  of  other  diseases — namely,  influenza, 
strangles,  etc. — and  is  probablj'  always  more  or  less  complicated  with 
inflammation  of  the  larynx.  That  it  may  exist  as  an  independent 
affection  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  and  it  is  discussed  as  such  with 
the  diseases  of  the  digestive  tract. 

SORE    THROAT,   OR    LARYNGITIS. 

The  Inrynx  is  situated  in  the  space  between  the  lower  jawbones  just 
back  of  the  root  of  the  tongue.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  box  (some- 
what depressed  on  each  side),  composed  principally  of  cartilages  and 
small  mtiscles,  and  lined  on  the  inside  with  a  continuation  of  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane.  Posteriorly  it  opens  into  and  is  contin- 
uous with  the  windpipe.  It  is  the  organ  of  the  voice,  the  vocal  cords 
being  situated  within  it:  but  in  the  horse  this  function  is  of  little  con- 
sequence. It  dilates  and  contracts  to  a  certain  extent,  thus  regulating 
the  volume  of  air  passing  through  it.    The  mucous  membrane  lining 


SOEE    THROAT,  OR    LARYNGITIS.  113 

it  internally  is  so  highly  sensitive  that  if  the  smallest  particle  of  food 
happens  to  drop  into  it  from  the  pharynx  violent  coughing  ensues 
instantly  and  is  continued  until  the  source  of  irritation  is  ejected. 
This  is  a  provision  of  nature  to  prevent  foreign  substances  gaining 
access  to  the  lungs.  That  projection  called  Adam's  apple  in  the  neck 
of  man  is  the  prominent  part  of  one  of  the  cartilages  forming  the 
larynx. 

Inflammation  of  the  larynx  is  a  serious  and  sometimes  a  fatal  dis- 
ease, and,  as  before  stated,  is  usually  complicated  with  inflammation 
of  the  pharynx,  constituting  what  is  popularly  known  as  "  sore 
throat."    The  chief  causes  are  chilling  and  exposure. 

Symptoms. — About  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  cough,  followed  by 
difficulty  in  swallowing,  which  may  be  due  to  soreness  of  the  mem- 
brane of  the  pharynx,  over  which  the  food  or  water  must  pass,  or  to 
the  pain  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  necessary  to  impel 
the  food  or  water  onward  to  the  gullet;  or  this  same  contraction  of 
the  muscles  may  cause  a  pressure  on  the  larynx  and  produce  pain.  In 
many  instances  the  difficulty  in  swallowing  is  so  great  that  water,  and 
in  some  cases  food,  is  returned  through  the  nose.  This,  however, 
does  not  occur  from  laryngitis  alone,  but  only  when  the  pharynx  is 
involved  in  the  inflammation.  The  glands  between  the  lower  jaw- 
bones and  below  the  ears  may  be  swollen.  Pressure  on  the  larynx 
induces  coughing.  The  head  is  more  or  less  "  poked  out,"  and  has 
the  appearance  of  being  stiffly  carried.  The  membrane  in  the 'nose 
becomes  red.  A  discharge  from  the  nostrils  soon  appears.  As  the 
disease  advances,  the  breathing  may  assume  a  more  or  less  noisy  char- 
acter ;  sometimes  a  harsh  rasping  snore  is  emitted  with  every  respira- 
tion, the  breathing  becomes  hurried,  and  occasionally  the  animal 
seems  threatened  with  suffocation. 

Treatm^ent. — In  all  cases  steam  the  nostrils,  as  has  been  advised  for 
cold  in  the  head.  In  bad  cases  cause  the  steam  to  be  inhaled  continu- 
ously for  hours — until  relief  is  afforded.  Have  a  fresh  bucketful  of 
boiling  water  every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  In  each  bucketful  of 
water  put  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine,  or  compound  tincture 
of  benzoin,  the  vapor  of  which  will  be  carried  along  with  the  steam  to 
the  affected  parts  and  have  a  beneficial  effect.  In  mild  cases  steaming 
the  nostrils  five,  six,  or  seven  times  a  day  will  suffice. 

The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  comfortable,  dry  stall  (a  box  stall 
preferred),  and  should  have  a  pure  atmosphere  to  breathe.  The  body 
should  be  blanketed,  and  bandages  applied  to  the  legs.  The  diet 
should  consist  of  soft  food — bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  linseed  gruel, 
and,  best  of  all,  grass,  if  in  season,  which  should  be  fresh.  The  man- 
ger, or  trough,  should  not  be  too  high  nor  too  low,  but  a  temporary 
one  should  be  constructed  at  about  the  height  he  carries  his  head. 

H.  Doc.  795, 59-2 8 


114  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

Having  to  reach  too  high  or  too  low  may  cause  so  much  pain  that  the 
animal  would  rather  forego  satisfying  what  little  appetite  he  might 
have  than  inflict  pain  by  craning  his  head  for  food  or  water.  A  sup- 
ply of  fresh  water  should  be  before  him  all  the  time ;  he  will  not  drink 
too  much,  nor  will  the  cold  water  hurt  him.  Constipation  (if  pres- 
ent) must  be  relieved  by  enemas  of  warm  water,  administered  three  or 
four  times  during  the  twenty-four  hours. 

A  liniment  composed  of  2  ounces  of  olive  oil  and  1  ounce  each  of 
solution  of  ammonia  and  tincture  of  cantharides,  well  shaken  to- 
gether, may  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in  about  the  throat  from  ear  to 
ear,  and  about  G  inches  down  over  the  windpipe,  and  in  the  space  be- 
tween the  lower  jaws.  This  liniment  should  be  applied  once  a  day  for 
two  or  three  days. 

If  the  animal  is  breathing  with  great  diflficulty,  persevere  in  steam- 
ing the  nostrils,  and  dissolve  2  drams  of  chlorate  of  potassium  in 
every  gallon  of  water  he  will  drink ;  even  if  he  can  not  swallow  much 
of  it,  and  even  if  it  is  returned  through  the  nostrils,  it  will  be  of  some 
benefit  to  the  pharynx  as  a  gargle. 

An  electuary  of  acetate  of  potash,  2  drams,  honey,  and  licorice  pow- 
der may  be  spread  on  the  teeth  with  a  paddle  every  few  hours.  If 
the  pain  of  coughing  is  great,  2  or  3  grains  of  morphine  may  be  added 
to  the  electuary. 

When  the  breathing  begins  to  be  loud  relief  is  afforded  in  some  cases 
by  giving  a  drench  composed  of  2  drams  of  fluid  extract  of  jaborandi 
in  half  a  pint  of  water.  If  benefit  is  derived,  this  drench  may  be 
repeated  four  or  five  hours  after  the  first  dose  is  given.  It  will  cause 
a  free  flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth. 

In  urgent  cases,  when  suffocation  seems  inevitable,  the  operation  of 
tracheotomy  must  be  performed.  To  describe  this  operation  in  words 
that  would  make  it  comprehensible  to  the  general  reader  is  a  more 
difficult  task  than  performing  the  operation,  which,  in  the  hands  of 
the  expert,  is  simple  and  attended  with  little  danger. 

The  operator  should  l)e  provided  with  a  tracheotomy  tube  (to  be 
purchased  from  any  veterinary  instrument  maker)  and  a  sharp  knife, 
a  sponge,  and  a  bucket  of  clean  cold  water.  The  place  to  be  selected 
for  opening  the  windpipe  is  that  part  which  is  found,  upon  examina- 
tion, to  be  least  covered  with  muscles,  about  .')  or  6  inches  below  the 
throat.  Right  here,  then,  is  the  place  to  cut  through.  Have  an 
assistant  hold  the  animal's  head  still.  Grasp  your  knife  firmly  in 
the  right  hand,  select  the  spot  and  make  the  cut  from  above  to  below 
directly  on  the  median  line  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  windpipe. 
Make  the  cut  about  2  inches  long  m  the  wirtdpipe;  this  necessitates 
cutting  three  or  four  rings.  One  l>old  stroko  is  usually  sufficient,  but 
if  it  is  necessary  to  make  several  other  cuts  to  finish  the  operation,  do 


SORE    THROAT,  OR   LARYNGITIS.  115 

not  hesitate.  Your  purpose  is  to  make  a  hole  in  the  windpipe  suffi- 
ciently large  to  admit  the  tracheotomy  tube.  It  is  quicklj^  manifested 
when  the  windpipe  is  severed ;  the  hot  air  rushes  out,  and  when  air 
is  taken  in  it  is  sucked  in  with  a  noise.  A  slight  hemorrhage  may 
result  (it  never  amounts  to  much) ,  which  is  easily  controlled  by  wash- 
ing the  wound  with  a  sponge  and  cold  water,  but  use  care  not  to  get 
any  water  in  the  windpipe.  Do  not  neglect  to  instruct  your  assistant 
to  hold  the  head  down  immediately  after  the  operation,  so  that  the 
neck  will  be  in  a  horizontal  line.  This  will  prevent  the  blood  getting 
into  the  windpipe  and  allow  it  to  drop  directly  on  the  ground.  If 
you  have  the  self -adjustable  tube,  it  retains  its  place  in  the  wound 
without  further  trouble  after  it  is  inserted.  The  other  kind  requires 
to  be  secured  in  position  by  means  of  two  tapes  or  strings  tied  around 
the  neck.  After  the  hemorrhage  is  somewhat  abated,  sponge  the 
blood  away  and  see  that  the  tube  is  thoroughly  clean,  then  insert  it, 
directing  the  tube  downward  toward  the  lungs. 

The  immediate  relief  this  operation  affords  is  gratifying  to  behold. 
The  animal,  a  few  minutes  before  on  the  verge  of  death  from  suffoca- 
tion, emitting  a  loud  wheezing  sound  with  every  breath,  with  haggard 
countenance,  body  swaying,  pawing,  gasping,  fighting  for  breath, 
now  breathes  tranquilly,  and  may  be  in  search  of  something  to  eat. 

The  tube  should  be  removed  once  a  day  and  cleaned  with  the  car- 
bolic acid  solution  (1  to  20),  and  the  discharge  washed  away  from  the 
wound  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  1  part  to  40  parts  water. 
Several  times  a  day  the  hand  should  be  held  over  the  opening  in  the 
tube  to  test  the  animal's  ability  to  breathe  through  the  nostrils,  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  demonstrated  that  breathing  can  be  performed  in  the 
natural  way  the  tube  should  be  removed,  the  wound  thoroughly 
cleansed  with  the  carbolic  acid  solution  (1  to  40),  and  closed  by  in- 
serting four  or  five  stitches  through  the  skin  and  muscle.  Do  not 
include  the  cartilages  of  the  windpipe  in  the  stitches.  Apply  the 
carbolic  acid  solution  to  the  wound  three  or  four  times  a  day  until 
healed.  When  the  tube  is  removed  to  clean  it  the  lips  of  the  wound 
may  be  pressed  together  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  horse  can 
breathe  through  the  larynx.  The  use  of  the  tube  should  be  discon- 
tinued as  soon  as  possible. 

It  is  true  that  tracheotomy  tubes  are  seldom  to  be  found  on  farms, 
and  especially  when  most  urgently  required.  In  such  instances  there 
is  nothing  left  to  be  dore  but,  with  a  strong  needle,  pass  a  wax  end 
or  other  strong  string  through  each  side  of  the  wound,  including  the 
cartilage  of  the  windpipe,  and  keep  the  wound  open  by  tying  the 
strings  over  the  neck. 

During  the  time  the  tube  is  used  the  other  treatment  advised  must 
not  be  neglected.     After  a  few  days  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils 


116  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

becomes  thicker  and  more  profuse.  This  is  a  good  symptom  and  sig- 
nifies that  the  acute  stage  has  passed.  At  any  time  during  the  attack, 
if  the  horse  becomes  weak,  give  whisky  or  aromatic  spirits  of  ammo- 
nia, 2  ounces  in  water.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  put  the  animal  back 
to  work,  but  give  plenty  of  time  for  a  complete  recovery.  Gentle  and 
gradually  increasing  exercise  may  be  given  as  soon  as  the  horse  is  able 
to  stand  it.  The  food  should  be  carefully  selected  and  of  good  qual- 
ity.    Tonics,  as  iron  or  arsenic,  may  be  employed. 

If  abscesses  form  in  connection  with  the  disease  they  must  be 
opened  to  allow  the  escape  of  pus,  but  do  not  rashly  plunge  a  knife 
into  swollen  glands ;  wait  until  you  are  certain  the  swelling  contains 
pus.  The  formation  of  pus  may  be  encouraged  by  the  constant  appli- 
cation of  poultices  for  hours  at  a  time.  The  best  poultice  for  the 
purpose  is  made  of  linseed  meal,  with  sufficient  hot  water  to  make  a 
thick  paste.  If  the  glands  remain  swollen  for  some  time  after  the 
attack,  rub  well  over  them  an  application  of  the  following:  Biniodide 
of  mercury,  1  dram ;  lard,  1  ounce ;  mix  well.  This  may  be  applied 
once  every  day  until  the  part  is  blistered. 

Sore  throat  is  also  a  symptom  of  other  diseases,  such  as  influenza, 
strangles,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  etc.,  which  diseases  may  be  con- 
sulted under  their  proper  headings. 

After  a  severe  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  larynx  the  mucous 
membrane  may  be  left  in  a  thickened  condition,  or  an  ulceration  of 
the  part  may  ensue,  either  of  which  is  liable  to  produce  a  chronic 
cough.  For  the  ulceration  it  is  useless  to  prescribe,  because  it  can 
neither  be  diagnosed  nor  topically  treated  by  the  nonprofessional. 

If  a  chronic  cough  remains  after  all  the  other  symptoms  have  dis- 
appeared, it  is  advisable  to  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium  dis- 
solved in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water,  one  hour  before  feeding, 
three  times  a  day  for  a  month  if  necessary.  Also  rub  in  well  the 
preparation  of  iodide  of  mercury  (as  advised  for  the  swollen  glands) 
about  the  throat,  from  ear  to  ear,  and  in  the  space  between  the  lower 
jaw  lx)ne«.  The  application  may  be  repeated  every  third  day  until 
the  part  is  blistered. 

BPASM   or   THE   LARVNX. 

The  symptoms  are  as  follows:  Sudden  seizure  by  a  violent  fit  of 
coughing:  the  horse  may  reel  and  fall,  and  after  a  few  minutes  re- 
cover and  be  as  well  as  ever.  The  treatment  recommended  is  this: 
Tliree  drams  of  bromide  of  potassium  three  times  a  day,  dissolved  in 
the  drinking  water,  or  give  as  a  drench  in  about  a  half  pint  of  water 
for  a  week.  Then  give  1  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica  (either  on 
the  food  or  shaken  with  water  as  a  drench)  once  a  day  for  a  few 
weeks. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    THROAT.  117 


CROUP    AND    DIPHTHERIA. 

Neither  of  these  diseases  affects  the  horse.  But  these  names  are 
sometimes  wrongly  applied  to  severe  laryngitis  or  pharyngitis,  or  to 
forage  poisoning,  in  which  the  throat  is  paralyzed  and  becomes  exces- 
sively inflamed  and  gangrenous. 

THICK    WIND   AND   ROARING. 

Horses  that  are  affected  with  a  chronic  disease  that  causes  a  loud 
unnatural  noise  in  breathing  are  said  to  have  thick  wind,'  or  to  be 
roarers.  This  class  does  not  include  those  affected  with  severe  sore 
throat,  as  in  these  cases  the  breathing  is  noisy  only  during  the  attack 
of  the  acute  disease. 

Thick  wind  is  caused  by  an  obstruction  to  the  free  passage  of  the 
air  in  some  part  of  the  respiratory  tract.  Nasal  polypi,  thickening  of 
the  membrane,  pharyngeal  polypi,  deformed  bones,  paralysis  of  the 
wing  of  the  nostril,  etc.,  are  occasional  causes.  The  noisy  breathing 
of  horses  after  having  been  idle  and  put  to  sudden  exertion  is  not  due 
to  any  disease  and  is  only  temporary.  Very  often  a  nervous,  excitable 
horse  will  make  a  noise  for  a  short  time  when  started  off,  generally 
caused  by  the  cramped  position  in  which  the  head  and  neck  are  forced 
in  order  to  hold  him  back. 

Many  other  causes  may  occasion  temporary,  intermitting,  or  per- 
manent noisy  respiration,  but  chronic  roaring  is  caused  by  paralysis 
of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx ;  and  almost  invariably  it  is  the  muscles 
of  the  left  side  of  the  larynx  that  are  affected. 

In  chronic  roaring  the  noise  is  made  when  the  air  is  drawn  into  the 
lungs ;  and  only  when  the  disease  is  far  advanced  is  a  sound  produced 
when  the  air  is  expelled,  and  even  then  it  is  not  near  so  loud  as  during 
inspiration. 

In  a  normal  condition  the  muscles  dilate  the  aperture  of  the  larynx 
by  moving  outward  the  cartilage  and  vocal  cord,  allowing  a  sufficient 
volume  of  air  to  rush  through.  But  when  the  muscles  are  paralyzed 
the  cartilage  and  vocal  cord  that  are  normally  controlled  by  the 
affected  muscles  lean  into  the  tube  of  the  larynx,  so  that  when  the  air 
rushes  in  it  meets  this  obstruction  and  the  noise  is  produced,  "^^^len 
the  air  is  expelled  from  the  lungs  its  very  force  pushes  the  cartilage 
and  vocal  cords  out,  and  consequently  noise  is  not  produced  in  the 
expiratory  act. 

The  paralysis  of  the  muscles  is  due  to  derangement  of  the  nerve 
that  supplies  them  with  energy.  The  muscles  of  both  sides  are  not 
supplied  by  the  same  nerve;  there  is  a  right  and  a  left  nerve,  each 
supplying  its  respective  side.  The  reason  why  the  muscles  on  the 
left  side  are  the  ones  usually  paralyzed  is  owing  to  the  difference  in 


llg  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOBSE. 

the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  nerves.  The  left  nerve  is  much 
longer  and  more  exposed  to  interference  than  the  right  nerve. 

In  chronic  roaring  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  disease  of  the  larynx 
other  than  the  wasted  condition  of  the  muscles  in  question.  The 
disease  of  the  nerve  is  generally  located  far  from  the  larynx.  Dis- 
ease of  parts  contiguous  to  the  nerve  along  any  part  of  its  course 
may  interfere  with  its  proper  function.  Enlargement  of  lymphatic 
glands  within  the  chest  through  which  the  nerve  passes  on  its  way 
back  to  the  larynx  is  the  most  frequent  interruption  of  nervous  sup- 
ply, and  consequently  roaring.  When  roaring  becomes  confirmed, 
medical  treatment  is  entirely  useless,  as  it  is  impossible  to  restore  the 
wasted  muscle  and  at  the  same  time  remove  the  cause  of  the  interrup- 
tion of  the  nervous  supply.  Before  roaring  becomes  permanent  the 
condition  may  be  benefited  by  a  course  of  iodide  of  potassium,  if 
caused  by  disease  of  the  lymphatic  glands.  Electricity  has  been  used 
with  indifferent  success.  Blistering  or  firing  over  the  larynx  is,  of 
course,  not  worthy  of  trial  if  the  disease  is  due  to  interference  of  the 
nerve  supply.  The  administration  of  strychnia  (nux  vomica)  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  a  nerve  tonic  with  the  view  of  stimulating  the  af- 
fected muscles  is  treating  only  the  result  of  the  disease  without  con- 
sidering the  caus6,  and  is  therefore  useless.  The  operation  of  extir- 
pating the  collapsed  cartilage  and  vocal  cord  is  believed  to  be  the 
only  relief,  and,  as  this  operation  is  critical  and  can  only  be  per- 
formed by  the  skillful  veterinarian,  it  will  not  be  described  here. 

From  the  foregoing  description  of  the  disease  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  name  "  roaring,"  by  which  the  disease  is  generally  known,  is  only 
a  symptom  and  not  the  disease.  Chronic  roaring  is  also  in  many 
cases  accompanied  by  a  cough.  The  best  way  to  test  whether  a  horse 
is  a  "  roarer  "  is  either  to  make  him  pull  a  load  rapidly  up  a  hill  or 
over  a  sandy  road  or  soft  ground ;  or,  if  he  is  a  saddle  horse,  gallop 
him  up  a  hill  or  o\'er  soft  ground.  The  object  is  to  make  him  exert 
himself.  Some  horses  require  a  great  deal  more  exertion  than  others 
before  the  characteristic  sound  is  emitted.  The  greater  the  distance 
he  is  forced,  the  more  he  will  appear  exhausted  if  he  is  a  roarer;  in 
bad  cases  the  animal  becomes  utterly  exhausted,  the  breathing  is 
rapid  and  difficult,  the  nostrils  dilate  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  the 
animal  appears  as  if  suffocation  was  imminent. 

An  animal  that  is  a  roarer  should  not  \)e  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses.    The  taint  is  transmissible  in  many  instances. 

Gr^tnting. — A  common  test  used  by  veterinarians  when  examining 
"  the  wind  "  of  a  horse  is  to  see  if  he  is  a  "  grunter."  This  is  a  sound 
emitted  during  expiration  when  the  animal  is  suddenly  moved,  or 
startled,  or  struck  at.  If  he  gnmts  he  is  further  tested  for  roaring. 
Grunters  are  not  always  roarers,  but,  as  it  is  a  common  thing  for  a 
roarer  to  gnmt,  such  an  animal  must  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion 


CHRONIC   BRONCHITIS.  119 

until  he  is  thoroughly  tried  by  pulling  a  load  or  galloped  up  a  hill. 
The  test  should  be  a  severe  one.  'Horses  suffering  with  pleurisy, 
pleurodynia,  or  rheumatism,  and  other  affections  accompanied  with 
much  pain,  will  grunt  when  moved,  or  when  the  pain  is  aggravated, 
but  grunting  under  these  circumstances  does  not  justify  the  term  of 
"  grunter  "  being  applied  to  the  horse,  as  the  grunting  ceases  when 
the  animal  recovers  from  the  disease  that  causes  the  pain. 

High  blowing. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  noisy  breathing  made  by 
some  horses.  It  is  distinctly  a  nasal  sound,  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  "  roaring."  The  sound  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
nostrils.  It  is  a  habit  and  not  an  unsoundness.  Contrary  to  roaring, 
when  the  animal  is  put  to  severe  exertion  the  sound  ceases.  An  ani- 
mal that  emits  this  sound  is  called  a  "  high-blower."  Some  horses 
have,  naturally,  very  narrow  nasal  openings,  and  they  may  emit 
sounds  louder  than  usual  in  their  breathing  when  exercised. 

Whistling  is  only  one  of  the  variations  of  the  sound  emitted  by  a 
horse  called  a  "  roarer,"  and  therefore  needs  no  further  notice,  except 
to  remind  the  reader  that  a  whistling  sound  may  be  produced  during 
an  attack  of  severe  sore  throat  or  inflammation  of  the  larynx,  which 
passes  away  with  the  disease  that  causes  it. 

CHRONIC    BRONCHITIS. 

This  may  be  due  to  the  same  causes  as  acute  bronchitis  or  it  may 
follow  the  latter  disease.  An  attack  of  the  chronic  form  is  liable  to 
be  converted  into  acute  bronchitis  by  a  very  slight  cause.  This 
chronic  affection  in  most  instances  is  associated  with  thickening  of 
the  walls  of  the  tubes.  Its  course  is  slower,  it  is  less  severe,  and  is  not 
accompanied  with  as  much  fever  as  the  acute  form.  If  the  animal  is 
exerted,  the  breathing  becomes  quickened  and  he  soon  shows  signs  of 
exhaustion.  In  many  instances  the  animal  keeps  up  strength  and 
appearances  moderately  well,  but  in  other  cases  the  appetite  is  lost, 
flesh  gradually  disappears,  and  he  becomes  emaciated  and  debilitated. 
It  is  accompanied  by  a  persistent  cough,  which  in  some  cases  is  husky, 
smothered,  or  muffled,  while  in  other  cases  it  is  hard  and  clear.  A 
whitish  matter  is  discharged  from  the  nose,  which  may  be  curdled  in 
some  instances.  If  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  chest  behind  the 
shoulder  blade,  the  rattle  of  the  air  passing  through  the  mucus  can  be 
heard  within. 

Treatment. — Rest  is  necessary,  as  even  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances  a  cure  is  difficult  to  effect.  The  animal  can  not  stand 
exertion  and  should  not  be  compelled  to  undergo  it.  The  animal 
should  have  much  the  same  general  care  and  medical  treatment  pre- 
scribed for  the  acute  form.  Arsenious  acid  in  tonic  doses  (3  to  7 
grains)  three  times  daily  may  be  given.  As  arsenic  is  irritant,  it  must 
be  mixed  with  a  considerable  bulk  of  moist  feed  and  never  given 


120  DISEASES    OF    THE    HOBSE. 

alone.  Arsenic  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  Fowler's  solution,  1 
ounce  three  times  daily  in  the  'drinking  water.  Aji  application  of 
mustard  applied  to  the  breast  is  a  beneficial  adjunct.  The  diet  should 
be  the  most  nourishing.  Avoid  bulky  food.  Linseed  mashes, 
scalded  oats,  and,  if  in  season,  grass  and  green-blade  fodder  are  the 
best  diet 

THE   LUNGS. 

The  lungs  are  the  essential  organs  of  respiration.  They  consist  of 
two  (right  and  left)  spongy  masses,  commonly  called  the  "lights," 
situated  entirely  within  the  thoracic  cavity.  On  account  of  the 
space  taken  up  by  the  heart,  the  left  lung  is  the  smaller.  Externally, 
they  are  completely  covered  by  the  pleura.  The  structure  of  the  lung 
consists  of  a  light,  soft,  but  very  strong  and  remarkably  elastic  tissue, 
which  can  only  be  torn  with  difficulty.  Each  lung  is  divided  into  a 
certain  number  of  lobes,  which  are  subdivided  into  numberless 
lobules  (little  lobes).  A  little  bronchial  tube  terminates  in  every 
one  of  these  lobules.  The  little  tube  then  divides  into  minute 
branches  which  open  into  the  air  cells  (pulmonary  vesicles)  of  the 
lungs.  The  air  cells  are  little  sacs  having  a  diameter  varying  from 
one-seventieth  to  one  two-hundredth  of  an  inch;  they  have  but  one 
opening,  the  communication  with  the  branches  of  the  little  bronchial 
tubes.  Small  blood  vessels  ramify  in  the  walls  of  the  air  cells.  The 
air  cells  are  the  consummation  of  the  intricate  structures  forming 
the  respiratory  apparatus.  They  are  of  prime  importance,  all  the 
rest  being  complementary.  It  is  here  that  the  exchange  of  gases  takes 
place.  As  before  stated,  the  walls  of  the  cells  are  very  thin ;  so,  also, 
are  the  walls  of  the  blood  "vessels.  Through  these  walls  escapes  from 
the  blood  the  carlwnic  acid  gas  that  has  been  absorbed  by  the  blood 
in  its  circulation  through  the  different  parts  of  the  body;  and  through 
these  walls  is  absorUMl  by  the  l)lood,  from  the  air  in  the  air  cells,  the 
oxygen  gas  which  is  the  life-giving  element  of  the  atmosphere. 

CX)NOE8TION    OF    THE    I.UNOS. 

Congestion  is  essentially  an  excess  of  blood  in  the  vessels  of  the 
parts  affected.  Congestion  of  the  lungs  in  the  horse,  when  it  exists 
as  an  independent  affection,  is  generally  caused  by  overexertion  when 
the  animal  is  not  in  a  fit  condition  to  undergo  more  than  moderate 
exercise.  Very  often  what  is  recognized  as  congestion  of  the  lungs 
\h  but  a  symptom  of  exhaustion  or  dilatation  of  the  heart. 

The  methmls  practiced  by  the  trainers  of  running  and  trotting 
horses  will  give  an  idea  of  what  is  termed  "  putting  a  horse  in  condi- 
tion''  to  stand  severe  exertion.  The  animal  at  first  gets  walking 
exercises,  then  after  some  time  he  is  made  to  go  faster  and  farther 
each  day;   the  amount  of  work  is  daily  increased  until  the  horse  is 


CONGESTION    OF    THE    LUNGS.  121 

said  to  be  "in  condition."  An  animal  so  prepared  runs  no  risk  of 
being  affected  with  congestion  of  the  lungs,  if  he  is  otherwise  healthy. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  horse  is  kept  in  the  stable  for  the  purpose 
of  laying  on  fat  or  for  want  of  something  to  do,  the  muscular  system 
becomes  soft,  and  the  horse  is  not  in  condition  to  stand  the  severe 
exertion  of  going  fast  or  far,  no  matter  how  healthy  he  may  be  in 
other  respects.  If  such  a  horse  be  given  a  hard  ride  or  drive,  he  may 
start  off  in  high  spirits,  but  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  if  he  is 
pushed  he  will  slacken  his  pace,  show  a  desire  to  stop,  and  may  stag- 
ger or  even  fall.  Examination  will  show  the  nostrils  dilated,  the 
flanks  heaving,  the  countenance  haggard,  and  the  appearance  of  suf- 
focation. The  heart  and  muscles  were  not  accustomed  to  the  sudden 
and  severe  strain  put  upon  them ;  the  heart  became  unable  to  perform 
its  work;  the  blood  accumulated  in  the  vessels  of  the  lungs,  which 
eventually  became  engrossed  with  the  stagnated  blood,  constituting 
congestion  of  the  lungs. 

The  animal,  after  having  undergone  severe  exertion,  may  not 
exhibit  alarming  symptoms  until  returned  to  the  stable ;  then  he  will 
be  noticed  standing  with  his  head  down,  legs  spread  out,  the  eyes 
wildly  staring  or  dull  and  sunken.  The  breathing  is  very  rapid  and 
almost  gasping ;  the  body  is  covered  with  perspiration  in  most  cases, 
which,  however,  may  soon  evaporate,  leaving  the  surface  of  the  body 
and  the  legs  and  ears  cold ;  the  breathing  is  both  abdominal  and  tho- 
racic ;  the  chest  rises  and  falls  and  the  flanks  are  powerfully  brought 
into  action.  If  the  pulse  can  be  felt  at  all  it  will  be  found  beating 
very  frequently,  one  hundred  or  so  to  a  minute.  The  heart  maj'^  be 
felt  tumultuously  thumping  if  the  hand  is  placed  against  the  chest 
behind  the  left  elbow,  or  it  may  be  scarcely  perceptible.  The  animal 
may  tremble  all  over  the  body.  If  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  side 
of  the  chest  a  loud  murmur  will  be  heard  and  perhaps  a  fine  crackling 
sound. 

One  can  scarcely  fail  to  recognize  a  case  of  congestion  of  the  lungs 
when  brought  on  by  overexertion,  as  the  history  of  the  case  indicates 
the  nature  of  the  ailment.  In  all  cases  of  suffocation  the  lungs  are 
congested.    It  is  also  seen  in  connection  with  other  diseases. 

Treatment. — If  the  animal  is  attacked  by  the  disease  while  on  the 
road,  stop  him  immediately.  Do  not  attempt  to  return  to  the  stables. 
If  he  is  in  the  stable,  make  arrangements  at  once  to  insure  an  unlim- 
ited supply  of  pure  air.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  out  in  the  open  air 
is  the  best  place,  but  if  too  cold  let  him  stand  with  head  to  the  door. 
Let  him  stand  still ;  he  has  all  he  can  do,  if  he  obtains  sufficient  pure 
air  to  sustain  life.  If  he  is  encumbered  with  harness  or  saddle, 
remove  it  at  once  and  rub  the  body  with  cloths  or  wisps  of  hay  or 
straw.  This  stimulates  the  circulation  in  the  skin,  and  thus  aids  in 
relieving  the  lungs  of  the  extra  quantity  of  blood  that  is  stagnated 


122  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

there.  If  you  have  three  or  four  assistants,  let  them  rub  the  body 
and  legs  well  until  the  skin  feels  natural ;  rub  the  legs  until  they  are 
warm,  if  possible.  When  the  circulation  is  reestablished,  put  band- 
ages on  the  legs  from  the  hoofs  up  as  far  as  possible.  Throw  a  blan- 
ket over  the  body  and  let  the  rubbing  be  done  under  the  blanket. 
Diffusible  stimulants  are  the  medicines  indicated — ^brandy,  whisky 
(or  even  ale  or  beer  if  nothing  else  is  at  hand),  ether,  and  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia.  Two  ounces  each  of  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  and 
alcohol,  given  as  a  drench  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water,  every  hour 
until  relief  is  afforded,  is  among  the  best  remedies.  Or,  give  a  quarter 
of  a  pint  of  whisky  in  a  pint  of  water  every  hour,  or  the  same  quan- 
tity of  brandy  as  often,  or  a  quart  of  ale  every  hour,  or  1  ounce  of 
tincture  of  arnica  in  a  pint  of  water  every  hour  until  five  or  six  doses 
have  been  given.  If  none  of  these  remedies  is  at  hand,  2  ounces  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  shaken  with  a  half  pint  of  milk,  may  be  given  once, 
but  not  repeated.  The  animal  may  be  bled  from  the  jugular  vein. 
Do  not  take  more  than  5  or  6  quarts  from  the  vein,  and  do  not  repeat 
the  bleeding.    The  blood  thus  drawn  will  have  a  tarry  appearance. 

When  the  alarming  symptoms  have  subsided  active  measures  may 
be  stopped,  but  care  must  be  used  in  the  general  treatment  of  the  ani- 
mal for  several  days,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  congestion  may 
be  followed  by  pneumonia.  The  animal  should  have  a  comfortable 
stall,  where  he  will  not  be  subjected  to  drafts  or  sudden  changes  of 
temperature;  he  should  be  blanketed  and  the  legs  kept  bandaged. 
The  air  should  be  pure,  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  cold  water  always 
in  the  stall,  and  a  diet  composed  principally  of  bran  mashes,  scalded 
oats,  and,  if  in  season,  grass.  When  ready  for  use  again  the  horse 
should  at  first  receive  moderate  exercise  only,  which  may  be  daily 
increased  until  he  may  safely  be  put  to  regular  work. 

PNEUMONIA,    OR    LUNG    FEVER. 

Pneumonia  is  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  The  chief  varieties  of 
pneumonia  are  catarrhal — later  discussed  in  connection  with  bron- 
chitis, under  the  name  of  broncho-pneumonia — and  the  fibrinous  or 
croupous  variety.  The  latter  form  receives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  air  spaces  are  choked  with  coagulated  fibrin  thrown  out  from 
the  blood.  This  causes  the  diseased  portions  of  the  lungs  to  become 
as  firm  as  liver,  in  which  condition  they  are  said  to  be  hepatized.  As 
air  is  excluded  by  the  inflammatory  product,  the  diseased  lung  will 
not  float  in  water. 

The  inflammation  usually  begins  in  the  lower  part  of  the  lung  and 
extends  upward.  The  first  stage  of  the  disease  consists  of  conges- 
tion, or  engorgement,  of  the  blood  vessels,  followed  by  leakage  of 
serum  containing  fibrin  from  the  blood  vessels  into  the  air  passages. 


PNEUMONIA.  OR   LUNG   FEVER.  123 

The  fluids  thus  escaping  into  the  air  cells  and  in  the  minute  branches 
of  the  little  bronchial  tubes  become  coagulated. 

The  pleura  covering  the  affected  parts  may  be  more  or  less  inflamed. 
A  continuance  of  the  foregoing  phenomena  is  marked  by  a  further 
escape  of  the  constituents  of  the  blood,  and  a  change  in  the  membrane 
of  the  cells,  which  become  swollen.  The  exudate  that  fills  the  air 
cells  and  minute  bronchial  branches  undergoes  disintegration  and 
softening  when  healing  commences. 

The  favorable  termination  of  pneumonia  is  in  resolution,  that  is,  a 
restoration  to  health.  This  is  gradually  brought  about  by  the  exuded 
material  contained  in  the  air  cells  and  lung  tissues  becoming  broken 
down  and  softened  and  absorbed  or  expectorated  through  the  nostrils. 
The  blood  vessels  return  to  their  natural  state,  and  the  blood  circu- 
lates in  them  as  before.  In  the  cases  that  do  not  terminate  so  hap- 
pily the  lung  may  become  gangrenous  (or  mortified),  or  an  abscess 
may  form,  or  the  disease  may  be  merged  into  the  chronic  variety. 

Pneumonia  may  be  directly  induced  by  any  of  the  influences  named 
as  general  causes  for  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  but  in 
many  instances  it  is  due  to  neglect.  A  common  cold  or  sore  throat, 
may  be  followed  by  pneumonia  if  neglected  or  improperly  treated. 
An  animal  may  be  debilitated  by  a  cold,  and  when  in  this  weakened 
state  may  be  compelled  to  undergo  exertion  beyond  his  strength;  or 
he  may  be  kept  in  bad  quarters,  such  as  a  badly  ventilated  stable, 
where  the  foul  gases  are  shut  in  and  the  pure  air  is  shut  out ;  or  the 
stable  may  be  so  open  that  parts  of  the  body  are  exposed  to  drafts  of 
cold  air.  An  animal  is  predisposed  to  pneumonia  when  debilitated 
by  any  constitutional  disease,  and  especially  during  convalescence  if 
exposed  to  any  of  the  exciting  causes.  Foreign  bodies,  such  as  food, 
accidentally  getting  in  the  lungs  by  way  of  the  windpipe,  as  well  as 
the  inhalation  of  irritating  gases  and  smoke,  ofttimes  produce  fatal 
attacks  of  inflammation  of  the  lung  and  bronchial  tubes.  Pneumonia 
is  frequently  seen  in  connection  with  other  diseases,  such  as  influenza, 
purpura  hemorrhagica,  strangles,  glanders,  etc.  Pneumonia  and 
pleurisy  are  most  common  during  cold,  damp  weather,  and  especially 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  cold  north  and  northeasterly  winds. 
Wounds  puncturing  the  thoracic  cavity  may  cause  pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — Pneumonia,  when  a  primary  disease,  is  ushered  in  by 
a  chill,  more  or  less  prolonged,  which  in  many  cases  is  spen  neither 
by  the  owner  nor  the  attendant,  but  is  overlooked.  The  breathing 
becomes  accelerated,  and  the  animal  hangs  its  head  and  has  a  very 
dull  appearance.  The  mouth  is  hot  and  has  a  sticky  feeling  to  the 
touch;  the  heat  conveyed  to  the  finger  in  the  mouth  demonstrates  a 
fever;  if  the  thermometer  is  placed  in  the  rectum  the  temperature 
will  be  found  to  have  risen  to  103°  F.  or  higher.  The  pulse  is  fre- 
quent, beating  from  fifty  or  sixty  to  eighty  or  more  a  minute.    There 


124  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

is  usuallj'  a  dry  cough  from  the  beginning,  which,  however,  changes 
in  character  as  the  disease  advances;  for  instance,  it  may  become 
moist,  or  if  pleurisy  sets-  in,  the  cough  will  be  peculiar  to  the  latter 
affection ;  that  is,  cut  short  in  the  endeavor  to  suppress  it.  In  some 
cases  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  is  tinged  with  blood,  while  in 
other  cases  it  has  the  appearance  of  muco-pus.  The  appetite  is  lost 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  the  desire  for  water  is  increased,  par- 
ticularly during  the  onset  of  the  fever.  The  membrane  within  the 
nostrils  is  red  and  at  first  dry,  but  sooner  or  later  becomes  moist.  The 
legs  are  cold.  The  bowels  are  more  or  less  constipated,  and  what 
dung  is  passed  is  usually  covered  with  a  slimy  mucus.  The  urine  is 
passed  in  smaller  quantities  than  usual  and  is  of  a  darker  color. 

The  animal  prefers  to  have  the  head  where  the  freshest  air  can  be 
obtained.  When  affected  with  pneumonia  a  horse  does  not  lie  down, 
but  persists  in  standing  from  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  However, 
if  pneumonia  is  complicated  with  pleurisy,  the  horse  may  appear  rest- 
less and  lie  down  for  a  few  moments  to  gain  relief  from  the  pleuritic 
pains,  but  he  soon  rises.  In  pneumonia  the  breathing  is  rapid  and 
difficult,  but  when  the  pneumonia  is  complicated  with  pleurisy  the 
nbs  are  kept  as  still  as  possible  and  the  breathing  is  abdominal ;  that 
is,  the  abdominal  muscles  are  now  made  to  do  as  much  of  the  work  as 
they  can  perform.  If  pleurisy  is  not  present  there  is  little  pain. 
To  the  ordinary  observer  the  animal  may  not  appear  dangerously 
ill,  as  he  does  not  show  the  seriousness  of  the  ailment  by  violence,  as 
in  colic,  but  a  careful  observer  will  discover  at  a  glance  that  the 
trouble  is  something  more  serious  than  a  cold.  By  percussion  it  will 
be  shown  that  some  portions  of  the  chest  are  less  resonant  than  in 
health,  indicating  exclusion  of  air.  If  the  air  is  wholly  excluded  the 
percussion  is  quite  dull,  as  that  elicited  by  percussion  over  the  thigh. 
By  auscultation  important  information  may  be  gained.  "WTien  the 
car  is  placed  against  the  chest  of  a  healthy  horse,  the  respiratory 
murmur  is  heard  more  or  less  distinctly,  according  to  the  part  of  the 
chest  that  is  Ijenoath  the  ear.  In  the  very  first  stage  of  pneumonia 
this  murmur  is  louder  and  hoarser;  and,  also,  there  is  heard  a  fine 
crackling  sound  something  similar  to  that  produced  when  salt  is 
thrown  in  a  fire.  After  the  affecte<l  part  becomes  solid  there  is  an 
nljsonce  of  sound  over  that  particular  part.  After  absorption  begins 
one  may  again  hear  sounds  that  are  of  a  more  or  less  moist  character 
and  resemble  a  bubbling  or  gurgling  noise,  which  gradually  change 
until  the  natural  sound  is  heard  announcing  return  to  health. 

^^^len  a  fatal  termination  is  approaching  all  the  symptoms  become 
intensified.  The  breathing  l>ecomes  still  more  rapid  and  difficult;  the 
flanks  heave:  the  animal  stares  wildly  al)Out  as  if  seeking  aid  to  drive 
off  the  feeling  of  suffocation :  the  body  is  bathed  with  sweat;  the  horse 
staggers,  but  quickly  recovers  his  balance ;  he  may  now,  for  the  first 


PNEUMONIA,  OR   LUNG   FEVER.  125 

time  during  the  attack,  lie  down ;  he  does  so,  however,  in  the  hope  of 
relief,  which  he  fails  to  find,  and  with  difficulty  struggles  to  his  feet ; 
he  pants;  the  nostrils  flap;  he  staggers  and  sways  from  side  to  side 
and  backward  and  forward,  but  still  tries  to  retain  the  standing 
position,  even  by  propping  himself  against  the  stall.  It  is  no  use,  as 
after  an  exhausting  fight  for  breath  he  goes  down ;  the  limbs  stretch 
out  and  become  rigid.  In  fatal  cases  death  usually  occurs  in  from 
ten  to  twenty  days  after  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  disease  is  terminating  favorably  the  signs  are  ob- 
^*ious.  The  fever  abates  and  the  animal  gradually  improves  in  appe- 
tite ;  he  takes  more  notice  of  things  around  him ;  his  spirits  improve ; 
he  has  a  general  appearance  of  returning  health,  an.d  he  lies  down 
and  rests.  In  the  majority  of  cases  pneumonia,  if  properly  treated, 
terminates  in  recovery. 

Treatment. — The  comfort  and  surroundings  of  the  patient  must  be 
attended  to  first.  The  quarters  should  be  the  best  that  can  be  pro- 
vided. Pure  air  is  essential.  Avoid  placing  the  animal  in  a  stall 
where  he  may  be  exposed  to  drafts  of  cold  air  and  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  It  is  much  better  for  the  animal  if  the  air  is  cold  and 
pure  than  if  it  is  warm  and  foul.  It  is  better  to  make  the  animal  com- 
fortable with  warm  clothing  than  to  make  the  stable  warm  by  shut- 
ting off  the  ventilation.  The  animal  should  have  an  unlimited  supply 
of  fresh  cold  drinking  water  from  the  start.  Blanket  the  body.  Rub 
the  legs  until  they  are  warm  and  then  put  bandages  on  them  from  the 
hoofs  up  to  the  knees  and  hocks.  If  warmth  can  not  be  reestablished 
in  the  legs  by  hand  rubbing  alone,  apply  dry  ground  mustard  and  rub 
well  in.  The  bandages  should  be  removed  once  or  twice  every  day, 
the  legs  well  rubbed,  and  the  bandages  replaced.  Much  harm  is  often 
done  by  clipping  off  hair  and  rubbing  in  powerful  blistering  com- 
pounds. They  do  positive  injury  and  retard  recovery,  and  should  not 
be  allowed.  Much  benefit  may  be  derived  from  hot  applications  to 
the  sides  of  the  chest  if  the  facilities  are  at  hand  to  apply  them.  If 
the  weather  be  not  too  cold,  and  if  the  animal  is  in  a  comfortable 
stable,  the  following  method  may  be  tried :  Have  a  tub  of  hot  water 
handy  to  the  stable  door;  soak  a  woolen  blanket  in  the  water,  then 
quickly  wring  as  much  water  as  possible  out  of  it  and  wrap  it  around 
the  chest.  See  that  it  fits  closely  to  the  skin ;  do  not  allow  it  to  sag 
down  so  that  air  may  get  between  it  and  the  skin.  Now  wrap  a  dry 
blanket  over  the  wet  hot  one  and  hold  in  place  with  three  girths. 
The  hot  blanket  should  be  renewed  every  half  hour,  and  while  it  is 
off  being  wetted  and  wrung  the  dry  one  should  remain  over  the  wet 
part  of  the  chest  to  prevent  reaction.  The  hot  applications  should  be 
kept  up  for  three  or  four  hours,  and  when  stopped  the  skin  should  be 
quickly  rubbed  as  dry  as  possible,  an  application  of  alcohol  rubbed 
over  the  wet  part,  and  a  dry  blanket  snugly  fitted  over  the  animal. 


126  DISEASES    OP    THE    HORSE. 

If  the  hot  applications  appear  to  benefit,  they  may  be  tried  on  three 
or  four  consecutive  days.  Unless  every  facility  and  circumstance 
favors  the  application  of  heat  in  the  foregoing  manner,  do  not  attempt 
it.  If  the  weather  is  very  cold  or  any  of  the  details  are  omitted,  more 
harm  than  good  may  result.  Mustard  may  be  applied  by  making  a 
paste  with  a  pound  of  freshly  ground  mustard  mixed  with  warm 
water.  This  is  to  be  spread  evenly  over  the  sides  back  of  the  shoulder 
blades  and  down  to  the  median  line  below  the  chest.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  rubbing  the  mustard  upon  the  thin  skin  immediately 
back  of  the  elbow.  The  mustard-covered  area  should  be  covered  with 
a  paper  and  this  with  a  blanket  passed  up  from  below  and  fastened 
over  the  back.^  The  blanket  and  paper  should  be  removed  in  from 
one  to  two  hours.  "^Tien  pneumonia  follows  another  disease,  the  sys- 
tem is  always  more  or  less  debilitated  and  requires  the  careful  use  of 
stimulants  from  the  beginning.  To  still  further  weaken  the  animal 
by  bleeding  him  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  methods  of  retarding 
recovery,  even  if  it  does  not  hasten  a  fatal  termination. 

Another  and  oftentimes  a  fatal  mistake  made  by  the  nonprofes- 
sional is  the  indiscriminate  and  reckless  use  of  aconite.  This  drug  is 
one  of  the  most  active  poisons,  and  should  not  be  handled  by  anyone 
who  does  not  thoroughly  understand  its  action  and  uses.  It  is  only 
less  active  than  prussic  acid  in  its  poisonous  effects.  It  is  a  common 
opinion,  often  expressed  by  nonprofessionals,  that  aconite  is  a  stimu- 
lant. Nothing  could  be  more  erroneous;  in  fact,  it  is  just  the  reverse. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  sedatives  used  in  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine. In  fatal  doses  it  kills  by  paralyzing  the  very  muscles  used  in 
breathing;  it  weakens  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  should  not  be  used. 
Do  not  give  purgative  medicines.  If  constipation  exists,  overcome  it 
by  an  allowance  of  laxative  diet,  such  as  scalded  oats,  bran,  and  lin- 
seed mashes,  and,  if  in  season,  grass.  If  the  costiveness  is  not  relieved 
by  the  laxative  diet,  give  an  enema  of  about  a  quart  of  warm  water 
three  or  four  times  a  day. 

A  diet  consisting  principally  of  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  and, 
when  in  season,  grass  or  corn  fodder  is  preferable  if  the  animal 
retains  an  appetite;  but  if  no  desire  is  evinced  for  food  of  this  par- 
ticular description,  then  the  animal  must  he  allowed  to  eat  anything 
that  will  be  taken  spontaneously.  Hay  tea,  made  by  pouring  boiling 
water  over  good  hay  in  a  large  bucket  and  allowing  it  to  stand  until 
cool,  then  straining  off  the  liquid,  will  sometimes  create  a  desire  for 
food.  The  animal  may  be  allowed  to  drink  as  much  of  it  as  he 
desires.  Com  on  the  cob  is  often  eaten  when  everything  else  is 
refused.  Bread  may  be  tried ;  also  apples  or  carrots.  If  the  animal 
can  be  persuaded  to  drink  milk,  it  may  be  supported  by  it  for  days. 
Three  or  4  gallons  of  sweet  milk  may  be  given  during  the  day,  in 
which  may  be  stirred  3  or  4  fresh  eggs  to  each  gallon  of  niilk.     Some 


PNEUMONIA,  OR  LUNG  PEVEE.  '      127 

horses  will  drink  milk,  while  others  will  refuse  to  touch  it.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  food  must  be  taken  by  the  horse  as 
he  desires  it.  No  food  should  be  forced  down  him.  If  the  animal 
will  not  eat,  you  will  only  have  to  wait  until  a  desire  is  shown  for 
food.  All  kinds  may  be  offered,  first  one  thing  and  then  another, 
but  food  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  long  in  trough  or  manger; 
the  very  fact  of  it  constantly  being  before  him  will  cause  him  to 
loathe  it.  When  the  animal  has  no  appetite  for  anything  the 
stomach  is  not  in  a  proper  state  to  digest  food,  and  if  it  is  poured 
or  drenched  into  him  it  will  only  cause  indigestion  and  aggravate 
the  case.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  do  nothing  when  there  is  nothing 
to  be  done  that  will  benefit.  This  refers  to  medicine  as  well  as  food. 
Nothing  is  well  done  that  is  overdone. 

There  are  many  valuable  medicines  used  for  the  different  stages 
and  different  types  of  pneumonia,  but  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer 
it  is  useless  to  refer  to  them  here,  as  this  work  is  intended  for  the  use 
of  those  who  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  disease  to 
recognize  its  various  types  and  stages;  therefore  they  would  only 
confuse.  If  you  can  administer  a  ball  or  capsule,  or  have  anyone  at 
hand  who  is  capable  of  doing  it,  a  dram  of  sulphate  of  quinine  in  a 
capsule,  or  made  into  a  ball,  with  sufficient  linseed  meal  and  molasses, 
given  every  three  hours  during  the  height  of  the  fever,  will  do  good 
in  many  cases.  The  ball  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  as  advised  in 
tlie  treatment  of  bronchitis,  may  be  tried  if  the  animal  is  hard  to 
drench.  The  heart  should  be  kept  strong  by  administering  digitalis 
in  doses  of  2  drams  of  the  tincture  every  three  hours,  or  strychnia 
1  grain,  made  into  a  pill  with  liquorice  powder,  three  times  daily. 

If  the  horse  becomes  very  much  debilitated,  stimulants  of  a  more 
pronounced  character  are  required.  The  following  drench  is  useful : 
Eectified  spirits,  3  ounces ;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces ;  water,  1 
pint.  This  may  be  repeated  every  four  or  five  hours  if  it  seems  to 
benefit;  or  6  ounces  of  good  whisky  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water 
may  be  given  as  often,  instead  of  the  foregoing. 

During  the  period  of  convalescence  good  nutritive  food  should  be 
allowed  in  a  moderate  quantity.  Tonic  medicines  should  be  substi- 
tuted for  those  used  during  the  fever.  The  same  medicines  advised 
for  the  convalescing  period  of  bronchitis  are  equally  efficient  in  this 
case,  especially  the  iodide  of  potash.  Likewise,  the  same  general 
instructions  apply  here. 

The  chief  causes  of  death  in  pneumonia  are  heart  failure  from 
exhaustion,  suffocation,  or  blood  poisoning  from  death  (gangrene)  of 
lung  tissue.  The  greater  the  area  of  lung  tissue  diseased  the  greater 
the  danger,  hence  double  pneumonia  is  more  fatal  than  pneumonia  of 
one  lung. 


128  DTSEA8ES   OF   THE   H0B8B. 

THE   WINDPIPE. 

The  windpipe,  or  trachea,  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  the  flexible 
tube  that  extends  from  the  larynx,  which  it  succeeds  at  the  throat, 
to  above  the  base  of  the  heart  in  the  chest,  where  it  terminates  by 
dividing  into  the  right  and  left  bronchi — the  tubes  going  to  the  right 
and  left  lung,  respectively.  The  windpipe  is  composed  of  about  fifty 
incomplete  rings  of  cartilage  united  by  ligaments.  A  muscular  layer 
is  situated  on  the  superior  surface  of  the  rings.  Internally  the  tube 
is  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  mucous  membrane  that  lines  the 
entire  respiratory  tract,  which  here  has  very  little  sensibility  in 
contrast  to  that  lining  the  larynx,  which  is  endowed  with  exquisite 
sensitiveness. 

The  windpipe  is  not  subject  to  any  special  disease,  but  is  more  or 
Ic^  affected  during  laryngitis  (sore  throat),  influenza,  bronchitis, 
etc.,  and  requires  no  special  treatment.  The  membrane  may  be  left 
in  a  thickened  condition  after  these  attacks.  One  or  more  of  the 
rings  may  be  accidentally  fractured,  or  the  tube  maylje  distorted  or 
malformed  as  the  result  of  violent  injury.  After  the  operation  of 
tracheotomy  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  tumor  or  malformation  as 
a  result,  or  sequel,  of  the  operation.  In  passing  over  this  section 
attention  is  merely  called  to  these  defects,  as  they  require  no  partic- 
ular attention  in  the  way  of  treatment.  However,  it  may  be  stated 
that  any  one  of  the  before-mentioned  conditions  may  constitute  one 
of  the  causes  of  noisy  respiration  described  as  "  thick  wind." 

GUTTURAL   POUCHES. 

These  two  sacs  are  situated  above  the  throat,  and  communicate 
with  the  pharynx,  as  well  as  with  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum  of 
the  ear.  They  are  peculiar  to  solipeds.  Normally,  they  contain  air. 
Their  function  is  unknown. 

One  or  both  guttural  pouches  may  contain  pus.  The  symptoms  are 
as  follows:  Swelling  on  the  side  below  the  ear  and  an  intermittent 
discharge  of  matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils,  especially  when  the 
head  is  depressed. 

The  swelling  is  soft,  and,  if  pressed  upon,  matter  will  escape  from 
the  nose  if  the  head  is  depressed.  As  before  mentioned,  these 
pouches  communicate  with  the  pharynx,  and  through  this  small  open- 
ing matter  may  escape.  A  recovery  is  probable  if  the  animal  is 
turned  out  to  graze,  or  if  he  is  fed  from  the  ground,  as  the  dependent 
position  of  the  head  favors  the  escape  of  matter  from  the  pouches. 
In  addition  to  this,  give  the  tDnics  recommended  for  nasal  gleet.  If 
this  treatment  fails,  an  operation  must  be  performed,  which  should 
not  be  attempted  by  any  one  unacquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the 
part. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BRONCHIAL    TUBES.        '  129 

BRONCHITIS   AND   BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.  When  this 
inflammation  extends  to  the  air  sacs  at  the  termini  of  the  smallest 
branches  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  the  disease  is  broncho-pneumonia. 
Bronchitis  affecting  the  larger  tubes  is  less  serious  than  when  the 
smaller  are  involved.  The  disease  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic. 
The  causes  are  generally  much  the  same  as  for  other  diseases  of  the 
respiratory  organs,  noticed  in  the  beginning  of  this  article.  The 
special  causes  are  these :  The  inhalation  of  irritating  gases  and  smoke 
and  fluids  or  solids  gaining  access  to  the  parts.  Bronchitis  is  occa- 
sionally associated  with  influenza  and  other  specific  fevers.  It  also 
supervenes  on  common  cold  or  sore  throat. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  appears  dull ;  the  appetite  is  partially  or 
wholly  lost ;  the  head  hangs ;  the  breathing  is  quickened ;  the  cough, 
at  first  dry,  and  having  somewhat  the  character  of  a  "  barking 
cough,"  is  succeeded  in  a  few  days  by  a  moist,  rattling  cough;  the 
mouth  is  hot ;  the  visible  membranes  in  the  nose  are  red ;  the  pulse 
is  frequent,  and  during  the  first  stage  is  hard  and  quick,  but  as 
the  disease  advances  becomes  smaller  and  more  frequent.  There  is  a 
discharge  from  the  nostrils  that  is  at  first  whitish,  but  later  becomes 
creamy  or  frothy,  and  still  later  it  is  sometimes  tinged  with  blood, 
and  occasionally  it  may  be  of  a  brownish  or  rusty  color.  By  auscul- 
tation, or  placing  the  ear  to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  unnatural  sounds 
can  now  be  heard.  The  air  passing  through  the  diseased  tubes  causes 
a  wheezing  sound  when  the  small  tubes  are  affected,  and  a  hoarse, 
cooing,  or  snoring  sound  when  the  larger  tubes  are  involved.  After 
one  or  two  days  the  dry  stage  of  the  disease  is  succeeded  by  a  moist 
state  of  the  membrane.  The  ear  now  detects  a  different  sound, 
caused  by  the  bursting  of  the  bubbles  as  the  air  passes  through  the 
fluid,  which  is  the  exudate  of  inflammation  and  the  augmented  mu- 
cous secretions  of  the  membrane.  The  mucus  may  be  secreted  in 
great  abundance,  which,  by  blocking  up  the  tubes,  may  cause  a  col- 
lapse of  a  large  extent  of  breathing  surface.  Usually  the  mucus  is 
expectorated;  that  is,  discharged  through  the  nose.  Tha  matter  is 
coughed  up,  and  when  it  reaches  the  larynx  much  of  it  may  be  swal- 
lowed, and  some  is  discharged  from  the  nostrils.  The  horse  can  not 
spit,  like  the  human  being,  nor  does  the  matter  coughed  up  gain  access 
to  the  mouth.  If  in  serious  cases  all  the  symptoms  become  aggra- 
vated, the  breathing  is  labored,  short,  and  quick,  it  usually  indicates 
that  the  inflammation  has  reached  the  breathing  cells  and  that  catar- 
rhal pneumonia  is  established.  In  this  case  the  ribs  rise  and  fall 
much  more  than  natural.  This  fact  alone  is  enough  to  exclude  the 
idea  that  the  animal  may  be  affected  with  pleurisy,  because,  in  pleu- 
risy, the  ribs  are  as  nearly  fixed  as  in  the  power  of  the  animal  to  do 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 9 


130  DISEASES    OF   THE   HOBSE. 

SO,  and  the  breathing  accomplished  to  a  great  extent  by  aid  of  the 
abdominal  muscles.  The  horse  persists  in  standing  throughout  the 
attack.  He  prefers  to  stand  with  head  to  a  door  or  window  to  gain 
all  the  fresh  air  possible,  but  may  occasionally  wander  listlessly 
about  the  stall  if  not  tied.  The  bowels  most  likely  are  constipated; 
the  dung  is  covered  with  slimy  mucus.  The  urine  is  decreased  in 
quantity  and  darker  in  color  than  usual.  The  animal  shows  more  or 
less  thirst;  in  some  cases  the  mouth  is  full  of  saliva.  The  discharge 
from  the  nose  increases  in  quantity  as  the  disease  advances  and  in- 
flammation subsides.  This  is  rather  a  good  symptom,  as  it  shows  one 
stage  has  passed.  The  discharge  then  gradually  decreases,  the  cough 
becomes  less  rasping,  but  of  more  frequent  occurrence,  until  it  grad- 
ually disappears  with  the  return  of  health. 

Bronchitis,  affecting  the  smaller  tubes,  is  one  of  the  most  fatal 
diseases,  while  that  of  the  larger  tubes  is  never  very  serious.  It  must 
be  stated,  however,  that  it  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter  for  a 
nonexpert  to  discriminate  between  the  two  forms,  and,  further,  it 
may  as  well  be  said  here  that  the  nonexpert  will  have  difficulty  in 
discriminating  between  bronchitis  and  pneumonia. 

Treatment. — ^The  matter  of  first  importance  is  to  insure  a  pure  at- 
mosphere to  breathe,  and  next  to  make  the  patient's  quarters  as  com- 
fortable as  possible.  A  well-ventilated  box  stall  serves  best  for  all 
purposes.  Cover  the  body  with  a  blanket,  light  or  heavy,  as  the 
season  of  the  year  demands.  Hand  rub  the  legs  until  they  are  warm, 
then  wrap  them  in  cotton  and  apply  flannel  or  Derby  bandages  from 
the  hoofs  to  the  knees  and  hocks.  If  the  legs  can  not  be  made  warm 
with  hand  rubbing  alone,  apply  dry  mustard.  Rub  in  thoroughly  and 
then  put  on  the  bandages.  Also  rub  mustard  paste  well  over  the  side 
of  the  chest,  covering  the  space  beginning  immediately  behind  the 
shoulder  blade  and  rimning  back  about  eighteen  inches,  and  from  the 
median  line  beneath  the  breast  to  within  ten  inches  of  the  ridge  of  the 
backlxjno.  Repeat  the  application  to  the  side  of  the  chest  about  three 
days  after  the  first  one  is  applied. 

Compel  the  animal  to  inhale  steam  from  a  bucketful  of  boiling 
water  containing  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  spirits  of 
camphor,  as  advised  for  cold  in  the  head.  In  serious  cases  the  steam 
should  be  inhaled  every  hour,  and  in  any  case  the  oftener  it  is  done 
the  greater  will  1x5  the  I)eneficial  results.  Three  times  a  day  admin- 
ister an  electuary  containing  acetate  of  potash  (2  drams),  with  lico- 
rice and  molasses  or  honey.  It  is  well  to  keep  a  bucketful  of  cold 
water  before  the  animal  all  the  time.  If  the  horse  is  prostrated  and 
has  no  ap|>etite,  give  the  following  drench :  Spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2 
ounces;  rectified  spirits,  3  ounces;  water,  1  pint.  Repeat  the  dose 
every  four  or  five  hours  if  it-appears  to  bonefit.  "When  the  horse  is 
hard  to  drench,  give  the  following:  Pulverized  carbonate  of  ammonia, 


PLEURISY.  131 

3  drams ;  linseed  meal  and  molasses  sufficient  to  make  the  whole  into 
a  stiff  mass ;  wrap  it  with  a  small  piece  of  tissue  paper  and  give  as  a 
ball.  This  ball  may  be  repeated  every  four  or  five  hours.  When  giv- 
ing the  ball  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  breaking  in  the  mouth, 
as  in  case  of  such  accident  it  will  make  the  mouth  sore,  which  may 
prevent  the  animal  from  eating.  If  the  bowels  are  constipated,  give 
enemas  of  warm  water.  Do  not  give  purgative  medicines.  Do  not 
bleed  the  animal. 

If  the  animal  retains  an  appetite,  a  soft  diet  is  preferable,  such  as 
scalded  oats,  bran  mashes,  and  grass,  if  in  season.  If  he  refuses 
cooked  food,  allow  in  small  quantities  anything  he  will  eat.  Hay, 
cob  corn,  oats,  bread,  apples,  and  carrots  may  all  be  tried  in  turn. 
Some  horses  will  drink  sweet  milk  when  they  refuse  all  other  kinds  of 
food,  and  especially  is  this  the  case  if  the  drinking  water  is  withheld 
for  a  while.  One  or  2  gallons  at  a  time,  four  or  five  times  a  day,  will 
support  life.  Bear  in  mind  that  when  the  disease  is  established  re- 
covery can  not  occur  in  less  than  two  or  three  weeks,  and  more  time 
may  be  necessary.     Good  nursing  and  patience  are  required. 

When  the  symptoms  have  abated  and  nothing  remains  of  the  dis- 
ease except  the  cough  and  a  white  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  all 
other  medicines  should  be  discontinued  and  a  course  of  tonic  treat- 
ment pursued.  Give  the  following  mixture :  Reduced  iron,  3  ounces ; 
powdered  gentian,  8  ounces ;  mix  well  together  and  divide  into  sixteen 
powders.  Give  a  powder  every  night  and  morning  mixed  with  bran 
and  oats,  if  the  animal  will  eat  it,  or  shaken  with  about  a  pint  of  flax- 
seed tea  and  administered  as  a  drench. 

If  the  cough  remains  after  the  horse  is  apparently  well,  give  1 
dram  of  iodide  of  potassium  dissolved  in  a  bucketful  of  drinking 
water  one  hour  before  each  meal  for  two  or  three  weeks  if  necessary. 
Do  not  put  the  animal  to  work  too  soon  after  recovery.  Allow  ample 
time  to  regain  strength.  This  disease  is  prone  to  become  chronic  and 
may  run  into  an  incurable  case  of  thick  wind. 

PLEURISY. 

The  thoracic  cavity  is  divided  into  two  lateral  compartments,  each 
containing  one  lung  and  a  part  of  the  heart.  Each  lung  has  its  sepa- 
rate pleural  membrane,  or  covering.  The  pleura  is  the  thin  glisten- 
ing membrane  that  covers  the  lung  and  also  completely  covers  the  in- 
ternal walls  of  the  chest.  It  is  very  thin,  and  to  the  ordinary  ob- 
server appears  to  be  part  of  the  lung,  which,  in  fact,  it  is  for  all 
practical  purposes.  The  smooth,  shiny  surface  of  the  lung,  as  well  as 
the  smooth,  shiny  surface  so  familiar  on  the  rib,  is  the  pleura.  In 
health  this  surface  is  always  moist.  A  fluid  is  thrown  off  by  the 
pleura,  which  causes  the  surface  to  be  constantly  moist.  This  is  to 
prevent  the  effects  of  friction  between  the  lungs  and  the  walls  of  the 


132  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

chost  and  other  contiguous  parts  which  come  in  contact.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  lungs  are  dilating  each  time  a  breath  is  taken 
in,  and  contracting  each  time  a  breath  of  air  is  expelled.  It  may  be 
readily  seen  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  moistened  state  of  the  surface 
of  the  pleura  the  continual  dilatation  and  contraction  and  the  conse- 
quent rubbing  of  the  parts  against  each  other  would  cause  serious 
friction. 

Inflammation  of  this  membrane  is  called  pleurisy.  Being  so  closely 
united  with  the  lung,  it  can  not  always  escape  participation  in  the 
disease  when  the  latter  is  inflamed.  Pleurisy  may  be  due  to  the  same 
predisposing  and  exciting  causes  as  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of 
this  work  as  general  causes  for  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration, 
such  as  exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  confinement  in 
damp  stables,  etc.  It  may  be  caused  by  wounds  that  penetrate  the 
chest,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  such  wounds  must  necessarily 
pierce  the  pleura.  A  fractured  rib  may  involve  the  pleura.  The 
inflammation  following  such  wounds  may  be  circumscribed,  that  is, 
confined  to  a  small  area  surrounding  the  wound,  or  it  may  spread 
from  the  wound  and  involve  a  large  portion  of  the  pleura.  The 
pleura  may  be  involved  secondarily  when  the  heart  or  its  membrane 
is  the  primary  seat  of  the  disease.  It  may  occur  in  conjunction  with 
bronchitis,  influenza,  and  other  diseases.  Diseased  gi'owths  that 
interfere  with  the  pleura  may  induce  pleurisy.  The  most  frequent 
cause  of  pleurisy  is  an  extension  of  inflammation  from  adjacent  dis- 
eased lung.  It  is  a  common  complication  of  pneumonia.  Pleurisy 
will  be  described  here  as  an  independent  affection,  although  it  should 
be  remembered  that  it  is  very  often  associated  with  the  foregoing 
diseases. 

The  first  lesion  of  pleurisy  is  overfilling  of  the  blood  vessels  that 
ramify  in  this  membrane,  and  dryness  of  the  surface.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  formation  of  a  coating  of  coagulated  fibrin  on  the 
diseased  pleura  and  the  transudation  of  serum  which  collects  in  the 
chest.  This  serum  may  contain  flakes  of  fibrin  and  it  may  be  straw 
colored  or  red  from  an  admixture  of  blood.  The  quantity  of  this 
accumulation  may  amount  to  several  gallons. 

Sympfoms. — When  the  disease  exists  as  an  independent  affection  it 
is  ushered  in  by  a  chill,  but  this  is  usually  overlooked.  About  the 
first  thing  noticed  is  the  disinclination  of  the  animal  to  move  or  turn 
round,  ^^^len  made  to  do  so  he  grunts  or  groans  with  pain.  He 
stands  stiff;  the  ribs  are  fixed,  that  is,  the  ribs  move  very  little  in  the 
act  of  l)reathinfr.  but  the  abdomen  works  more  than  natural ;  both  the 
fore  feet  and  elbows  may  be  turned  out;  during  the  onset  of  the 
attack  the  animal  may  Ix?  restless  and  act  as  if  he  had  a  slight  colic; 
he  may  even  lio  down,  but  does  not  remain  long  down,  for  when  he 
finds  no  relief  he  soon  gets  up.     After  effusion  begins  these  signs  of 


PLEURISY.  133 

restlessness  disappear.  Every  movement  of  the  chest  causes  pain, 
therefore  the  cough  is  peculiar ;  it  is  short  and  suppressed,  and  comes 
as  near  being  no  cough  as  the  animal  can  make  it  in  his  desire  to  sup- 
press it.  The  breathing  is  hurried,  the  mouth  is  hot,  the  temperature 
being  elevated  from  102°  or  103°  to  105°  F.  The  usual  symptoms 
that  accompany  fever  are  present,  such  as  costiveness,  scanty  dark- 
colored  urine,  etc.  The  pulse  is  frequent,  perhaps  70  or  more  a 
minute,  and  is  hard  and  wiry.     The  legs  and  ears  are  cold. 

Percussion  is  of  valuable  service  in  this  affection.  After  effusion 
occurs,  the  sound  produced  by  percussing  over  the  lower  part  of  the 
chest  is  dull.  By  striking  different  parts  one  may  come  to  a  spot  of 
greater  or  less  extent  where  the  blows  cause  much  pain  to  be  evinced. 
The  animal  may  grunt  or  groan  every  time  it  is  struck.  Another 
method  of  detecting  the  affected  part  is  to  press  the  fingers  between 
the  ribs,  each  space  iji  succession  beginning  behind  the  elbow,  until 
you  arrive  at  a  place  where  the  pressure  causes  more  flinching  than  at 
any  other  part.  Auscultation  is  also  useful.  In  the  first  stage,  when 
the  surfaces  are  dry  and  rough,  one  may  hear  a  friction  sound  very 
much  like  that  produced  by  rubbing  two  pieces  of  coarse  paper 
together.  The  sound  appears  immediately  under  the  ear  and  is  dis- 
tinct. No  such  friction  sound  occurs  when  the  membrane  is  healthy, 
as  the  natural  moisture,  heretofore  mentioned,  prevents  the  friction. 
In  many  cases  this  friction  is  so  pronounced  that  it  may  be  felt  by 
placing  the  hand  over  the  affected  part.  When  the  dry  stage  is  suc- 
ceeded by  the  exudation  of  fluid,  this  friction  sound  disappears. 
After  the  effusion  into  the  cavity  takes  place  there  sometimes  is 
heard  a  tinkling  or  metallic  sound,  due  to  dropping  of  the  exudate 
from  above  into  the  collected  fluid  in  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  as  the 
collected  fluid  more  or  less  separates  the  lung  from  the  chest  walls. 

Within  two  or  three  days  the  urgent  symptoms  may  abate  owing 
to  the  exudation  of  the  fluid  and  the  subsidence  of  the  pain.  The 
fluid  may  now  undergo  absorption,  and  the  case  terminate  favorably 
within  a  week  or  ten  days. 

If  the  quantity  of  the  effusion  is  large,  its  own  volume  retards  the 
process  of  absorption  to  a  great  extent,  and  consequently  convales- 
cence is  delayed.  Iii  severe  cases  the  pulse  becomes  more  frequent, 
the  breathing  more  hurried  and  labored,  the  flanks  work  like  bellows, 
the  nostrils  flap,  the  eyes  stare  wildly,  the  countenance  expresses 
much  anxiety,  and  general  signs  of  dissolution  are  plain.  After  a 
time  swellings  appear  under  the  chest  and  abdomen  and  down  the 
legs.  The  accumulation  in  the  chest  is  called  hydrothorax.  or  dropsy 
of  the  chest.  "V\Tien  this  fluid  contains  pus  the  case  usually  proves 
fatal.     The  condition  of  pus  within  the  cavity  is  called  empyema. 

Pleurisy  may  affect  only  a  small  area  of  one  side  or  it  may  affect 
both  sides.     It  is  oftener  confined  to  the  right  side. 


134  DISEASES   OF  THE   H0E8E. 

Treatment. — The  instructions  in  regard  to  the  general  management 
of  bronchitis  and  pneumonia  must  be  adhered  to  in  the  treatment  of 
pleurisy..  Comfortable  quarters,  pure  air,  warm  clothing  to  the  body 
and  bandages  to  the  legs,  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  cold  water,  the 
laxative  food,  etc.,  in  this  case  are  equally  necessary  and  efficacious. 
The  hot  applications  applied  to  the  chest  as  directed  in  the  treatment 
of  pneumonia  are  very  beneficial  in  pleurisy,  and  should  be  kept  up 
while  the  symptoms  show  the  animal  to  be  in  pain. 

During  the  first  few  days,  when  pain  is  manifested  by  restlessness, 
apply  hot  packs  to  the  sides  diligently.  After  four  or  five  days,  when 
the  svmptoms  show  that  the  acute  stage  has  somewhat  subsided,  mus- 
tard may  be  applied  as  recommended  for  pneumonia.  From  the 
l)eginning  the  following  drench  may  be  given  every  six  hours,  if  the 
horse  takes  a  drench  kindly:  Solution  of  the  acetate  of  ammonia,  3 
ounces;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  1  ounce;  bicarbonate  of  potassium, 
3  drams;  water,  1  pint. 

If  the  patient  becomes  debilitated,  the  stimulants  as  prescribed  for 
pneumonia  should  be  used  according  to  the  same  directions.  The 
same  attention  should  be  given  to  the  diet.  If  the  animal  will  par- 
take of  the  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  and  grass,  it  is  the  best;  but 
if  he  refuses  the  laxative  diet,  then  he  should  be  tried  with  different 
kinds  of  food  and  allowed  whichever  kind  he  desires. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  attack,  if  the  pain  is  severe,  causing  the 
animal  to  lie  down  or  paw,  morphine  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  in 
5-grain  doses,  or  the  fluid  extract  of  Cannabis  indica  may  be  used  in 
doses  of  2  to  4  drams. 

If  the  case  is  not  progressing  favorably  in  ten  or  twelve  days  after 
tlie  l>eginning  of  the  attack,  convalescence  is  delayed  by  the  fluid  in 
the  chest  failing  to  be  absorbed.  The  animal  becomes  dull  and  weak 
and  evinces  little  or  no  desire  for  food.  The  breathing  becomes 
still  more  rapid  and  difficult.  An  effort  must  now  be  made  to  excite 
the  absorption  of  the  effusion.  An  application  of  liniment  or  mild 
blister  should  l>e  rublx'd  over  the  lower  part  of  both  sides  and  the 
bottom  of  the  chest.  The  following  drench  may  be  given  three  times 
a  day,  for  seven  or  eight  days,  if  it  is  necessary  and  appears  to  bene- 
fit: Tincture  of  the  perchloride  of  iron,  1  ounce;  tincture  of  gentian, 
2  ounces;  water.  1  pint.  Also  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium, 
dissolved  in  the  drinking  water,  an  hour  before  feeding  every  night 
and  morning  for  a  week  or  two. 

Tlifdrothorax  is  sometimes  difficult  to  overcome  by  means  of  the  use 
of  medirines  alone,  when  the  operation  is  performed  of  tapping  the 
chest  to  allow  an  esca|)e  for  the  accumulated  fluid.  The  operation  is 
performed  with  a  combined  instrument  called  the  trocar  and  canula. 
The  punrtiirp  is  made  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  in  the  space 
between  the  eighth  and  ninth  ribs.     Wounding  of  the  intercostal 


DISEASES   OF   THE   LUNGS.  135 

artery  is  avoided  by  inserting  the  instrument  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  anterior  edge  of  the  rib.  If  the  operation  is  of  benefit,  it  is  only 
so  when  performed  before  the  strength  is  lowered  beyond  recovery. 
The  operation  merely  receives  a  passing  notice  here,  as  it  is  not  pre- 
sumed that  the  nonprofessional  will  attempt  it,  although  it  is  attended 
with  little  danger  or  difficulty  in  the  hands  of  the  expert. 

There  have  been  described  here  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  pleurisy 
mainly  as  they  occur  as  independent  diseases,  but  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  they  merge  into  each  other  and  may  occur  together  at  one 
time.  While  it  is  true  that  much  more  might  have  been  said  in  regard 
to  the  different  stages  and  types  of  the  affections,  and  also  in  regard 
to  the  treatment  of  each  stage  and  each  particular  type,  the  plan 
adopted  of  advising  plain,  conservative  treatment  is  considered  the 
wisest  on  account  of  simplifying  as  much  as  possible  a  subject  of 
which  the  reader  is  supposed  to  know  very  little. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  is  the  state  in  which  an  animal  is  affected  with  pleurisy  and 
pneumonia  combined,  which  is  not  infrequently  the  case.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  attack  only  one  of  the  affections  may  be  present,  but 
the  other  soon  follows.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  pleura  is 
closely  adherent  to  the  lung.  The  pleura  on  this  S,ccount  is  frequently 
more  or  less  affected  by  the  spreading  of  the  inflammation  from  the 
lung  tissue.  There  is  a  combination  of  the  symptoms  of  both  diseases, 
but  to  the  ordinary  observer  the  symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  the  most 
obvious.  The  course  of  treatment  to  be  pursued  differs  in  no  manner 
from  that  given  for  the  affections  when  they  occur  independently. 
The  symptoms  will  be  your  guide  as  to  the  advisability  of  giving  oil 
and  laudanum  for  the  pain  if  the  pleurisy  is  very  severe.  Do  not 
resort  to  it  unless  it  is  necessary  to  allay  the  pain. 

BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  is  the  term  or  terms  applied  when  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  and 
pneumonia  all  exist  at  once.  It  is  impossible  for  one  who  is  not  an 
expert  to  diagnose  the  state  with  certainty.  The  apparent  symptoms 
are  the  same  as  when  the  animal  is  affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia. 

SUPPURATION    AND    ABSCESS   IN    THE    LUNG. 

There  are  instances,  and  especially  when  the  surroundings  of  the 
patient  have  been  bad  or  the  disease  is  of  an  especially  severe  type, 
when  pneumonia  terminates  in  an  abscess  in  the  lung.  Sometimes, 
when  the  inflammation  has  been  extreme,  suppuration  in  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  lung  takes  place.  Impure  air,  the  result  of  improper  ven- 
tilation, is  among  the  most  frequent  causes  of  this  termination.     The 


136  DISEASES    OF   THE    H0B8E. 

symptoms  of  suppuration  in  the  lung  are  chronic  pneumonia,  a  solidi- 
fied area  of  lung  tissue,  continued  low  fever,  and,  in  some  cases,  offen- 
sive smell  of  the  breath,  and  the  discharge  of  the  matter  from  the 
nostrils. 

MORTIFICATION. 

Gangrene,  or  mortification,  means  the  death  of  the  part  affected. 
Occasionally,  owing  to  the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  or  bad  treat- 
ment, pneumonia  and  pleuro-pneumonia  terminate  in  mortification, 
which  is  soon  followed  by  the  death  of  the  animal.  Perhaps  the  most 
common  cause  of  this  complication  is  the  presence  of  a  foreign  body 
in  the  lung,  as  food  particles  or  medicine.  Rough  drenching  or 
drenching  through  the  nostrils  may  cause  this  serious  condition. 

HEMOPTi'SIS,  OR  BLEEDING   FROM   THE  LUNGS. 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs  may  occur  during  the  course  of  congestion 
of  the  lungs,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  influenza,  purpura  hemorrhagica, 
or  glanders.  An  accident  or  exertion  may  cause  a  rupture  of  a  vessel. 
Plethora  and  hypertrophy  of  the  heart  predispose  to  it.  Following 
the  rupture  of  a  vessel  the  blood  may  escape  into  the  lung  tissue  and 
cause  a  serious  attack  of  pneumonia,  or  it  may  fill  up  the  bronchial 
tubes  and  prove  fatal  by  suffocating  the  animal.  When  the  hemor- 
rhage is  from  the  lung  it  is  accompanied  by  coughing;  the  blood  is 
frothy,  of  a  bright  red  color,  and  comes  from  both  nostrils ;  whereas 
when  the  bleeding  is  merely  from  a  rupture  of  a  vessel  in  some 
part  of  the  head  (heretofore  described  as  bleeding  from  the  nose)  the 
blood  is  most  likely  to  issue  from  one  nostril  only,  and  the  discharge 
is  not  accompanied  by  coughing.  The  ear  may  be  placed  against 
the  windpipe  along  its  course,  and  if  the  blood  is  from  the  lungs  a 
gurgling  or  rattling  sound  will  Ixi  heard.  AVhen  it  occurs  in  connec- 
tion with  another  disease  it  seldom  requires  special  treatment.  AMien 
caused  by  accident  or  overexertion  the  animal  should  be  kept  quiet. 
If  the  hemorrhage  is  profuse  and  continues  for  several  hours,  1  dram 
of  the  acetate  of  lead  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  may  be  given  as  a 
drench,  or  1  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  the  jjerchloride  of  iron,  diluted 
with  a  pint  of  water,  may  l>e  given  instead  of  the  lead.  It  is  rare 
that  the  hemorrhage  is  so  profuse  as  to  reijuire  internal  remedies. 
But  hemorrhage  into  the  lung  may  occur  and  cause  death  by  suffo- 
cation without  the  least  manifestation  of  it  by  the  discharge  of 
blood  from  the  nose. 

TUBERCULOSIS  OF  THE   LUNGS. 

Pulmonary  consumption  or  tuberculosis  has  been  recognized  in 
the  horse  in  a  number  of  instances.  The  symptoms  are  as  of  chronic 
pneumonia  or  pleurisy.     There  is  no  treatment  for  the  disease. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    LUNGS.  137 

HEAVES,  BROKEN    WIND,  OR    ASTHMA. 

Much  confusion  exists  in  the  popular  mind  in  regard  to  the  nature 
of  heaves.  Many  horsemen  loosely  apply  the  term  to  all  ailments 
where  the  breathing  is  difficult  or  noisy.  Scientific  veterinarians  are 
well  acquainted  with  the  phenomena  and  locality  of  the  affection,  but 
there  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  regards  the  exact  cause. 
Asthma  is  generally  thought  to  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  small  circular 
muscles  that  surround  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  continued  existence 
of  this  affection  of  the  muscles  leads  to  a  paralysis  of  them,  and  the 
forced  breathing  to  emphysema,  which  always  accompanies  heaves. 

Heaves  is  usually  associated  with  disorder  of  the  function  of  diges- 
tion or  to  an  error  in  the  choice  of  food.  Feeding  on  clover  hay  or 
damaged  hay  or  straw,  too  bulky  and  innutritions  food,  and  keeping 
the  horse  in  a  dusty  atmosphere  or  a  badly  ventilated  stable  produce 
or  predispose  to  heaves.  Horses  brought  from  a  high  to  a  low  level 
are  predisposed. 

In  itself  broken  wind  is  not  a  fatal  disease,  but  death  is  generally 
caused  by  an  affection  closely  connected  with  it.  After  death,  if  the 
organs  are  examined,  the  lesions  found  depend  much  upon  the  length 
of  time  broken  wind  has  affected  the  animal.  In  recent  cases  very 
few  changes  are  noticeable,  but  in  animals  that  have  been  broken- 
winded  for  a  long  time  the  changes  are  well  marked.  The  lungs  are 
paler  than  natural,  and  of  much  less  weight  in  proportion  to  the  vol- 
ume, as  evidenced  by  floating  them  in  water.  The  walls  of  the  small 
bronchial  tubes  and  the  membrane  of  the  larger  tubes  are  thickened. 
The  right  side  of  the  heart  is  enlarged  and  its  cavities  dilated.  The 
stomach  is  enlarged  and  its  walls  stretched.  The  important  change 
found  in  the  lungs  is  a  condition  technically  called  pulmonary  em- 
physema. This  is  of  two  varieties:  First,  what  is  termed  vesicular 
emphysema,  which  consists  of  an  enlargement  of  the  capacity  of  the 
air  cells  (air  vesicles)  by  dilation  of  their  walls.  The  second  form 
is  called  interlobular,  or  interstitial,  emphysema,  and  follows  the 
first.  In  this  variety  the  air  finds  its  way  into  the  lung  tissue  be- 
tween the  air  cells  or  the  tissue  between  the  small  lobules. 

Symptoms. — Almost  every  experienced  horseman  is  able  to  detect 
heaves.  The  peculiar  movement  of  the  flanks  and  abdomen  point  out 
the  ailment  at  once.  But  in  recent  cases  the  affected  animal  does  not 
always  exhibit  the  characteristic  breathing  unless  exerted  to  a  certain 
extent.  The  cough  which  accompanies  this  disease  is  peculiar  to  it. 
It  is  difficult  to  describe,  but  the  sound  is  short,  and  something  like  a 
grunt.  When  air  is  inspired — that  is,  taken  in — it  appears  to  be  done 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  health;  it  may  possibly  be  done  a  little 
quicker  than  natural,  but  not  enough  to  attract  any  notice.  It  is  when 
the  act  of  expiration  (or  expelling  the  air  from  the  lungs)  is  per- 


138  DISEASES    OP   THE    HOBSE. 

formed  that  the  great  change  in  the  breathing  is  perceptible.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  lungs  have  lost  much  of  their  elasticity,  and, 
in  consequence,  of  their  power  of  contracting  on  account  of  the  de- 
generation of  the  walls  of  the  air  cells,  and  also  on  account  of  the 
paralysis  of  muscular  tissue  before  mentioned.  The  air  passes  into 
them  freely,  but  the  power  to  expel  it  is  lost  to  a  great  extent  by  the 
lungs ;  therefore  the  abdominal  muscles  are  brought  into  play.  These 
muscles,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  flank,  are  seen  to  contract, 
then  pause  for  a  moment,  then  complete  the  act  of  contracting,  thus 
making  a  double  bellowslike  movement  at  each  expiration,  a  sort  of 
jerky  motion  with  every  breath.  The  double  expiratory  movement 
may  also  be  detected  by  allowing  the  horse  to  exhale  against  the  face 
or  back  of  the  hand.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  expiratory  current 
is  not  continuous,  but  is  broken  into  two  jets.  When  the  animal  is 
exerted  a  wheezing  noise  accompanies  the  breathing.  This  noise 
may  be  heard  to  a  less  extent  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  if  the  ear  be 
applied  to  the  chest. 

As  before  remarked,  indigestion  is  often  present  in  these  cases. 
The  animal  may  have  a  depraved  appetite,  as  shown  by  a  desire  to  eat 
dirt  and  soiled  bedding,  which  he  often  devours  in  preference  to  the 
clean  food  in  the  trough  or  manger.  The  stomach  is  liable  to  be 
overloaded  with  indigestible  food.  The  abdomen  may  assume  that 
form  called  "  potbellied."  The  animal  frequently  passes  wind  of  a 
very  offensive  odor.  When  first  put  to  work  dung  is  passed  fre- 
quently; the  bowels  are  often  loose.  The  animal  can  not  stand  much 
work,  as  the  muscular  system  is  soft.  Round-chested  horses  are  said 
to  be  predisposed  to  the  disease,  and  it  is  certain  that  in  cases  of  long 
standing  the  chest  usually  becomes  rounder  than  natural. 

Certain  individuals  become  very  expert  in  managing  a  horse 
affected  with  heaves  in  suppressing  the  symptoms  for  a  short  time. 
They  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  breathing  is  much  easier 
when  the  stomach  and  intestines  are  empty.  They  also  resort  to  the 
use  of  medicines  that  have  a  depressing  effect.  When  the  veterina- 
rian is  examining  a  horse  for  soundness,  and  he  suspects  that  the 
animal  has  been  "  fixed,"  he  usually  gives  the  horse  as  much  water  as 
he  will  drink  and  then  has  him  ridden  or  driven  rapidly  up  a  hill  or 
on  a  heavy  road.  This  will  bring  out  the  characteristic  breathing 
of  heaves  if  the  horse  is  so  afflicted,  but  will  not  cause  the  symptoms 
of  heaves  in  a  healthy  horse.  All  broken-winded  horses  have  the 
cough  peculiar  to  the  affection,  but  it  is  not  regular.  A  considerable 
time  may  elapse  before  it  is  heard  and  then  it  may  come  on  in 
paroxysms,  especially  when  first  brought  out  of  the  stable  into  the 
cold  air,  or  when  excited  by  work,  or  after  a  drink  of  cold  water. 
The  cough  is  usually  the  first  symptom  of  the  disease. 

Treatment. — When  the  disease  is  established  there  is  no  cure  for  it. 
Proper  attention  paid  to  the  diet  will  relieve  the  distressing  symp- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    LUNGS.  139 

toms  to  a  certain  extent,  but  they  will  undoubtedly- reappear  in  their 
intensity  the  first  time  the  animal  overloads  the  stomach  or  is  al- 
lowed food  of  bad  quality.  Clover  hay  or  bulky  food  which  contains 
but  little  nutriment  have  much  to  do  with  the  cause  of  the  disease, 
and  therefore  should  be  entirely  omitted  when  the  animal  is  affected, 
as  well  as  before.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  disease  is  unknown 
where  clover  hay  is  never  used.  The  diet  should  be  confined  to  food 
of  the  best  quality  and  in  the  smallest  quantity.  The  bad  elffect  of 
moldy  or  dusty  hay,  fodder,  or  food  of  any  kind  can  not  be  over- 
estimated. A  small  quantity  of  the  best  hay  once  a  day  is  sufficient. 
This  should  be  cut  and  dampened.  The  animal  should  invariably  be 
watered  before  feeding;  never  directly  after  a  meal.  The  animal 
should  not  be  worked  immediately  after  a  meal.  Exertion,  when  the 
stomach  is  full,  invariably  aggravates  the  symptoms.  Turning  on 
pasture  gives  relief.  Carrots,  potatoes,  or  turnips  chopped  and 
mixed  with  oats  or  corn  are  a  good  diet.  Half  a  pint  to  a  pint  of 
thick,  dark  molasses  with  each  feed  is  useful. 

Arsenic  is  efficacious  in  palliating  the  symptoms.  It  is  best  ad- 
ministered in  the  form  of  the  solution  of  arsenic,  as  Fowler's  solu- 
tion or  as  the  white  powdered  arsenious  acid.  Of  the  former  the 
dose  is  1  ounce  to  the  drinking  water  three  times  daily.  Of  the 
latter  one  may  give  3  grains  in  each  feed.  These  quantities  may  be 
cautiously  increased  as  the  animal  becomes  accustomed  to  the  drug. 
If  the  bowels  do  not  act  regularly,  a  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil  may  be 
given  once  or  twice  a  month,  or  a  handful  of  Glauber's  salt  may 
be  given  in  the  feed  twice  daily,  so  long  as  necessary.  It  must, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  medical  treatment  is  of  secondary 
consideration ;  careful  attention  paid  to  the  diet  is  of  greatest  impor- 
tance. Broken-winded  animals  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses.   A  predisposition  to  the  disease  may  be  inherited. 

CHRONIC    COUGH. 

A  chronic  cough  may  succeed  the  acute  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  such  as  pneumonia,  bronchitis,  laryngitis,  etc.  It  accom- 
panies chronic  roaring,  chronic  bronchitis,  broken  wind.  It  may 
succeed  influenza.  As  previously  stated,  cough  is  but  a  symptom 
and  not  a  disease  in  itself.  Chronic  cough  is  occasionally  associated 
with  diseases  other  than  those  of  the  organs  of  respiration.  It 
may  be  a  symptom  of  chronic  indigestion  or  of  worms.  In  such 
cases  it  is  caused  by  a  reflex  nervous  irritation.  The  proper  treat- 
ment in  all  cases  of  chronic  cough  is  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the 
disease  of  which  it  is  a  symptom,  and  then  cure  the  disease  if  possible, 
and  the  cough  will  cease. 

The  treatment  of  the  affections  will  be  found  under  their  appro- 
priate heads,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 


240  DISEASES    OF   THE   H0B8E. 

PLEURO-DYNIA. 

This  is  a  form  of  rheumatism  that  affects  the  intercostal  muscles; 
that  is,  the  muscles  between  the  ribs.  The  apparent  symptoms  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  pleurisy.  The  animal  is  stiff  and  not  in- 
clined to  turn  around;  the  ribs  are  kept  in  a  fixed  state  as  much  as 
possible.  If  the  head  is  pulled  round  suddenly,  or  the  affected  side 
struck  with  the  hand,  or  if  the  spaces  between  the  ribs  are  pressed 
with  the  fingers,  the  animal  will  flinch  and  perhaps  emit  a  grunt  or 
groan  expressive  of  much  pain.  It  is  distinguished  from  pleurisy 
by  the  absence  of  fever,  cough,  the  friction  sound,  the  effusion  into 
the  chest,  and  by  the  existence  of  rheumatism  in  other  parts.  The 
treatment  for  this  affection  is  the  same  as  for  rheumatism  affecting 
other  parts. 

WOUNDS   PENETRATING   THE   WALLS    OF   THE    CHEST. 

A  wound  penetrating  the  wall  of  the  chest  admits  air  into  the  tho- 
racic cavity  outside  of  the  lung.  This  condition  is  known  as  pneumo- 
thorax and  may  result  in  collapse  of  the  lung.  The  wound  may  be  so 
made  that  when  the  walls  of  the  chest  are  dilating  a  little  air  is 
sucked  in,  but  during  the  contraction  of  the  wall  the  contained  air 
presses  against  the  torn  part  in  such  a  manner  as  entirely  to  close 
the  wound ;  thus  a  small  quantity  of  air  gains  access  with  each  in- 
spiration, while  none  is  allowed  to  escape  until  the  lung  is  pressed  into 
a  very  small  compass  and  forced  into  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest. 
The  same  thing  may  occur  from  a  broken  rib  inflicting  a  wound  in 
the  lung.  In  this  form  the  air  gains  access  from  the  lung,  and  there 
may  not  even  be  an  opening  in  the  walls  of  the  chest.  In  such  cases 
the  air  may  be  absorbed,  when  a  spontaneous  cure  is  the  result.  Bu€ 
when  the  symptoms  are  urgent  it  is  recommended  that  the  air  be 
removed  by  a  trocar  and  canula  or  by  an  aspirator. 

It  is  evident  that  the  treatment  of  wounds  that  penetrate  the  tho- 
racic cavity  should  be  prompt.  It  should  be  quickly  ascertained 
whether  or  not  a  foreign  body  remains  in  the  wound,  then  it  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  1  part  in  water  40 
parts.  The  wound  should  then  be  closed  immediately.  If  it  is  an 
incised  woimd,  it  should  be  closed  with  sutures  or  with  adhesive  plas- 
ters: if  torn  or  lacerated,  adhesive  plaster  may  be  used  or  a  bandage 
around  the  chest  over  the  dressing.  At  all  events,  air  must  be  pre- 
vented from  getting  into  the  chest  as  soon  and  as  effectually  as  pos- 
sil>le.  The  after  treatment  of  the  wound  should  principally  consist  in 
kefping  the  parts  clean  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  and  applying 
fresh  flresvinfj  as  often  as  required  to  keep  the  wound  in  a  healthy 
condition.     Care  should  l)e  taken  that  the  discharges  from  the  wound 


THUMPS.  141 

have  an  outlet  in  the  most  dependent  part.  (See  Wounds  and  their 
treatment,  p.  459.)  If  pleurisy  supervenes,  it  should  be  treated  as 
advised  under  that  head. 

THUMPS,   OR   SPASM   OF   THE   DIAPHRAGM. 

"  Thumps  "  is  generally  thought  by  the  inexperienced  to  be  a  pal- 
pitation of  the  heart.  ^\Tiile  it  is  true  that  palpitation  of  the  heart 
is  sometimes  called  "  thumps,"  it  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
affection  under  consideration. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  article  on  the  diseases  of  the  organs  of 
respiration,  the  diaphragm  was  briefly  referred  to  as  the  principal  and 
essential  muscle  of  respiration.  Spasmodic  or  irregular  contractions 
of  it  in  man  are  manifested  by  what  is  familiarly  known  as  hiccoughs. 
Thumps  in  the  horse  is  similar  to  hiccoughs  in  man,  although  the 
peculiar  noise  is  not  made  in  the  throat  of  the  horse  in  all  cases. 

There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  this  affection  from 
palpitation  of  the  heart.  The  jerky  motion  affects  the  whole  body, 
and  is  not  confined  to  the  region  of  the  heart.  If  one  hand  is  placed 
on  the  body  at  about  the  middle  of  the  last  rib,  while  the  other  hand 
is  placed  over  the  heart  behind  the  left  elbow,  it  will  be  easily  demon- 
strated that  there  is  no  connection  between  the  thumping  or  jerking 
of  the  diaphragm  and  the  beating  of  the  heart.  In  fact,  when  the 
animal  is  affected  with  spasms  of  the  diaphragm  the  beating  of  the 
heart  is  usually  much  weaker  and  less  perceptible  than  natural. 
Thumps  is  produced  by  causes  similar  to  those  that  produce  conges- 
tion of  the  lungs  and  dilatation  or  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  may 
occur  in  connection  with  these  conditions.  If  not  relieved,  death 
usually  results  from  congestion  or  edema  of  the  lungs,  as  the  breath- 
ing is  interfered  with  by  the  inordinate  action  of  this  important 
muscle  of  inspiration  so  much  that  proper  aeration  of  the  blood  can 
not  take  place.  The  treatment  should  be  as  prescribed  for  congestion 
of  the  lungs,  and,  in  addition,  antispasmodics,  such  as  1  ounce  of 
sulphuric  ether  in  warm  water  or  3  drams  of  asafetida. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    DIAPHRAGM. 

Post-mortem  examinations  after  colic  or  severe  accident  sometimes 
reveal  rupture  of  the  diaphragm.  This  may  take  place  after  death, 
from  the  generation  of  gases  in  the  decomposing  carcass,  which  dis- 
tend the  intestines  so  that  the  diaphragm  is  ruptured  by  the  great 
pressure  against  it.  The  symptoms  are  intenselv  difficult  respiration 
and  great  depression.     There  is  no  treatment. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Veterinary  Bcience,  etc.,  in  Cornell  University. 

[Revised  in  1903  by  the  author.] 

CONGESTION  AND  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  TE8TIC1ES,  OR  ORCHITIS. 

In  the  prime  of  life,  in  vigorous  health,  and  on  stimulating  food, 
stallions  are  subject  to  congestion  of  the  testicles,  which  become 
swollen,  hot,  and  tender,  but  without  any  active  inflammation.  A 
reduction  of  the  grain  in  the  feed,  the  administration  of  1  or  2  ounces 
of  Glauber's  salts  daily  in  the  food,  and  the  bathing  of  the  affected 
organs  daily  with  tepid  water  or  alum  water  will  usually  restore  them 
to  a  healthy  condition. 

^Vhen  the  factors  producing  congestion  are  extraordinarily  potent, 
when  there  has  been  frequent  copulation  and  heavy  grain  feeding, 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  animal  has  had  little  exercise,  and 
when  the  proximity  of  other  horses  or  mares  excites  the  generative 
instinct  without  gratification,  this  congestion  may  grow  to  actual 
inflammation.  Among  the  other  causes  of  orchitis  are  blows  and  pen- 
etrating wounds  implicating  the  testicles,  abrasions  of  the  scrotum  by 
a  chain  or  rope  passing  inside  the  thigh,  contusions  and  frictions  on 
the  gland  under  rapid  paces  or  heavy  draft,  compression  of  the  blood 
ves.sels  of  the  spermatic  cord  by  the  inguinal  ring  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, and,  finally,  sympathetic  disturbance  in  cases  of  disease 
of  the  kidneys,  bladder,  or  urethra.  Stimulants  of  the  generative 
functions,  like  rue,  savin,  tansy,  cantharides,  and  damiana,  may  also 
be  accessory  causes  of  congestion  and  inflammation.  Finally,  certain 
specific  diseases  like  maladie  du  coit,  glanders^  and  tuberculosis,  local- 
ized in  the  testicles,  will  cause  inflammation. 

Symptonis. — Apart  from  actual  wounds  of  the  parts,  the  symptoms 
of  orchitis  are  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  testicles,  strad- 
dling with  the  hind  legs  alike  in  standing  and  walking,  stiffness  and 
dragging  of  the  hind  limbs  or  of  the  limb  on  the  affected  side,  arching 
of  the  loins,  abdominal  pain,  manifested  by  glancing  back  at  the  flank, 
with  more  or  less  fever,  elevated  body  temperature,  accelerated  pulse 
and  breathing,  inappetence,  and  dullnes.s.  In  bad  cases  the  scanty 
urino  may  Ixj  reddi.sh  and  the  swelling  may  extend  to  the  skin  and 
envelopes  of  the  testicle,  which  may  become  thickened  and  doughy, 
pitting  on  pres.sure.  The  swelling  may  Ik*  so  much  greater  in  the 
convoluted  excretory  duct  along  the  upper  border  of  the  testicle  as  to 

142 


DISEASES   OF   THE    GENERATIVE   OBGANS.  143 

suggest  the  presence  of  a  second  stone.  Even  in  the  more  violent 
attacks  the  intense  suffering  abates  somewhat  on  the  second  or  third 
day.  If  it  lasts  longer  it  is  likely  to  give  rise  to  the  formation  of 
matter  (abscess).  In  exceptional  cases  the  testicle  is  struck  with 
gangrene,  or  death.  Improvement  may  go  on  slowly  to  complete 
recovery,  or  the  malady  may  subside  into  a  subacute  and  chronic  form 
with  induration.  Matter  (abscess)  may  be  recognized  by  the  presence 
of  a  soft  spot,  where  pressure  with  two  fingers  will  detect  fluctuation 
from  one  to  the  other.  "When  there  is  liquid  exudation  into  the 
scrotum,  or  sack,  fluctuation  may  also  be  felt,  but  the  liquid  can  be 
made  out  to  be  around  the  testicle  and  can  be  pressed  up  into  the 
abdomen  through  the  inguinal  canal.  When  abscess  occurs  in  the 
cord  the  matter  may  escape  into  the  scrotal  sac  and  cavity  of  the  abdo- 
men and  pyemia  may  follow. 

Treatment  consists  in  perfect  rest  and  quietude,  the  administration 
of  a  purgative  (1  to  1^  pounds  Glauber's  salts),  and  the  local  appli- 
cation of  an  astringent  lotion  (acetate  of  lead  2  drams,  extract  of 
belladonna  2  drams,  and  water  1  quart)  upon  soft  rags  or  cotton  wool, 
kept  in  contact  with  the  part  by  a  suspensory  bandage.  This  band- 
age, of  great  value  for  support,  ma}'^  be  made  nearly  triangular  and 
tied  to  a  girth  around  the  loins  and  to  the  upper  part  of  the  same  sur- 
cingle by  two  bands  carried  backward  and  upward  between  the 
thighs.  In  severe  cases  scarifications  one-fourth  inch  deep  serve  to  re- 
lieve vascular  tension.  ^Vhen  abscess  is  threatened  its  formation  may 
be  favored  by  warm  fomentations  or  poultices,  and  on  the  occurrence 
of  fluctuation  the  knife  may  be  employed  to  give  free  escape  to  the 
pus.  The  resulting  cavity  may  be  injected  daily  with  a  weak  car- 
bolic-acid lotion,  or  salol  may  be  introduced.  The  same  agents  may 
be  used  on  a  gland  threatened  with  gangrene,  but  its  prompt  removal 
by  castration  is  to  be  preferred,  antiseptics  being  applied  freely  to 
the  resulting  cavity. 

SARCOCELE. 

This  is  an  enlarged  and  indurated  condition  of  the  gland,  resulting 
from  chronic  inflammation,  though  it  is  often  associated  with  a 
specific  deposit,  like  glanders.  In  this  condition  the  natural  struc- 
ture of  the  gland  has  given  place  to  embryonal  tissue  (small  round 
cells,  with  a  few  fibrous  bundles) ,  and  its  restoration  to  health  is  very 
improbable.  Apart  from  active  inflammation,  it  may  increase  very 
slowly.  The  diseased  testicle  is  enlarged,  firm,  nonelastic,  and  com- 
paratively insensible.  The  skin  of  the  scrotum  is  tense,  and  it  may 
be  edematous  (pitting  on  pressure),  as  are  the  deeper  envelopes  and 
spermatic  cord.  If  liquid  is  present  in  the  sac,  the  symptoms  are 
masked  somewhat.  As  it  increases  it  causes  awkward,  straddling, 
dragging  movement  of  the  hind  limbs,  or  lameness  on  the  affected 
side.    The  spermatic  cord  often  increases  at  the  same  time  with  the 


144  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

testicle,  and  the  inguinal  ring  lK?ing  thereby  stretched  and  enlarged, 
a  portion  of  intestine  may  escape  into  the  sac,  complicating  the  dis- 
ease with  hernia. 

The  only  rational  and  effective  treatment  is  castration,  and  even 
this  may  not  succeed  when  the  disease  is  specific  (glanders,  tuber- 
culosis). 

HYDROCELE,  OR  DROPSY  OF  THE  SCROTUai. 

This  may  be  merely  an  accompaniment  of  dropsy  of  the  abdomen, 
the  cavity  of  which  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  scrotum  in  horses. 
It  may  be  the  result,  however,  of  local  disease  in  the  testicle,  sper- 
matic cord,  or  walls  of  the  sac. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  enlargement  of  the  scrotum,  and 
fluctuation  under  the  fingers,  the  testicle  being  recognized  as  floating 
in  water.  By  pressure  the  liquid  is  forced,  in  a  slow  stream  and  with 
a  perceptible  thrill,  into  the  abdomen.  Sometimes  the  cord  or  the 
scrotum  is  thickened  and  pits  on  pressure. 

Treatment  may  be  the  same  as  for  ascites,  yet  when  the  eflfusion  has 
resulted  from  inflammation  of  the  testicle  or  cord,  astringent  applica- 
tions (chalk  and  vinegar)  may  be  applied  to  these.  Then,  if  the 
liquid  is  not  reabsorbed  under  diuretics  and  tonics,  it  may  be  drawn 
off  through  the  nozzle  of  a  hypodermic  syringe  which  has  been  first 
passed  through  carbolic  acid.  In  geldings  it  is  best  to  dissect  out  the 
sacs. 

VARICOCELE. 

This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  venous  network  of  the  spermatic 
cord,  and  gives  rise  to  general  thickening  of  the  cord  from  the  tes- 
ticle up  to  the  ring.  The  same  astringent  dressings  may  be  tried  as 
in  hydrocele,  and,  this  failing,  castration  may  be  resorted  to. 

ABNORMAL   NUMBER  OF  TESTICLES. 

Sometimes  one  or  both  testicles  are  wanting;  in  most  such  cases, 
however,  they  are  merely  partially  developed,  and  retained  in  the 
inguinal  c^inal  or  abdomen  (cryptorchid).  In  rare  cases  there  may 
be  a  third  testicle,  the  animal  becoming  to  this  extent  a  double  mon- 
ster. Teeth,  hair,  and  other  indications  of  a  second  fetus  have  like- 
wise Ijeen  found  in  the  testicle  or  scrotum. 

DEGENERATION  OF  THE  TESTICLES. 

The  testicles  may  become  the  seat  of  fibrous,  calcareous,  fatty,  carti- 
laginous, or  cystic  degeneration,  for  all  of  which  the  appropriate 
treatment  is  castration.  They  also  become  the  seat  of  cancer,  glan- 
ders, or  tuberculosis,  and  castration  is  requisite,  though  with  less  hope 
of  arresting  the  disease.  Finally,  they  may  become  infested  with 
cystic  tapeworms  or  larval  stages  of  the  armed  roundworm 
{Strongylm  equinus). 


DISEASES    OF    THE    GENERATIVE    ORGANS.  145 

WARTS    ON    THE   PENIS. 

These  are  best  removed  by  seizing  them  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  and  twisting  them  off.  Or  they  may  be  cut  off  with 
scissors  and  the  roots  cauterized  with  nitrate  of  silver. 

DEGENERATION    OF   PENIS    (PAPILLOMA,   OR   EPITHELIOMA). 

The  penis  of  the  horse  is  subject  to  great  cauliflower-like  growths 
on  its  free  end,  which  extend  back  into  the  substance  of  the  organ, 
obstruct  the  passage  of  urine,  and  cause  very  fetid  discharges.  The 
only  resort  is  to  cut  them  off,  together  with  whatever  portion  of  the 
penis  has  become  diseased  and  indurated.  The  operation,  which 
should  be  performed  by  a  veterinary  surgeon,  consists  in  cutting 
through  the  organ  from  its  upper  to  its  lower  aspect,  twisting  or 
tying  the  two  dorsal  arteries,  and  leaving  the  urethra  longer  by  half 
an  inch  to  1  inch  than  the  adjacent  structures. 

EXTRAVASATION  OF  BLOOD  IN  THE  PENIS. 

As  the  result  of  kicks,  blows,  or  of  forcible  striking  of  the  yard  on 
the  thighs  of  the  mare  which  it  has  failed  to  enter,  the  penis  may 
become  the  seat  of  effusion  of  blood  from  one  or  more  ruptured  blood 
vessels.  This  gives  rise  to  a  more  or  less  extensive  swelling  on  one  or 
more  sides,  followed  by  some  heat  and  inflammation,  and  on  recovery 
a  serious  curving  of  the  organ.  The  treatment  in  the  early  stages 
may  be  the  application  of  lotions,  of  alum,  or  other  astringents,  to 
limit  the  amount  of  effusion  and  favor  absorption.  The  penis  should 
be  suspended  in  a  sling. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  PENIS. 

This  results  from  blows  and  other  injuries,  and  also  in  some  cases 
from  too  frequent  and  exhausting  service.  The  yard  hangs  from  the 
sheath,  flaccid,  pendulous,  and  often  cold.  The  passage  of  urine 
occurs  with  lessened  force,  and  especially  without  the  final  jets.  In 
cases  of  local  injury  the  inflammation  should  first  be  subdued  by 
astringent  and  emollient  lotions,  and  in  all  cases  the  system  should 
be  invigorated  by  nourishing  diet,  while  30-grain  doses  of  nux  vomica 
are  given  twice  a  day.  Finally,  a  weak  current  of  electricity  sent 
through  the  penis  from  just  beneath  the  anus  to  the  free  portion  of 
the  yard,  continued  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  and  repeated  daily, 
may  prove  successful. 

SELF-ABUSE,   OR    MASTURBATION. 

Some  stallions  acquire  this  vicious  habit,  stimulating  the  sexual 
instinct  to  the  discharge  of  semen  by  rubbing  the  penis  against  the 
belly  or  between  the  fore  limbs.     The  only  remedy  is  a  mechanical 
H,  Doc.  795,  59-2 10 


146  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

one,  the  fixing  of  a  net  under  the  penis  in  such  fashion  as  will  prevent 
the  extension  of  the  penis,  or  so  prick  the  organ  as  to  compel  the^ 
animal  to  desist  through  pain. 

MAL.ADIE   DU   <X)IT,  OR  DOURIXE. 

This  is  propagated,  like  syphilis,  by  the  act  of  copulation  and 
affects  stallions  and  mares.  It  has  long  been  known  in  northern 
Africa,  Arabia,  and  Continental  Europe.  It  was  imported  into 
Illinois  in  1882  in  a  Percheron  horse. 

From  one  to  ten  days  after  copulation,  or  in  stallions  it  may  be 
after  some  weeks,  there  is  irritation,  swelling,  and  a  livid  redness  of 
the  external  organs  of  generation,  sometimes  followed  by  the  erup- 
tion of  small  blisters  one-fifth  of  an  inch  across  on  the  penis,  the 
vulva,  clitoris,  and  the  vagina,  and  the  consequent  rupture  of  these 
vesicles  and  the  formation  of  ulcers  or  small  open  sores.  Vesicles 
have  not  been  noticed  in  this  disease  in  the  dry  climate  of  Illinois. 
In  the  mare  there  is  frequent  contraction  of  the  vulva,  urination,  and 
the  discharge  of  a  watery  and  later  a  thick  viscid  liquid  of  a  whitish, 
yellowish,  or  reddish  color,  which  collects  on  and  soils  the  tail.  The 
swelling  of  the  ^1llva  increases  and  decreases  alternately,  affecting 
one  part  more  than  another  and  giving  a  distorted  appearance  to  the 
opening.  The  affection  of  the  skin  leads  to  the  appearance  of  circu- 
lar white  spots,  Avhich  may  remain  distinct  or  coalesce  into  extensive 
patches  which  persist  for  months.  This,  with  the  soiled  tail,  red, 
swollen,  puckered,  and  distorted  vulva,  and  an  increasing  weakness 
and  paralysis  of  the  hind  limbs,  serves  to  characterize  the  affection. 
The  mare  rarely  breeds,  but  will  take  the  male,  and  thus  propagate 
the  disease.  The  disease  winds  up  with  great  emaciation  and  stu- 
pidity and  death  in  four  months  to  two  years.  In  horses  which  serve 
few  mares  there  may  be  only  swelling  of  the  sheath  for  a  year,  but 
with  frequent  copulation  the  progress  is  more  rapid.  The  penis  may 
1k«  enlarged,  shrunken,  or  distorted;  the  testicles  are  usually  pendent 
and  may  Ix?  enlarged  or  wasted  and  flabby ;  the  skin,  as  in  the  mare, 
shows  white  spots  and  patches.  Later  the  penis  becomes  i^artially 
paralyzed  and  hangs  out  of  the  sheath;  swelling  of  the  adjacent 
lymphatic  glands  (in  the  groin),  and  even  of  distant  ones,  and  of  the 
skin  appears,  and  the  hind  limbs  become  weak  and  unsteady.  In 
some  instances  the  glands  under  the  jaw  swell,  and  a  discharge  flows 
from  the  nose,  as  in  glanders.  In  other  cases  the  itching  of  the  skin 
loads  to  gnawing  and  extensive  sores.  Weakness,  emaciation,  and 
stupidity  increase  until  death,  in  fatal  cases,  yet  the  sexual  desire 
does  not  s<>em  to  fail.  A  stallion  without  sense  to  eat,  except  when 
ffKMl  was  put  in  his  mouth,  would  still  neigh  and  seek  to  follow  mares. 
In  mild  cases  an  apparent  recovery  may  ensue,  and  through  such 
animals  the  disease  is  propagated  to  new  localities  to  be  roused  into 


CASTRATION    OF    STALLIONS.  147 

activitv  and  extension  under  the  stimulus  of  service.     The  diseased 
nerve  centers  are  the  seat  of  cryptogamic  growths.     (Thannhoffer.) 

Treatment  of  the  malady  has  proved  eminently  unsatisfactory.  It 
belongs  to  the  purely  contagious  diseases,  and  should  be  stamped  out 
by  the  remorseless  slaughter  or  castration  of  every  horse  or  mare  that 
has  had  sexual  congress  with  a  diseased  animal. 

CASTRATION    OF    STALLIONS. 

This  is  usually  done  at  one  year  old,  but  may  be  accomplished  at  a 
few  weeks  old  at  the  expense  of  an  imperfect  development  of  the 
fore  parts.  The  simplicity  and  safety  of  the  operation  are  greatest  in 
the  young.  The  delay  till  two,  three,  or  four  years  old  will  secure  a 
better  development  and  carriage  of  the  fore  parts.  The  essential 
part  of  castration  is  the  safe  removal  or  destruction  of  the  testicle 
and  the  arrest  or  prevention  of  bleeding  from  the  spermatic  artery 
found  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cord.  Into  the  many  methods  of 
accomplishing  this  limited  space  forbids  us  to  enter  here,  so  that  the 
method  most  commonly  adopted,  castration  by  clamps,  will  alone  be 
noticed.  The  animal  having  been  thrown  on  his  left  side,  and  the 
right  hind  foot  drawn  up  on  the  shoulder,  the  exposed  scrotum, 
penis,  and  sheath  are  washed  with  soap  and  water,  any  concretion  of 
sebum  being  carefully  removed  from  the  bilocular  cavity  in  the  end 
of  the  penis.  The  left  spermatic  cord,  just  above  the  testicle,  is  now 
seized  in  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  render  the  skin  tense  over  the  stone, 
and  the  right  hand,  armed  with  the  knife,  makes  an  incision  from 
before  backward,  about  three- fourths  of  an  inch  from  and  parallel  to 
the  median  line  between  the  thighs,  deep  enough  to  expose  the  testicle 
and  long  enough  to  allow  that  organ  to  start  out  through  the  skin. 
At  the  moment  of  making  this  incision  the  left  hand  must  grasp  the 
cord  very  firmly,  otherwise  the  sudden  retraction  of  the  testicle  by 
the  cremaster  muscle  may  draw  it  out  of  the  hand  and  upwards 
through  the  canal  and  even  into  the  abdomen.  Jn  a  few  seconds, 
when  the  struggle  and  retraction  have  ceased,  the  knife  is  inserted 
through  the  cord,  between  its  anterior  and  posterior  portions,  and  the 
latter,  the  one  which  the  muscle  retracts,  is  cut  completely  through. 
The  testicle  will  now  hang  limp,  and  there  is  no  longer  any  tendency 
to  retraction.  It  should  be  pulled  down  until  it  will  no  longer  hang 
loose  below  the  wound  and  the  clamps  applied  around  the  still  attached 
portion  of  the  cord,  close  up  to  the  skin.  The  clamps,  which  may  be 
made  of  any  tough  wood,  are  grooved  along  the  center  of  the  surfaces 
opposed  to  each  other,  thereby  fulfilling  two  important  indications — 
{a)  enabling  the  clamps  to  hold  more  securely  and  {h)  providing  for 
the  application  of  an  antiseptic  to  the  cord.  For  this  purpose  a  dram 
of  sulphate  of  copper  may  be  mixed  with  an  ounce  of  vaseline  and 


J4S  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

pressed  into  the  groove  in  the  face  of  each  clamp.  In  applying  the 
clamp  over  the  cord  it  should  be  drawn  so  close  with  pincers  as  to  press 
out  all  blood  from  the  compressed  cord  and  destroy  its  vitality,  and 
the  cord  applied  upon  the  compressing  clamps  should  be  so  hard- 
twined  that  it  will  not  stretch  later  and  slacken  the  hold.  When  the 
clamp  has  been  fixed  the  testicle  is  cut  off  one-half  to  1  inch  below  it, 
and  the  clamp  may  be  left  thus  for  twenty- four  hours;  then,  by  cut- 
ting the  cord  around  one  end  of  the  clamp,  the  latter  may  be  opened 
and  the  stump  liberated  without  any  danger  of  bleeding.  Should  the 
stump  hang  out  of  the  wound  it  should  be  pushed  inside  with  the  finger 
and  left  there.  The  wound  should  begin  to  discharge  white  matter 
on  the  second  day  in  hot  weather  or  the  third  in  cold,  and  from  that 
time  a  good  recovery  may  be  expected. 

CONDITIONS  FAVORABLE  TO  SUCCESSFUL  CASTRATION. 

The  young  horse  suffers  less  from  castration  than  the  old,  and  very 
rarely  perishes.  Good  health  in  the  subject  is  all  important.  Castra- 
tion should  never  be  attempted  during  the  prevalence  of  strangles, 
influenza,  catarrhal  fever,  contagious  pleurisy,  bronchitis,  pneumonia, 
purpura  hemorrhagica,  or  other  specific  disease,  nor  on  subjects  that 
have  been  kept  in  close,  ill  ventilated,  filthy  buildings,  where  the 
system  is  liable  to  have  been  charged  with  putrid  bacteria  or  other 
products.  Warm  weather  is  to  be  preferred  to  cold,  but  the  fly  time 
should  he  avoided  or  the  flies  kept  at  a  distance  by  the  application  of 
a  watery  solution  of  tar,  carbolic  acid,  or  camphor  to  the  wound. 

CASTRATION  OF  CRYPTORCHIDS   (rIDGLINGS). 

This  is  the  removal  of  a  testicle  or  testicles  that  have  failed  to 
descend  into  the  scrotum,  but  have  l)een  detained  in  the  inguinal 
canal  or  inside  the  abdomen.  The  manipulation  requires  an  accurate 
anatomical  knowledge  of  the  parts,  and  special  skill,  experience,  and 
manual  dexterity,  and  can  not  be  made  clear  to  the  unprofessional 
mind  in  a  short  notice.  It  consists,  however,  in  the  discovery  and 
removal  of  the  missing  gland  by  exploring  through  the  natural  chan- 
nel (the  inguinal  canal),  or,  in  case  it  is  absent,  through  the  inguinal 
ring  or  through  an  artificial  opening  made  in  front  and  above  that 
chaimel  between  the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  strong  fascia  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  thigh  (Poupart's  ligament).  Whatever  method  is 
used,  the  skin,  hands,  and  instruments  should  Ije  rendered  aseptic 
with  a  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  1  part,  water  2,000  parts  (a  car- 
lx)lic  acid  lotion  for  the  instruments),  and  the  spermatic  cord  is  best 
ton)  through  by  the  ecraseur.  In  many  such  cases,  too,  it  is  desirable 
to  sew  up  the  external  wound  and  keep  the  animal  still,  to  favor 
healing  of  the  wound  by  adhesion. 


CASTRATION    OP    STALLIONS.  149 

PAIN  AFTER  CASTRATION. 

Some  horses  are  pained  and  very  restless  for  some  hours  after  cas- 
tration, and  this  may  extend  to  cramps  of  the  bowels  and  violent  colic. 
This  is  best  kept  in  check  by  carefully  rubbing  the  patient  dry  when 
he  rises  from  the  operation,  and  then  leading  him  in  hand  for  some 
time.  If  the  pain  still  persists  a  dose  of  laudanum  (1  ounce  for  an- 
adult)  may  be  given. 

BLEEDING  AFTER  CASTRATION. 

Bleeding  from  the  wound  in  the  scrotum  and  from  the  little  artery 
in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  spermatic  cord  always  occurs,  and  in 
warm  weather  may  appear  to  be  quite  free.  It  scarcely  ever  lasts, 
however,  over  fifteen  minutes,  and  is  easily  checked  by  dashing  cold 
water  against  the  part. 

Bleeding  from  the  spermatic  artery  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cord 
may  be  dangerous  when  due  precaution  has  not  been  taken  to  prevent 
it.  In  such  case  the  stump  of  the  cord  should  be  sought  for  and 
th^  artery  twisted  with  artery  forceps  or  tied  with  a  silk  thread. 
If  the  stump  can  not  be  found,  pledgets  of  tow  wet  with  tincture  of 
muriate  of  iron  may  be  stuffed  into  the  canal  to  favor  the  formation 
of  clot  and  the  closure  of  the  artery. 

STRANGULATED    SPERMATIC    CORD. 

If  in  castration  the  cord  is  left  too  long,  so  as  to  hang  out  of  the 
wound,  the  skin  wound  in  contracting  grasps  and  strangles  it,  pre- 
venting the  free  return  of  blood  and  causing  a  steadily  advancing 
swelling.  In  addition  the  cord  becomes  adherent  to  the  lips  of  the 
wound  in  the  skin,  whence  it  derives  an  increased  suppl}'^  of  blood, 
and  is  thereby  stimulated  to  more  rapid  swelling.  The  subject  walks 
stiffly,  with  straddling  gait,  loses  appetite,  and  has  a  rapid  pulse  and 
high  fever.  Examination  of  the  wound  discloses  the  partial  closure 
of  the  skin  wound  and  the  protrusion  from  its  lips  of  the  end  of  the 
cord,  red,  tense,  and  varying  in  size  from  a  hazelnut  upward.  If 
there  is  no  material  swelling  and  little  protrusion,  the  wound  may  be 
enlarged  with  the  knife  and  the  end  of  the  cord  broken  loose  from 
any  connection  with  the  skin  and  pushed  up  inside.  If  the  swelling 
is  larger,  the  mass  constitutes  a  tumor  and  must  be  removed.  (See 
below.) 

SWELLING   OF    THE    SHEATH,  PENIS,  AND    ABDOMEN. 

This  occurs  in  certain  unhealthy  states  of  the  system,  in  unhealthy 
seasons,  as  the  result  of  operating  without  cleansing  the  sheath  and 
penis,  or  of  keeping  the  subject  in  a  filthy,  impure  building,  as  the 
result  of  infecting  the  wound  by  hands  or  instruments  bearing  septic 


150  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

bacteria,  or  as  the  result  of  premature  closure  of  the  wound,  and 
imprisonment  of  matter. 

Pure  air  and  cleanliness  of  groin  and  wound  are  to  be  secured. 
Antiseptics,  like  the  mercuric  chloride  lotion  (1  part  to  2,000)  are  to 
be  applied  to  the  parts;  the  wound,  if  closed,  is  to  be  opened  anew, 
any  accumulated  matter  or  blood  washed  out,  and  the  antiseptic 
liquid  freely  applied.  The  most  tense  or  dependent  parts  of  the 
swelling  in  sheath  or  penis,  or  beneath  the  belly,  should  be  pricked  at 
intervals  of  3  or  4  inches,  and  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch,  and  anti- 
septics freely  used  to  the  surface.  Fomentations  with  warm  water 
may  also  be  used  to  favor  oozing  from  the  incisions  and  to  encourage 
the  formation  of  white  matter  in  the  original  wounds,  which  must  not 
be  allowed  to  close  again  at  once.  A  free,  creamlike  discharge  im- 
plies a  healthy  action  in  the  sore,  and  is  the  precursor  of  recovery. 

PHYMOSIS   AND   PARAPHYMOSIS. 

In  cases  of  swelling,  as  above,  the  penis  may  be  imprisoned  within 
the  sheath  (phymosis)  or  protruded  and  swollen  so  that  it  can  not  be 
retracted  into  it  (paraphymosis).  In  these  cases  the  treatment  indi- 
cated above,  and  especially  the  scarifications,  will  prove  a  useful  pre- 
liminary resort.  The  use  of  astringent  lotions  is  always  desirable, 
and  in  case  of  the  protruded  penis  the  application  of  an  elastic  or 
simple  linen  bandage,  so  as  to  press  out  the  blood  and  accumulated 
fluid,  will  enable  the  operator  to  return  it. 

TUMORS  ON  THE  SPERMATIC  CORD. 

These  are  due  to  rough  handling  or  dragging  upon  the  cord  in 
castration,  to  strangulation  of  unduly  long  cords  in  the  external 
wound,  to  adhesion  of  the  end  of  the  cord  to  the  skin,  to  inflammation 
of  the  cord  succeeding  exposure  to  cold  or  wet,  or  to  the  presence 
of  infection  {Staphylococcus  hotriomyces) .  These  tumors  give  rise 
to  a  stiff,  straddling  gait,  and  may  be  felt  as  hard  masses  in  the  groin 
connected  above  with  the  cord.  They  may  continue  to  grow  slowly 
for  many  years  until  they  reach  a  weight  of  15  or  20  pounds,  and 
contract  adhesions  to  all  surrounding  parts.  If  disconnected  from 
the  skin  and  inguinal  canal  they  may  be  removed  in  the  same  manner 
sis  tlie  testicle,  while  if  larger  and  firmly  adherent  to  the  skin  and 
surrounding  parts  generally,  they  must  l^e  carefully  dissected  from 
tht'  parts,  the  arteries  being  tied  as  they  are  reached  and  the  cord 
finally  torn  through  with  an  ecraseur.  AVhen  the  cord  has  become 
swollen  and  indurated  up  into  the  abdomen  such  removal  is  impos- 
sible, though  a  partial  destruction  of  the  mass  may  still  be  attempted 
by  passing  white-hot  ])ointod  irons  upward  toward  the  inguinal  ring 
in  the  center  of  the  thickened  and  indurated  cord. 


CASTEATION    OF    THE    MARE.  151 

CASTRATION  BY  THE  COVERED  OPERATION. 

This  is  only  required  in  ease  of  hernia  or  protrusion  of  bowels  or 
omentum  into  the  sack  of  the  scrotum,  and  consists  in  the  return  of 
the  hernia  and  the  application  of  the  caustic  clamps  over  the  cord  and 
inner  walls  of  the  inguinal  canal,  so  that  the  walls  of  the  latter  become 
adherent  above  the  clamps,  the  canal  is  obliterated,  and  further  pro- 
trusion is  hindered.  For  the  full  description  of  this  and  of  the  opera- 
tion for  hernia  in  geldings,  see  remarks  on  hernia. 

CASTRATION    OF   THE    MARE. 

Castration  is  a  much  more  dangerous  operation  in  the  mare  than  in 
the  females  of  other  domesticated  quadrupeds  and  should  never  be 
resorted  to  except  in  animals  that  become  unmanageable  on  the  recur- 
rence of  heat  and  that  will  not  breed  or  that  are  utterly  unsuited  to 
breeding.  Formerly  the  operation  was  extensively  practiced  in 
Europe,  the  incision  being  made  through  the  flank,  and  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  subjects  perished.  By  operating  through  the  vagina 
the  risk  can  be  largely  obviated,  as  the  danger  of  unhealthy  inflam- 
mation in  the  wound  is  greatly  lessened.  The  animal  should  be 
fixed  in  a  trevis,  with  each  foot  fixed  to  a  post  and  a  sling  placed 
under  the  body,  or  it  may  be  thrown  and  put  under  chloroform. 
The  manual  operation  demands  special  professional  knowledge  and 
skill,  but  it  consists  essentially  in  making  an  opening  through  the 
roof  of  the  vagina  just  above  the  neck  of  the  womb,  then  following 
with  the  hand  each  horn  of  the  womb  until  the  ovary  on  that  side 
is  reached  and  grasped  between  the  lips  of  forceps  and  twisted  oft'. 
It  might  be  torn  off  by  an  ecraseur  especially  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  straining  that  follows  the  operation  may  be  checked 
by  ounce  doses  of  laudanum,  and  any  risk  of  protrusion  of  the  bowels 
may  be  obviated  by  applying  the  truss  advised  to  prevent  eversion 
of  the  womb.  To  further  prevent  the  pressure  of  the  abdominal  con- 
tents against  the  vaginal  wound  the  mare  should  be  tied  short  and 
high  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours,  after  which  I  have  fouiul 
it  best  to  remove  the  truss  and  allow  the  privilege  of  lying  down. 
Another  important  point  is  to  give  bran  mashes  and  other  laxative 
diet  only,  and  in  moderate  quantity,  for  a  fortnight,  and  to  unload 
the  rectum  by  copious  injections  of  warm  water  in  case  it  should 
threaten  to  become  impacted. 

STERILITY. 

Sterility  may  be  in  the  male  or  in  the  female.  If  due  to  the  stal- 
lion, then  all  the  mares  put  to  him  remain  barren;  if  due  to  the  mare, 
she  alone  fails  to  conceive. 


152  DISEASES    OF   THE    HOBSE. 

In  the  stallion  sterility  may  be  due  to  the  following  causes:  (a) 
Imperfect  development  of  the  testicles,  as  in  cases  in  which  they  are 
retained  within  the  abdomen;  (b)  inflammation  of  the  testicles,  re- 
sulting in  induration;  (<:■)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  testicles,  in  stal- 
lions liberally  fed  on  starchy  food  and  not  sufficiently  exercised;  (d) 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  excretory  ducts  of  the  testicles  {vasa  defe- 
rentia)  ;  (e)  inflammation  or  ulceration  of  these  ducts;  (/)  inflam- 
mation or  ulceration  of  the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  penis; 
{(/)  injuries  to  the  {jenis  from  blows  (often  causing  paralysis)  ;  (A) 
warty  growths  on  the  end  of  the  penis;  (i)  tumors  of  other  kinds 
(largely  pigmentary),  affecting  the  testicles  or  penis;  (j)  nervous 
diseases  which  abolish  the  sexual  appetite  or  that  control  the  muscles 
which  are  essential  to  the  act  of  coition;  (k)  azoturia  with  resulting 
weakness  or  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  or  the  front  of  the 
thigh  (above  the  stifle) ;  (Z)  ossification  (anchylosis)  of  the  joints 
of  the  back  or  loins,  which  render  the  animal  unable  to  rear,  or  mount; 
(m)  spavins,  ringbones,  or  other  painful  affections  of  the  hind  limbs, 
the  pain  of  which  in  mounting  causes  the  animal  to  suddenly  stop 
short  in  the  act.  In  the  first  three  of  these  only  (a,  &,  and  c)  is  there 
real  sterility  in  the  sense  of  the  nondevelopment  or  imperfect  devel- 
opment of  the  male  vivifying  element  (spermatozoa).  In  the  other 
cxamj)les  the  secretion  may  be  perfect  in  kind  and  amount,  but  as 
copulation  is  prevented  it  can  not  reach  and  impregnate  the  ovum. 

In  the  mare  barrenness  is  equally  due  to  a  variety  of  causes.  In  a 
numU'r  of  breeding  studs  the  proportion  of  sterile  mares  has  varied 
from  20  to  40  per  cent.  It  may  be  due  to:  (a)  Imperfect  develop- 
ment of  the  ovary  and  nonmaturation  of  ova;  (b)  cystic  or  other 
tumors  of  the  ovarj';  (c)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  ovary  in  very 
obese,  pamj^ered  mares;  (d)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  excretory 
tubes  of  the  ovaries  (Fallopian  tul>es)  :  (e)  catarrh  of  the  womb, 
with  mucopurulent  discharge;  (/)  irritable  condition  of  the  womb, 
with  profuse  secretion,  straining,  and  ejection  of  the  semen;  (g) 
nervous  irritability,  leading  to  the  same  expulsion  of  the  male  ele- 
ment; (/<)  higlj  condition  (plethora),  with  profuse  secretion  and 
excitement;  (/)  low  ccmdition,  with  imperfect  maturation  of  the  ovii 
and  lack  of  sexual  desire;  (j)  poor  feeding,  overwork,  and  chronic 
debilitating  diseases,  as  leading  to  the  condition  just  named;  {k) 
closure  of  the  neck  of  the  womb,  temporarily  by  spasm  or  perma- 
nently by  inflammation  and  induration;  (/)  closure  of  the  entrance 
to  the  vagina  through  imperforate  hymen,  a  rare,  though  not  un- 
known, condition  in  the  mare;  (m)  acquired  indisposition  to  breed, 
seen  in  old,  hard-worked  mares  which  are  first  put  to  the  stallion 
when  aged;  (;<)  change  of  climate  has  repeatedly  been  followed  by 
barrenness;  (o)  hybridity,  which  in  male  and  female  alike  usually 
entails  sterility. 


STERILITY.  153 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  the  majority  of  these  conditions 
will  be  found  dealt  with  in  other  parts  of  this  work,  so  that  it  is  only 
necessary  here  to  name  them  as  causes.  Some,  however,  must  be 
specially  referred  to  in  this  place.  Stallions  with  undescended 
testicles  are  beyond  the  reach  of  medicine,  and  should  be  castrated 
and  devoted  to  other  uses.  Indurated  testicles  may  sometimes  bo 
remedied  in  the  early  stages  by  smearing  with  a  weak  iodine  ointment 
daily  for  a  length  of  time,  and  at  the  same  time  invigorating  the 
system  by  liberal  feeding  and  judicious  work.  Fatty  degeneration 
is  best  met  by  an  albuminoid  diet  (wheat  bran,  cotton-seed  meal, 
rape  cake)  and  constant  well-regulated  work.  Saccharine,  starchy, 
and  fatty  food  (potatoes,  w^heat,  corn,  etc.)  are  to  be  specially 
avoided.  In  the  mare  one  diseased  and  irritable  ovary  should  ba 
removed,  to  do  away  with  the  resulting  excitability  of  the  remainder 
of  the  generative  organs.  An  irritable  womb,  with  frequent  strain- 
ing and  the  ejection  of  a  profuse  secretion,  may  sometimes  be  cor- 
rected by  a  restricted  diet  and  full  but  well-regulated  work.  Even 
fatigue  will  act  beneficially  in  some  such  cases,  hence  the  practice  of 
the  Arab  riding  his  mare  to  exhaustion  just  before  service.  The 
perspiration  in  such  a  case,  like  the  action  of  a  purgative  or  the 
abstraction  of  blood  just  before  service,  benefits,  by  rendering  the 
blood  vessels  less  full,  by  lessening  secretion  in  the  womb  and  else- 
where, and  thus  counteracting  the  tendency  to  the  ejection  and  loss 
of  semen.  If  these  means  are  ineffectual,  a  full  dose  of  camphor  (2 
drams)  or  of  salacin  may  at  times  assist.  Low  condition  and  anemia 
demand  just  the  opposite  kind  of  treatment — rich,  nourishing,  albumi- 
noid food,  bitter  tonics  (gentian),  sunshine,  gentle  exercise,  liberal 
grooming,  and  supporting  treatment  generally   are  here  in   order. 

Spasmodic  closure  of  the  neck  of  the  womb  is  common  and  is 
easily  remedied  in  the  mare  by  dilatation  with  the  fingers.  The 
hand,  smeared  with  belladonna  ointment  and  with  the  fingers  drawn 
into  the  form  of  a  cone,  is  introduced  through  the  vagina  until 
the  projecting,  rounded  neck  of  the  womb  is  felt  at  its  anterior  end. 
This  is  opened  by  the  careful  insertion  of  one  finger  at  a  time,  until 
the  fingers  have  been  passed  through  the  constricted  neck  into  the 
open  cavity  of  the  womb.  The  introduction  is  made  with  a  gentle, 
rotary  motion,  and  all  precipitate  violence  is  avoided,  as  abrasion, 
laceration,  or  other  cause  of  irritation  is  likely  to  interfere  with  the 
retention  of  the  semen  and  with  impregnation.  If  the  neck  of  the 
womb  is  rigid  and  unyielding  from  the  induration  which  follows  in- 
flammation— a  rare  condition  in  the  mare,  though  common  in  the 
cow — more  force  will  be  requisite,  and  it  may  even  be  needful  to  in- 
cise the  neck  to  the  depth  of  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  four  or  more 
opposite  directions  prior  to  forcible  dilatation.  The  incision  may  be 
made  with  a  probe-pointed  knife,  and  should  be  done  by  a  profes- 


154  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

gional  man  if  possible.  The  subsequent  dilatation  may  be  best  effected 
bv  the  slow  expansion  of  sponge  or  seaweed  tents  inserted  into  the 
narrow  canal.  In  such  cases  it  is  best  to  let  the  wounds  of  the  neck 
heal  before  putting  to  horse.  An  imperforate  hymen  may  be  freely 
incised  in  a  crucial  manner  until  the  passage  will  admit  the  human 
hand.  An  ordinary  knife  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  after 
the  operation  the  stallion  may  be  admitted  at  once  or  only  after  the 
wounds  have  healed. 

INDICATIONS  OF   PREGNANCY. 

As  the  mere  fact  of  service  by  the  stallion  does  not  insure  preg- 
nancy, it  is  important  that  the  result  should  be  determined,  to  save 
the  mare  from  unnecessary  and  dangerous  work  or  medication  when 
actually  in  foal  and  to  obviate  wasteful  and  needless  precautions  when 
she  is  not. 

The  cessation  and  nonrecurrence  of  the  symptoms  of  heat  (horsing) 
are  most  significant  though  not  an  infallible  sign  of  conception.  If 
the  sexual  excitement  speedily  subsides  and  the  mare  persistently 
refuses  the  stallion  for  a  month,  she  is  probably  pregnant.  In  very 
exceptional  cases  a  mare  will  accept  a  second  or  third  service  after 
weeks  or  months,  though  pregnant,  and  some  mares  will  refuse  the 
horse  persistently,  though  conception  has  not  taken  place,  and  this  in 
spite  of  warm  weather,  good  condition  of  the  mare,  and  liberal  feed- 
ing. The  recurrence  of  heat  in  the  pregnant  mare  is  most  likely  to 
take  place  in  hot  weather.  If  heat  merely  persists  an  undue  length  of 
time  after  service,  or  if  it  reappears  shortly  after,  in  warm  weather 
and  in  a  comparatively  idle  mare,  on  good  feeding,  it  is  less  signifi- 
cant, while  the  persistent  absence  of  heat  under  such  conditions  may 
l)e  usually  accepted  as  proof  of  conception. 

An  unwonted  gentleness  and  docility  on  the  part  of  a  previously 
irritable  or  vicious  mare,  and  supervening  on  service,  is  an  excellent 
indication  of  j)regnancy,  the  generative  instinct  which  caused  the 
excitoniont  having  been  satisfied. 

An  increase  of  fat,  with  softness  and  flabbiness  of  muscle,  a  loss  of 
energy,  indisposition  for  active  work,  a  manifestation  of  laziness, 
indeed,  and  of  fatigue  early  and  easily  induced,  when  preceded  by 
service,  will  usually  imply  conception. 

Enlargement  of  the  abdomen,  especially  in  its  lower  third,  with 
slight  falling  in  beneath  the  loins  and  hollowness  of  the  back  are  sig- 
nificant symptoms,  though  they  may  be  entirely  absent.  Swelling  and 
firnniess  of  the  udder,  with  the  smoothing  out  of  its  wrinkles,  is  a 
suggestive  sign,  even  though  it  appears  only  at  intervals  during  ges- 
tation. 

.V  steady  increase  in  weight  (1^  pounds  daily)  about  the  fourth  or 
fifth  month  is  a  useful  indication  of  pregnancy.  So  is  a  swollen  and 
red  or  bluish-rod  appearance  of  the  vaginal  mucous  membrane. 


PREGNANCY.  155 

From  the  seventh  or  eighth  month  onward  the  foal  may  be  felt  by 
the  hand  (palm  or  knuckles)  pressed  into  the  abdomen  in  front  of  the 
left  stifle.  The  sudden  push  displaces  the  foal  toward  the  opposite 
side  of  the  womb,  and  as  it  floats  back  its  hard  body  is  felt  to  strike 
against  the  hand.  If  the  pressure  is  maintained  the  movements  of 
the  live  foal  are  felt,  and  especially  in  the  morning  and  after  a  drink 
of  cold  water  or  during  feeding.  A  drink  of  cold  water  will  often 
stimulate  the  fetus  to  movements  that  may  be  seen  by  the  eye,  but 
an  excess  of  iced  water  may  prove  injurious,  even  to  the  causing  of 
abortion.  Cold  water  dashed  on  the  belly  has  a  similar  effect  on  the 
fetus  and  equally  endangers  abortion. 

Examination  of  the  uterus  with  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the 
rectum  is  still  more  satisfactory,  and  if  cautiously  conducted  no  more 
dangerous.  The  rectum  must  be  first  emptied  and  then  the  hand  car- 
ried forward  until  it  reaches  the  front  edge  of  the  pelvic  bones  below, 
and  pressed  downward  to  ascertain  the  size  and  outline  of  the  womb. 
In  the  unimpregnated  state  the  vagina  and  womb  can  be  felt  as  a  sin- 
gle rounded  tube,  dividing  in  front  to  two  smaller  tubes  (the  horns  of 
the  womb).  In  the  pregnant  mare  not  only  the  body  of  the  womb  is 
enlarged,  but  still  more  so  one  of  the  horns  (right  or  left),  and  on 
compression  the  latter  is  found  to  contain  a  hard,  nodular  body,  float- 
ing in  a  liquid,  which  in  the  latter  half  of  gestation  may  be  stimulated 
by  gentle  pressure  to  manifest  spontaneous  movements.  By  this 
method  the  presence  of  the  fetus  may  be  determined  as  early  as  the 
third  month.  If  the  complete  natural  outline  of  the  virgin  womb  can 
not  be  made  out,  careful  examination  should  always  be  made  on  the 
right  and  left  side  for  the  enlarged  horn  and  its  living  contents. 
Should  there  still  be  difficulty  the  mare  should  be  placed  on  an  in- 
clined plane,  with  her  hind  parts  lowest,  and  two  assistants,  standing 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  body,  should  raise  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen  by  a  sheet  passed  beneath  it.  Finally  the  ear  or  stethoscope 
applied  on  the  wall  of  the  abdomen  in  front  of  the  stifle  may  detect 
the  beating  of  the  fetal  heart  (one  hundred  and  twenty -five  per 
minute)  and  a  blowing  sound  (the  uterine  sough),  much  less  rapid 
and  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  pulse  of  the  dam.  It  is 
lieard  most  satisfactorily  after  the  sixth  or  eighth  month  and  in  the 
absence  of  active  rumbling  of  the  bowels  of  the  dam. 

DURATION    OF    PREGNANCY. 

Mares  usually  go  about  eleven  months  with  young,  though  first 
pregnancies  often  last  a  year.  Foals  have  lived  when  born  at  the 
three  hundredth  day,  so  with  others  carried  till  the  four  hundredth 
day.  With  the  longer  pregnancies  there  is  a  greater  probability  of 
male  offspring. 


156  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

HTOIENE  OF  THE  PREGNANT  MARE. 

The  pregnant  mare  should  not  be  exposed  to  teasing  by  a  young 
and  ardent  stallion,  nor  should  she  be  overworked  or  fatigued,  par- 
ticularly under  the  saddle  or  on  uneven  ground.  Yet  exercise  is  bene- 
ficial to  both  mother  and  offspring,  and  in  the  absence  of  moderate 
•work  the  breeding  mare  should  be  kept  in  a  lot  where  she  can  take 
exercise  at  will. 

The  food  should  be  liberal,  but  not  fattening — oats,  bran,  sound 
hay,  and  other  foods  rich  in  the  principles  which  form  flesh  and  bone 
lieing  especially  indicated.  All  aliments  that  tend  to  indigestion  are 
to  be  especially  avoided.  Thus  rank,  aqueous,  rapidly  growing 
grasses  and  other  green  food,  partially  ripe  rye  grass,  millet,  hun- 
garian  grass,  vetches,  pease,  beans,  or  maize  are  objectionable,  as  is 
overripe,  fibrous,  innutritions  hay,  or  that  which  has  been  injured  and 
rendered  musty  by  wet,  or  that  which  is  infested  with  smut  or  ergot. 
Food  that  tends  to  costiveness  should  be  avoided.  Water  given  often, 
and  at  a  temperature  considerably  above  freezing,  will  avoid  the 
dangers  of  indigestion  and  abortion  which  result  from  taking  too 
mtich  ice-cold  water  at  one  time.  Very  cold  or  frozen  food  is  objec- 
tionable in  the  same  sense.  Severe  surgical  operations  and  medicines 
that  act  violently  on  the  womb,  bowels,  or  kidneys  are  to  be  avoided 
as  l^eing  liable  to  cause  alwrtion.  Constipation  should  be  corrected, 
if  possible,  by  bran  mashes,  carrots,  or  beets,  seconded  by  exercise, 
and  if  a  medicinal  laxative  is  required  it  should  be  olive  oil  or  other 
equally  bland  agent. 

The  stall  of  the  pregnant  mare  should  not  be  too  narrow,  so  as  to 
cramp  her  when  lying  down  or  to  entail  violent  effort,  in  getting  up, 
and  it  should  not  slope  too  much  from  the  front  backward,  as  this 
throws  the  weight  of  the  uterus  back  on  the  pelvis  and  endangers  pro- 
trusions and  even  abortion.  Violent  mental  impressions  are  to  be 
avoided,  for  thougli  the  majority  of  mares  are  not  affected  thereby, 
yet  a  certain  numWr  are  so  profoundly  impressed  that  j^eculiarities 
and  distortions  are  entailed  on  the  offspring.  Hence,  there  is  wisdom 
shown  in  banishing  particolored  or  objectionably  tinted  animals,  and 
those  that  show  deformities  or  faulty  conformation.  Hence,  too,  the 
importance  of  preventing  prolonged  acute  suffering  by  the  pregnant 
mare,  as  certain  troubles  of  the  eyes,  feet,  and  joints  in  the  foals  have 
l>een  clearly  traced  to  the  concentration  of  the  mother's  mind  on  cor- 
responding injured  organs  in  herself.  Sire  and  dam  alike  tend  to 
reproduce  their  individual  defects  which  predispose  to  disease,  but 
the  dam  is  far  more  likely  to  per|)etuate  the  evil  in  her  progeny  which 
was  carried  while  she  was  individually  enduring  severe  suffering 
caused  by  such  defects.     Hence,  an  active  bone  spavin  or  ringbone. 


PREGNANCY.  157 

causing  lameness,  is  more  objectionable  than  that  in  which  the  in- 
flammation and  lameness  have  both  passed,  and  an  active  ophthalmia 
is  more  to  be  feared  than  even  an  old  cataract.  For  this  reason  all 
active  diseases  in  the  breeding  mare  should  be  soothed  and  abated  at 
as  early  a  moment  as  possible. 

EXTRA-UTERINE   GESTATION. 

It  is  rare  in  the  domestic  animals  to  find  the  fetus  developed  else- 
where than  in  the  womb.  The  exceptional  forms  are  those  in  which 
the  sperm  of  the  male,  making  its  way  through  the  womb  and  Fallo- 
pian tubes,  impregnates  the  ovum  prior  to  its  escape,  and  in  which 
the  now  vitalized  and  growing  ovum,  by  reason  of  its  gradually  in- 
creasing size,  becomes  imprisoned  and  fails  to  escape  into  the  womb. 
The  arrest  of  the  ovum  may  be  in  the  substance  of  the  ovary  itself 
(ovarian  pregnancy),  in  the  Fallopian  tube  (tubal  pregnancy),  or 
when  by  its  continuous  enlargement  it  has  ruptured  its  envelopes  so 
that  it  escapes  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  it  may  become  attached 
to  any  part  of  the  serous  membrane  and  draw  its  nourishment  di- 
dectly  from  that  (abdominal  pregnancy).  In  all  such  cases  there  is 
an  increase  and  enlargement  of  the  capillary  blood  vessels  at  the 
point  to  which  the  embryo  has  attached  itself  so  as  to  furnish  the 
needful  nutriment  for  the  growing  offspring. 

All  appreciable  symptoms  are  absent,  unless  from  the  death  of  the 
fetus,  or  its  interference  with  normal  functions,  general  disorder  and 
indications  of  parturition  supervene.  If  these  occur  later  than  the 
natural  time  for  parturition,  they  are  the  more  significant.  There 
may  be  general  malaise,  loss  of  appetite,  elevated  temperature,  acceler- 
ated pulse,  with  or  without  distinct  labor  pains.  Examination  with 
the  oiled  hand  in  the  rectum  will  reveal  the  womb  of  the  natural 
unimpregnated  size  and  shape  and  with  both  horns  of  one  size.  Fur- 
ther exploration  may  detect  an  elastic  mass  apart  from  the  womb,  and 
in  the  interior  of  which  may  be  felt  the  characteristic  solid  body  of 
the  fetus.  If  the  latter  is  still  alive  and  can  be  stimulated  to  move, 
the  evidence  is  even  more  perfect.  The  fetus  may  die  and  be  carried 
for  years,  its  soft  structures  becoming  absorbed  so  as  to  leave  only  the 
bones,  or  by  pressure  it  may  form  a  fistulous  opening  through  the 
abdominal  walls,  or  less  frequently  through  the  vagina  or  rectum.  In 
the  latter  cases  the  best  course  is  to  favor  the  expulsion  of  the  foal  and 
to  wash  out  the  resulting  cavity  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  1  part 
to  water  50  parts.  This  may  be  repeated  daily.  "VVliere  there  is  no 
spontaneous  opening  it  is  injudicious  to  interfere,  as  the  danger  from 
the  retention  of  the  fetus  is  less  than  that  from  septic  fermentation 
in  the  enormous  fetal  sac  when  that  has  been  opened  to  the  air. 


158  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

MOLES,  OR   ANIDIAN    MONSTERS. 

These  are  evidently  products  of  conception,  in  which  the  impreg- 
nated ovum  has  failed  to  develop  naturally,  and  presents  only  a  cha- 
otic mass  of  skin,  hair,  bones,  muscles,  etc.,  attached  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  womb  by  an  umbilical  cord,  which  is  itself  often  shriv- 
eled and  wasted.  They  are  usually  accompanied  by  a  well-developed 
fetus,  so  that  the  mole  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  twin  which  has  under- 
gone arrest  and  vitiation  of  development.  They  are  expelled  by  the 
ordinary  process  of  parturition,  and  usually  at  the  same  time  with  the 
normally  developed  offspring. 

CYSTIC  DISEASE  OF  THE   WALLS  OF  THE  WOMB,  OR  VESICULAR  MOLE. 

This  condition  appears  to  be  due  to  hypertrophy  (enlargiement)  of 
the  villi  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  womb,  which  become  greatly 
increased  in  number  and  hollowed  out  internally  into  a  series  of  cysts, 
or  pouches,  containing  liquid.  Unlike  the  true  mole,  therefore,  they 
appear  to  be  disease  of  the  maternal  structure  of  the  womb  rather 
than  of  the  product  of  conception.  Rodet,  in  a  case  of  this  kind, 
which  had  produced  active  labor  pains,  quieted  the  disorder  with  ano- 
dynes and  secured  a  recover}\  ^\Tiere  this  is  not  available  attempts 
may  be  made  to  remove  the  mass  with  the  ecraseur  or  otherwise,  fol- 
lowing this  up  with  antiseptic  injections,  as  advised  under  the  last 
heading. 

DROPSY   OF   THE   WOMB. 

This  appears  as  a  result  of  some  disease  of  the  walls  of  the  womb, 
hut  has  been  frequently  observed  as  the  result  of  infection  after  sex- 
ual congress,  and  has,  therefore,  been  confounded  with  pregnancy. 
The  symptoms  are  those  of  pregnancy,  but  without  any  movements  of 
the  fetus  and  without  the  detection  of  any  solid  body  in  the  womb 
uhen  examined  with  the  oiled  hand  in  the  rectum.  xVt  the  end  of 
four  or  eight  months  there  are  signs  of  parturition  or  of  frequent 
straining  to  pass  urine,  and  after  a  time  the  liquid  is  discharged  clear 
and  watery,  or  muddy,  thick,  and  fetid.  The  hand  introduced  into 
the  womb  can  detect  neither  fetus  nor  fetal  membrane.  If  the  neck 
of  the  womb  closes,  the  liquid  may  accumulate  a  second  time,  or  even 
a  third,  if  no  means  are  taken  to  disinfect  it  or  to  correct  the  tendency. 
The  liest  resort  is  to  remove  any  diseased  product  that  may  be  found 
attached  to  the  walls  of  the  womb,  and  to  inject  it  daily  witli  a  warm 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  2  drams,  chloride  of  zinc  one-luilf  dram, 
water  1  quart.  A  course  of  bitter  tonics  (gentian  2  drams,  sulphate 
of  iron  2  drams,  daily)  should  be  given,  and  a  nutritious,  easiljri' 
digested,  and  slightly  laxative  diet  allowed. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    WOMB.  159 

DROPSY  OF  THE  AMNION. 

This  differs  from  simple  dropsy  of  the  womb  in  that  the  fluid  col- 
lects in  the  inner  of  the  two  water  bags  (that  in  which  the  foal  floats) 
and  not  in  the  otherwise  void  cavity  of  the  womb.  This  affection 
can  occur  only  in  the  pregnant  animal,  while  dropsy  of  the  womb 
occurs  in  the  unimpregnated.  The  blood  of  the  pregnant  mare  con- 
tains an  excess  of  water  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  albumen  and  red 
globules,  and  when  this  is  still  further  aggravated  by  poor  feeding 
and  other  unhygienic  conditions  there  is  developed  the  tendency  to 
liquid  transudation  from  the  vessels  and  dropsy.  As  the  watery  con- 
dition of  the  blood  increases  with  advancing  pregnancy,  so  dropsy  of 
the  amnion  is  a  disease  of  the  last  four  or  five  months  of  gestation. 
The  abdomen  is  large  and  pendulous,  and  the  swelling  fluctuates 
under  pressure,  though  the  solid  body  of  the  fetus  can  still  be  felt  to 
strike  against  the  hand  pressed  into  the  swelling.  If  the  hand  is 
introduced  into  the  vagina,  the  womb  is  found  to  be  tense  and  round, 
with  the  projecting  rounded  neck  effaced,  while  the  hand  in  the 
rectum  will  detect  the  rounded  swollen  mass  of  the  womb  so  firm  and 
tense  that  the  body  of  the  fetus  can  not  be  felt  within  it.  The  mare 
moves  weakly  and  unsteadily  on  her  limbs,  having  difficulty  in  sup- 
porting the  great  weight,  and  in  bad  cases  there  may  be  loss  of  appe- 
tite, stocking  (dropsy) -of  the  hind  limbs,  difficult  breathing,  and 
colicky  pains.  The  tension  may  lead  to  abortion,  or  a  slow,  labo- 
rious parturition  may  occur  at  the  usual  time. 

Treatmnent  consists  in  relieving  the  tension  and  accumulation  by 
puncturing  the  fetal  membrane  with  a  canula  and  trocar  introduced 
through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  trocar  so 
as  to  leave  the  canula  in  situ.  Or  the  membranes  may  be  punctured 
with  the  finger  and  the  excess  of  liquid  allowed  to  escape.  This  may 
bring  on  abortion,  or  the  wound  may  close  and  gestation  continue  to 
the  full  term.  k.  course  of  tonics  (gentian  root  2  drams,  sulphate  of 
iron  2  drams,  daily)  will  do  much  to  fortify  the  system  and  counteract 
further  excessive  effusion. 

DROPSY  OF  THE   LIMBS,   PERINEUM,   AND   ABDOMEN. 

The  disposition  to  dropsy  often  shows  itself  in  the  hind  and  even 
in  the  fore  limbs,  around  and  beneath  the  vulva  (perineum),  and  be- 
neath the  abdomen  and  chest.  The  affected  parts  are  swollen  and 
pit  on  pressure,  but  are  not  especially  tender,  and  subside  more  or 
Isss  perfectly  under  exercise,  hand  rubbing,  and  bandages.  In  ob- 
stinate cases  rubbing  with  the  following  liniment  may  be  resorted  to : 
Compound  tincture  of  iodine,  2  ounces;  tannic  acid,  one-half  dram; 
water,  10  ounces.     It  does  not  last  over  a  day  or  two  after  parturition. 


IQQ  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

CRAMPS  OF  THE  HIND  LIMBS. 

The  pressure  of  the  distended  womb  on  the  nerves  and  blood  vessels 
of  the  pelvis,  besides  conducing  to  dropsy,  occasionally  causes  cramps 
of  the  hind  limbs.  The  limb  is  raised  without  flexing  the  joints,  the 
front  of  the  hoof  being  directed  toward  the  ground,  or,  the  spasms 
occurring  intermittently,  the  foot  is  kicked  violently  against  the 
ground  several  times  in  rapid  succession.  The  muscles  are  felt  to  be 
firm  and  rigid.  The  cramp  may  be  promptly  relieved  by  active  rub- 
bing, or  by  walking  the  animal  about,  and  it  does  not  reappear  after 
oarturition. 

CONSTIPATION. 

This  may  result  from  compression  by  the  gravid  womb,  and  is  best 
corrected  by  a  gradi.ated  allowance  of  boiled  flaxseed. 

PARALYSIS. 

The  pressure  on  the  nerves  of  the  pelvis  is  liable  to  cause  paralysis 
of  the  hind  limbs,  or  in  the  mare  of  the  nerve  of  sight.  These  are 
obstinate  until  after  parturition,  when  they  recover  spontaneously,  or 
under  a  course  of  nux  vomica  and  (locally)  stimulating  liniments. 

PROLONGED   RETENTION  OF   THE   FETUS    (fOAL). 

In  the  mare,  though  far  less  frequently  than  in  the  cow,  parturition 
may  not  be  completed  at  term,  and  the  foal  may  continue  to  be  carried 
in  the  womb  for  a  number  of  months,  to  the  serious  or  even  fatal 
injury  of  the  mare.  Hamon  records  one  case  in  which  the  mare  died 
after  carrying  the  fetus  for  seventeen  months,  and  Caillier  a  similar 
result  after  it  had  been  carried  twenty-two  months.  In  these  cases 
the  fetus  retained  its  natural  form,  but  in  one  reported  by  Gohier,  the 
bones  only  were  left  in  the  womb  amid  a  mass  of  apparently  purulent 
matter. 

Cause. — The  cause  may  be  any  effective  obstruction  to  the  act  of 
parturition,  such  as  lack  of  contractile  power  in  the  womb,  unduly 
strong,  (inflammatory)  adhesions  between  the  womb  and  the  fetal 
membranes,  wrong  presentation  of  the  fetus,  contracted  pelvis  (from 
fracture  or  disease  of  the  bones),  or  disease  and  induration  of  the 
neck  of  the  womb. 

The  mere  prolongation  of  gestation  does  not  necessarily  entail  the 
death  of  the  foal ;  hence  the  latter  has  been  born  alive  at  the  four 
hundredth  day.  Even  when  the  foal  has  perished,  putrefaction  does 
not  set  in  unless  the  membranes  (water  bags)  have  been  ruptured  and 
i-eptic  bacteria  have  lx?en  admitted  to  the  interior  of  the  womb.  In 
the  latter  case  a  fetid  decom|x>sition  advances  rapidly,  and  the  marc, 
usually  perishes  from  poisoning  with  the  putrid  matters  absorbed. 

At  the  natural  period  of  parturition  preparations  are  apparently 
made  for  that  act.  The  vulva  swells  and  discharges  much  mucus,  the 
udder  enlarges,  the  belly  becomes  more  pendent,  and  the  animal 


ABORTION.  161 

strains  more  or  less.  No  progress  is  made,  however;  there  is  not 
even  opening  of  the  neck  of  the  womb,  and  after  a  time  the  symptoms 
subside.  The  mare  usually  refuses  the  male ;  yet  there  are  exceptions 
to  this  rule.  If  the  neck  of  the  womb  has  been  opened  and  putrefy- 
ing changes  have  set  in  in  its  contents,  the  mare  loses  appetite  and 
condition,  pines,  discharges  an  offensive  matter  from  the  generative 
passages,  and  dies  of  inflammation  of  the  womb  and  putrid  infection. 
In  other  cases  there  is  a  slow  wearing  out  of  the  strength,  and  the 
mare  finally  dies  of  exhaustion. 

The  treatment  is  such  as  will  facilitate  the  expulsion  of  the  fetus 
and  its  membranes  and  the  subsequent  washing  out  of  the  womb  with 
disinfectants.  So  long  as  the  mouth  of  the  womb  is  closed  time 
should  be  allowed  for  its  natural  dilatation,  but  if  this  does  not  come 
about  after  a  day  or  two  of  straining,  the  openmg  may  be  smeared 
with  extract  of  belladonna,  and  the  oiled  hand,  with  the  fingers  and 
thumb  drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  may  be  inserted  by  slow  oscil- 
lating movements  into  the  interior  of  the  womb.  The  water  bags 
may  now  be  ruptured,  any  malpresentation  rectified  (see  "  Difficult 
parturition"),  and  delivery  effected.  After  removal  of  the  mem- 
branes wash  out  the  womb  first  with  tepid  water  and  then  with  a  solu- 
tion of  2  ounces  of  borax  in  half  a  gallon  of  water. 

This  injection  may  have  to  be  repeated  if  a  discharge  sets  in.  The 
same  course  may  be  pursued  even  after  prolonged  retention.  If  the 
soft  parts  of  the  fetus  have  been  absorbed  and  the  bones  only  left, 
these  must  be  carefully  sought  for  and  removed,  and  subsequent  daily 
injections  will  be  required  for  some  time.  In  such  cases,  too.  a  course 
of  iron  tonics  (sulphate  of  iron,  2  drams  daily)  will  be  highly  bene- 
ficial in  restoring  health  and  vigor. 

ABORTION. 

Abortion  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  expulsion  of  the  impregnated 
ovum  at  any  period  from  the  date  of  impregnation  until  the  foal  can 
survive  out  of  the  womb.  If  the  foal  is  advanced  enough  to  live,  it 
is  'premature  'parturition,,  and  in  the  mare  this  may  occur  as  early  as 
the  tenth  month  (three  hundredth  day). 

The  mare  may  abort  by  reason  of  almost  any  cause  that  very  pro- 
foundly disturbs  the  system.  Hence  very  violent  inflammations  of 
important  internal  organs  (bowels,  kidneys,  bladder,  lungs)  may 
induce  abortion.  Profuse  diarrhea,  whether  occurring  from  the  reck- 
less use  of  purgatives,  the  consumption  of  irritants  in  the  food,  or  a 
simple  indigestion,  is  an  effective  cause.  No  less  so  is  acute  indiges- 
tion with  evolution  of  gas  in  the  intestines  (bloating).  The  presence 
of  stone  in  the  kidneys,  uterus,  bladder,  or  urethra  may  induce  so 
much  sympathetic  disorder  in  the  womb  as  to  induce  abortion.  In 
exceptional  cases  wherein  mares  come  in  heat  during  gestation,  service 

H.  Doc.  795,  o9-2 11 


J  62  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

bv  the  stallion  may  cause  abortion.  Blows  or  pressure  on  the  abdo- 
men, rapid  driving  or  riding  of  the  pregnant  mare,  especially  if  she 
ir  soft  and  out  of  condition  from  idleness,  the  brutal  use  of  the  spur 
or  whip,  and  the  jolting  and  straining  of  travel  by  rail  or  boat  are 
prolific  causes.  Bleeding  the  pregnant  mare,  a  painful  surgical  oper- 
ation, and  the  throwing  and  constraint  resorted  to  for  an  operation 
are  other  causes.  Traveling  on  heavy,  muddy  roads,  slips  and  falls 
on  ice,  and  jumping  must  be  added.  The  stimulation  of  the  abdom- 
inal organs  by  a  full  drink  of  iced  water  may  precipitate  a  miscar- 
riage, as  may  exposure  to  a  cold  rainstorm  or  a  very  cold  night  after  a 
warm  day.  Irritant  poisons  that  act  on  the  urinary  or  generative 
organs,  such  as  Spanish  flies,  rue,  savin,  tansy,  cotton-root  bark, 
ergot  of  rye  or  other  grasses,  the  smut  of  maize  and  other  grain,  and 
various  fungi  in  musty  fodder  are  additional  causes.  Frosted  food, 
indigestible  food,  and,  above  all,  green  succulent  vegetables  in  a 
frozen  state,  have  proved  effective  factors,  and  filthy,  stagnant  water 
is  dangerous.  Low  condition  in  the  dam  and  plethora  have  in  oppo- 
site ways  caused  abortion,  and  hot,  relaxing  stables  and  lack  of 
exercise  strongly  conduce  to  it.  The  exhaustion  of  the  sire  b}'  too 
frequent  service,  entailing  debility  of  the  offspring  and  disease  of 
the  fetus  or  of  its  envelopes,  must  be  recognized  as  a  further  cause. 

The  symptoms  vary  mainly  according  as  the  abortion  is  early  or 
late  in  pregnancy.  In  the  first  month  or  two  of  pregnancy  the  mare 
may  miscarry  without  observable  symptoms,  and  the  fact  only 
appears  by  her  coming  in  heat.  If  more  closely  observed  a  small  clot 
of  blood  may  be  found  behind  her,  in  which  a  careful  search  reveals 
the  rudiments  of  the  foal.  If  the  occurrence  is  somewhat  later  in 
gestation,  there  will  be  some  general  disturbance,  inappetence,  neigh- 
ing, and  straining,  and  the  small  body  of  the  fetus  is  expelled,  en- 
veloped in  its  membranes.  Abortions  during  the  later  stages  of 
pregnancy  are  attended  with  greater  constitutional  disturbance,  and 
the  process  resembles  normal  parturition,  with  the  aggravation  that 
more  effort  and  straining  is  requisite  to  force  the  fetus  through  the 
comparatively  undilatable  mouth  of  the  womb.  There  is  the  swelling 
of  the  vulva,  with  mucus  or  even  bloody  discharge;  the  abdomen 
droops,  the  flanks  fall  in,  the  udder  fills,  the  mare  looks  at  her  flanks, 
paws  with  the  fore  feet  and  kicks  with  the  hind,  switches  the  tail, 
moves  around  uneasily,  lies  down  and  rises,  strains,  and,  as  in  natural 
foaling,  expels  first  mucus  and  blood,  then  the  waters,  and  finally  the 
fetus.  This  may  occupy  an  hour  or  two,  or  it  may  be  prolonged  for 
a  day  or  more,  the  symptoms  subsiding  for  a  time,  only  to  reappear 
with  renewed  energy.  If  there  is  malpresentation  of  the  fetus  it  will 
hinder  progress  until  rectified,  as  in  difficult  parturition.  Abortion 
may  also  l>e  followed  by  the  same  accidents,  as  flooding,  retention  of 
the  placenta,  and  leucorrhea. 


ABORTION.  163 

The  most  important  object  in  an  impending  abortion  is  to  recog- 
nize it  at  as  early  a  stage  as  possible,  so  that  it  may,  if  possible,  be  cut 
short  and  prevented.  Any  general  indefinable  illness  in  a  preg- 
nant mare  should  lead  to  a  close  examination  of  the  vulva  as  regards 
swelling,  vascularity  of  its  mucous  membrane,  and  profuse  mucus 
secretion,  and,  above  all,  any  streak  or  staining  of  blood;  also  the 
condition  of  the  udder,  if  that  is  congested  and  swollen.  Any  such 
indication,  with  colicky  pains,  staining,  however  little,  and  active 
movement  of  the  fetus  or  entire  absence  of  movement,  are  suggestive 
symptoms  and  should  be  duly  counteracted. 

The  changes  in  the  vulva  and  udder,  with  a  soiled  and  bloody  con- 
dition of  the  tail,  may  suggest  an  abortion  already  accomplished,  and 
the  examination  with  the  hand  in  the  vagina  may  detect  the  mouth 
of  the  womb  soft  and  dilatable  and  the  interior  of  the  organ  slightly 
filled  with  a  bloody  liquid. 

Treatment  should  be  preventive  if  possible,  and  would  embrace  the 
avoidance  of  all  causes  mentioned,  and  particularly  of  such  as  may 
seem  to  be  particularly  operative  in  the  particular  case.  AMiere  abor- 
tions have  already  occurred  in  a  stud,  the  especial  cause  in  the  matter 
of  food,  water,  exposure  to  injuries,  overwork,  lack  of  exercise,  etc., 
may  often  be  identified  and  removed.  A  most  important  point  is  to 
avoid  all  causes  of  constipation,  diarrhea,  indigestion,  bloating,  vio- 
lent purgatives,  diuretics  or  other  potent  medicines,  painful  opera- 
tions, and  slippery  roads,  unless  well  frosted. 

When  abortion  is  imminent,  the  mare  should  be  placed  alone  in  a 
roomy,  dark,  quiet  stall,  and  have  the  straining  checked  by  some 
sedative.  Laudanum  is  usually  at  hand  and  may  be  given  in  doses  of 
1  or  2  ounces,  according  to  size,  and  repeated  after  two  or  three  hours, 
and  even  daily  if  necessary.  Chloroform  or  chloral  hydrate,  3  drams, 
may  be  substituted  if  more  convenient.  These  should  be  given  in  a 
pint  or  quart  of  water,  to  avoid  burning  the  mouth  and  throat.  Or 
Viburnum  prunifolium,  1  ounce,  may  be  given  and  repeated  if  neces- 
sary to  prevent  straining. 

WTien  all  measures  fail  and  miscarriage  proceeds,  all  that  can  be 
done  is  to  assist  in  the  removal  of  the  fetus  and  its  membranes,  as  in 
ordinary  parturition.  As  in  the  case  of  retention  of  the  fetus,  it  may 
be  necessary  after  delivery  to  employ  antiseptic  injections  into  the 
womb  to  counteract  putrid  fermentation.  This,  however,  is  less 
requisite  in  the  mare  than  in  the  cow,  in  which  the  prevalent  con- 
tagious abortion  must  be  counteracted  by  the  persistent  local  use  of 
antiseptics.  After  abortion  a  careful  hygiene  is  demanded,  especially 
in  the  matter  of  pure  air  and  easily  digestible  food.  The  mare  should 
not  be  served  again  for  a  month  or  longer,  and  in  no  case  until  after 
all  discharge  from  the  vulva  has  ceased. 


154  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

SYMPTOMS   OP    PARTURITION. 

As  the  period  of  parturition  approaches,  the  swelling  of  the  udder 
besi>eaks  the  coming  event,  the  engorgement  in  exceptional  cases 
extending  forward  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  even -into 
the  hind  limbs.  For  about  a  week  a  serous  fluid  oozes  from  the  teat 
and  concretes  as  a  yellow,  waxlike  mass  around  its  orifice.  About 
twenty- four  hours  before  the  birth  this  gives  place  to  a  whitish, 
milky  liquid,  which  falls  upon  and  mats  the  hairs  on  the  inner  sides 
of  the  legs.  Another  symptom  is  enlargement  of  the  vulva,  with  red- 
ness of  its  lining  membrane,  and  the  escape  of  glairy  mucus.  The 
l)elly  droops,  the  flanks  fall  in,  and  the  loins  may  even  become  de- 
pressed. Finally  the  mare  becomes  uneasy,  stops  feeding,  looks  anx- 
ious, whisks  her  tail,  and  may  lie  down  and  rise  again.  In  many 
mares  this  is  not  repeated,  but  the  mare  remains  down ;  violent  con- 
tractions of  the  abdominal  muscles  ensue;  after  two  or  three  pains 
the  water  bags  appear  and  burst,  followed  by  the  fore  feet  of  the  foal, 
with  the  nose  between  the  knees,  and  by  a  few  more  throes  the  fetus 
is  expelled.  In  other  cases  the  act  is  accomplished  standing.  The 
whole  act  may  not  occupy  more  than  five  or  ten  minutes.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  disposition  of  the  mare  to  avoid  observation,  renders 
the  act  one  that  is  rarely  seen  by  the  attendants. 

The  navel  string,  which  connects  the  foal  to  the  membranes,  is 
ruptured  when  the  fetus  falls  to  the  ground,  or  when  the  mare  rises, 
if  she  has  been  down,  and  the  membranes  are  expelled  a  few  minutes 
later. 

NATURAL    PRESENTATION. 

"WTicn  there  is  a  single  foal,  the  common  and  desirable  presentation 
is  with  the  fore  feet  first,  the  nose  b<?tween  the  knees,  and  with  the 
front  of  the  hoofs  and  knees  and  the  forehead  directed  upward  toward 
the  anus,  tail,  and  croup.  (Plate  X,  fig.  1.)  In  this  way  the  natural 
curvature  of  the  body  of  tiie  fetus  corresponds  to  the  curve  of  the 
womb  and  genital  passages,  and  particularly  of  the  bony  pelvis,  and 
the  foal  passes  with  much  greater  ease  than  if  it  were  placed  with  its 
back  downward  toward  tlie  udder.  When  there  is  a  twin  birth  the 
second  foal  usually  comes  with  its  hind  feet  first,  and  the  backs  of  the 
legs,  the  points  of  the  hocks,  and  the  tail  and  croup  are  turned 
upward  toward  the  anus  and  tail  of  the  mare.  (IMate  X,  fig.  2.)  In 
this  way,  even  with  a  posterior  presentation,  the  curvature  of  the 
body  of  the  foal  still  corresponds  to  that  of  the  passages,  and  its 
expulsion  may  be  quite  as  easy  as  in  anterior  presentation.  Any 
presentation  aside  from  these  two  may  Ix*  said  to  be  abnormal  and 
will  be  considered  under  "  Difficult  parturition." 


DISEASES    OF    THE    GENERATIVE    ORGANS.  165 


DIFFICULT   PARTURITION. 


With  natural  presentation  this  is  a  rare  occurrence.  The  great 
length  of  the  fore  limbs  and  face  entail,  in  the  anterior  presentation, 
the  formation  of  a  long  cone,  which  dilates  and  glides  through  the 
passages  with  comparative  ease.  Even  with  the  hind  feet  first  a  simi- 
lar conical  form  is  presented,  and  the  process  is  rendered  easy  and 
quick.  Difficulty  and  danger  arise  mainly  from  the  act  being  brought 
on  prematurely  before  the  passages  are  sufficiently  dilated,  from  nar- 
rowing of  the  pelvic  bones  or  other  mechanical  obstruction  in  the  pas- 
sages, from  monstrous  distortions  or  duplications  in  the  fetus,  or  from 
the  turning  back  of  one  of  the  members  so  that  the  elongated  conical 
or  wedge-shaped  outline  is  done  away  with.  But  prompt  as  is  the 
normal  parturition  in  the  mare,  difficult  and  delayed  parturitions  are 
surrounded  by  special  dangers  and  require  unusual  precautions  and 
skill.  From  the  proclivity  of  the  mare  to  unhealthy  inflammations  of 
the  peritoneum  and  other  abdominal  organs,  penetrating  wounds  of 
the  womb  or  vagina  are  liable  to  prove  fatal.  The  contractions  of  the 
womb  and  abdominal  walls  are  so  powerful  as  to  exhaust  and  benumb 
the  arm  of  the  assistant,  and  to  endanger  penetrating  wounds  of  the 
genital  organs.  By  reason  of  the  looser  connection  of  the  fetal  mem- 
branes with  the  womb,  as  compared  with  those  of  ruminants,  the 
violent  throes  early  detach  these  membranes  throughout  their  whole 
extent,  and  the  foal,  being  thus  separated  from  the  mother  and  thrown 
on  its  own  resources,  dies  at  an  early  stage  of  any  protracted  parturi- 
tion. The  foal  rarely  survives  four  hours  after  the  onset  of  partu- 
rient throes.  From  the  great  length  of  the  limbs  and  neck  of  the  foal 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  secure  and  bring  up  limb  or  liead  which  has 
been  turned  back  when  it  should  have  been  presented.  When  assist- 
ance must  be  rendered  the  operator  should  don  a  thick  woolen  under- 
shirt with  the  sleeves  cut  out  at  the  shoulders.  This  protects  the  body 
and  leaves  the  whole  arm  free  for  manipulation.  Before  inserting  the 
arm  it  should  be  smeared  with  lard.  This  protects  the  skin  against 
septic  infection,  and  favors  the  introduction  of  the  hand  and  arm. 
The  hand  should  be  inserted  with  the  thumb  and  fingers  drawn  to- 
gether like  a  cone.  \\^iether  standing  or  lying,  the  mare  should  be 
turned  with  head  downhill  and  hind  parts  raised  as  much  as  possible. 
The  contents  of  the  abdomen  gravitating  forward  leave  much  more 
room  for  manipulation.  Whatever  part  of  the  foal  is  presented 
(head,  foot)  should  be  secured  with  a  cord  and  running  noose  before 
it  is  pushed  back  to  search  for  the  other  missing  parts.  Even  if  a 
missing  part  is  reached  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  bring  it  up 
during  a  labor  pain.  Pinching  the  back  will  sometimes  check  the 
pains  and  allow  the  operator  to"  secure  and  bring  up  the  missing  mem- 
ber.    In  intractable  cases  a  large  dose  of  chloral  hydrate  (1  ounce  in 


165  DISEASES   OF  THE   HORSE. 

a  quart  of  water)  or  the  inhalation  of  chloroform  and  air  (equal 
proportions)  to  insensibility  may  secure  a  respite,  during  which  the 
missing  members  may  be  replaced.  If  the  waters  have  been  dis- 
charged and  the  mucus  dried  up,  the  genital  passages  and  body  of  the 
fetus  should  be  lubricated  with  lard  or  oil  before  any  attempt  at  ex- 
traction is  made.  When  the  missing  member  has  been  brought  up 
into  position  and  presentation  has  been  rendered  natural,  traction  on 
the  fetus  must  be  made  only  during  a  labor  pain.  If  a  mare  is  in- 
clined to  kick,  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  hobbles  to  protect  the 
operator. 

PREMATURE    LABOR    PAINS. 

These  may  be  brought  on  by  any  violent  exertion,  use  under  the 
saddle,  or  in  heavy  draft,  or  in  rapid  paces,  or  in  travel  by  rail  or  sea, 
blows,  kicks,  crushing  by  other  animals  in  a  doorway  or  gate.  Ex- 
cessive action  of  purgative  or  diuretic  agents,  or  of  agents  that 
irritate  the  bowels  or  kidneys,  like  arsenic,  paris  green,  all  caustic 
salts  and  acids,  and  acrid  and  narcotico-acrid  vegetables,  is  equally 
injurious.  Finally,  the  ingestion  of  agents  that  stimulate  the  action 
of  the  gravid  womb  (ergot  of  rye  or  of  other  grasses,  smut,  various 
fungi  of  fodders,  rue,  savin,  cotton  root,  etc.)  may  bring  on  labor 
pains  prematurely. 

Besides  the  knowledge  that  parturition  is  not  yet  due,  there  will  be 
less  enlargement,  redness,  and  swelling  of  the  vulva,  less  mucous  dis- 
charge, less  filling  of  the  udder,  and  less  appearances  of  wax  and 
probably  none  of  milk  from  the  ends  of  the  teats.  The  oiled  hand 
introduced  into  the  vulva  will  not  enter  with  the  ease  usual  at 
full  term,  and  the  neck  of  the  womb  will  be  felt  not  only  closed,  but 
with  its  projecting  papillae,  through  which  it  is  perforated,  not  yet 
flattened  down  and  effaced,  as  at  full  term.  The  symptoms  are  in- 
deed those  of  threatened  abortion,  but  at  such  an  advanced  stage  of 
gestation  as  is  compatible  with  the  survival  of  the  offspring. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  consists  in  the  separation  of  the  mare 
from  all  other  animals  in  a  quiet,  dark,  secluded  place,  and  the  free 
use  of  antispasmodics  and  anodynes.  Opium  in  dram  doses  evory 
two  hours,  or  laudanum  in  ounce  doses  at  similar  intervals,  will  often 
suffice.  When  the  more  urgent  symptoms  have  subsided  these  doses 
may  be  re|>eated  thrice  a  day  till  all  excitement  passes  off  or  until 
the  passages  have  become  relaxed  and  prepared  for  parturition. 
Viburnum  prunifolivm,  in  ounce  doses,  may  be  added  if  necessary. 
Should  parturition  become  inevitable,  it  may  be  favored  and  any 
necessary  assistance  furnished. 

DIFFICULT  PARTURITION    FROM    NARROW    PEL\^S. 

A  disproportion  between  the  fetus  got  by  a  large  stallion  and  the 
pelvis  of  a  small  dam  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  parturition,  sometimes 


I>LAT£  IX. 


Ki,i:-.i-s,ilpl  nllfi-  l"lfi 


INSTRLTMEXTS    USED  IX   DIFFKHTLT   L^VBOI^ 


PI^ATK    X. 


aflpr  Kleitiuig 

Verlf'brx)    Sacra t  presentation 


l.iintlH.)   .yacnit  //itxi-ntiilitin 


X(^ HMAi.   PH K s i:N'rA rioxs. 


t  ^  2 


PLATK     XII. 


Tirtn^v^er-se.  preseTttntion  -L/jper  yietv. 


nOer  ncmiiio 


Stemn-tihdnmiitinl preseritrttian  -/fertd  mitl  I'erf  cftgar/ed . 


Hainps.oi'frr  Kletnin^. 


JLILS  eiEN  &.  CO  • 


A  H  X  O  li  M  A I .     P  F I  E  S  V.  X  H 'AT  I  O  X  S  , 


DISEASES   OP   THE   GENERATIVE   ORGANS.  167 

seen  in  the  mare.  This  is  not  the  rule,  however,  as  the  foal  up  to 
birth  usually  accommodates  itself  to  the  size  of  the  dam,  as  illustrated 
in  the  successful  crossing  of  Percheron  stallions  on  mustang  mares. 
If  the  disproportion  is  too  great  the  only  resort  is  embryotomy. 

FRACTURED    HIP   BONES. 

More  commonly  the  obstruction  comes  from  distortion  and  narrow- 
ing of  the  pelvis  as  the  result  of  fractures.  (Plate  XV,  fig.  2.) 
Fractures  at  any  point  of  the  lateral  wall  or  floor  of  the  pelvis  are 
repaired  with  the  formation  of  an  extensive  bony  deposit  bulging 
into  the  passage  of  the  pelvis.  The  displacement  of  the  ends  of  the 
broken  bone  is  another  cause  of  constriction,  and  between  the  two  con- 
ditions the  passage  of  the  fetus  may  be  rendered  impossible  without 
embryotomy.  Fracture  of  the  sacrum  (the  continuation  of  the  back- 
bone forming  the  croup)  leads  to  the  depression  of  the  posterior  part 
of  that  bone  in  the  roof  of  the  pelvis  and  the  narrowing  of  the  pas- 
sage from  above  downward  by  a  bony  ridge  presenting  its  sharp  edge 
forward. 

In  all  cases  in  which  there  has  been  injury  to  the  bones  of  the  pelvis 
the  obvious  precaution  is  to  withhold  the  mare  from  breeding  and  to 
use  her  for  work  only. 

If  a  mare  with  a  pelvis  thus  narrowed  has  got  in  foal  inadvertently, 
abortion  may  be  induced  in  the  early  months  of  gestation  by  slowly 
introducing  the  oiled  finger  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  fol- 
lowing this  by  the  other  fingers  until  the  whole  hand  has  been  intro- 
duced. Then  the  water  bags  may  be  broken,  and  with  the  escape  of 
the  liquid  the  womb  will  contract  on  the  solid  fetus  and  labor  pains 
will  ensue,    The  fetus  being  small  will  pass  easily. 

TUMORS    IN    THE    VAGINA    AND    PELVIS. 

Tumors  of  various  kinds  may  form  in  the  vagina  or  elsewhere 
within  the  pelvis,  and  when  large  enough  will  obstruct  or  prevent  the 
passage  of  the  fetus.  Gray  mares,  which  are  so  subject  to  black  pig- 
ment tumors  {melanosis)  on  the  tail,  anus,  and  vulva,  are  the  most 
likely  to  suffer  from  this.  Still  more  rarely  the  wall  of  the  vagina 
becomes  relaxed,  and  being  pressed  by  a  mass  of  intestines  Avill  pro- 
trude through  the  lips  of  the  vulva  as  a  hernial  sac,  containing  a  part 
of  the  bowels.  Where  a  tumor  is  small  it  may  only  retard  and  not 
absolutely  prevent  parturition.  A  hernial  protrusion  of  the  wall  of 
the  vagina  may  be  pressed  back  and  emptied,  so  that  the  body  of  the 
fetus  engaging  in  the  passage  may  find  no  further  obstacle.  When 
a  tumor  is  too  large  to  allow  delivery  the  only  resort  is  to  remove  it, 
but  before  proceeding  it  must  be  clearly  made  out  that  the  obstruc- 
tion is  a  mass  of  diseased  tissue,  and  not  a  sac  containing  intestines. 


168  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

If  the  tumor  hangs  by  a  neck  it  can  usually  be  most  safely  removed 
by  the  ecraseur,  the  chain  being  passed  around  the  pedicel  and  gradu- 
ally tightened  until  that  is  torn  through. 

HERNIA  OF  THE  WOMB. 

The  rupture  of  the  musculo-fibrous  floor  of  the  belly  and  the  escape 
of  the  gravid  womb  into  a  sac  formed  by  the  peritoneum  and  skin 
hanging  toward  the  ground,  is  described  by  all  veterinary  obstetri- 
cians, yet  it  is  very  rarely  seen  in  the  mare.  The  form  of  the  fetus 
can  be  felt  through  the  walls  of  the  sac,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  recognize 
the  condition.  Its  cause  is  usually  external  violence,  though  it  may 
start  from  an  umbilical  hernia.  When  the  period  of  parturition 
arrives,  the  first  effort  should  be  to  return  the  fetus  within  the  proper 
abdominal  cavity,  and  this  can  sometimes  be  accomplished  with  the 
aid  of  a  stout  blanket  gradually  tightened  around  the  belly.  This 
failing,  the  mare  may  be  placed  on  her  side  or  back  and  gravitation 
brought  to  the  aid  of  manipulation  in  securing  the  return.  Even 
after  the  hernia  has  been  reduced  the  relaxed  state  of  the  womb  and 
abdominal  walls  may  serve  to  hinder  parturition,  in  which  case  the 
oiled  hand  must  be  introduced  through  the  vagina,  the  fetus  brought 
into  position,  and  traction  coincident  with  the  labor  pains  employed 
to  secure  delivery. 

TWISTING   OP    THE    NECK   OF    THE    AVOMB. 

This  condition  is  very  uncommon  in  the  mare,  though  occasionally 
seen  in  the  cow,  owing  to  the  greater  laxity  of  the  broad  ligaments  of 
the  womb  in  that  animal.  It  consists  in  a  revolution  of  the  womb  on 
its  own  axis,  so  that  its  right  or  left  side  will  be  turned  upward 
(quarter  revolution),  or  the  lower  surface  may  be  turned  upward  and 
the  upper  surface  downward  (half  revolution).  The  effect  is  to 
throw  the  narrow  neck  of  the  womb  into  a  series  of  spiral  folds,  turn- 
ing in  tlie  direction  in  which  the  womb  has  revolved,  closing  the  neck 
and  rendering  distention  and  dilatation  impossible. 

The  perioil  and  pains  of  parturition  arrive,  but  in  spite  of  contin- 
ued efforts  no  progress  is  made,  neither  water  bags  nor  liquids  appear- 
ing. The  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the  closed  neck  of  the  womb 
will  readily  detect  the  spiral  direction  of  the  folds  on  its  inner 
surface. 

The  method  of  relief  which  I  have  successfully  adopted  in  the  cow 
may  be  equally  happy  in  the  mare.  The  dam  is  placed  (with  her 
head  uphill)  on  her  right  side  if  the  upper  folds  of  the  spiral  turn 
toward  the  right,  and  on  her  left  side  if  they  turn  toward  the  left, 
and  the  oiled  hand  is  introduced  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  a 
limb  or  other  part  of  the  body  of  the  fetus  is  seized  and  pressed 
against  the  wall  of  the  womb,  while  two  or  three  assistants  turn  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE    GENERATIVE    ORGANS.  169 

animal  over  on  her  back  toward  the  other  side.  The  object  is  to  keep 
the  womb  stationary  while  the  animal  is  rolling.  If  success  attends 
the  effort,  the  constriction  around  the  arm  is  suddenly  relaxed,  the 
spiral  folds  are  effaced,  and  the  water  bags  and  fetus  press  forward 
into  the  passage.  If  the  first  attempt  does  not  succeed  it  may  be 
repeated  again  and  again  until  success  crowns  the  effort.  Among  my 
occasional  causes  of  failure  have  been  the  prior  death  and  decompo- 
sition of  the  fetus,  with  the  extrication  of  gas  and  overdistention  of 
the  womb,  and  the  supervention  of  inflammation  and  inflammatory 
exudation  around  the  neck  of  the  womb,  which  hinders  untwisting. 
The  first  of  these  conditions  occurs  early  in  the  horse  from  the  detach- 
ment of  the  fetal  membranes  from  the  wall  of  the  womb,  and  as  the 
mare  is  more  subject  to  fatal  peritonitis  than  the  cow,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  both  these  sources- of  failure  are  more  probable  in  the 
equine  subject. 

When  the  case  is  intractable,  though  the  hand  may  be  easily  intro- 
duced, the  instrument  shown  in  Plate  IX,  figure  7,  may  be  used. 
Each  hole  at  the  small  end  of  the  instrument  has  passed  through  it  a 
stout  cord  with  a  running  noose,  to  be  passed  around  two  feet  or 
other  portion  of  the  fetus  which  it  may  be  possible  to  reach.  The 
cords  are  then  drawn  tight  and  fixed  around  the  handle  of  the  instru 
ment ;  then,  by  using  the  cross  handle  as  a  lever,  the  fetus  and  womb 
may  be  rotated  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  causing  the  obstruction. 
During  this  process  the  hand  must  be  introduced  to  feel  when  the 
twist  has  been  undone.  .  This  method  may  be  supplemented,  if  neces- 
sary, by  rolling  the  mare  as  described  above. 

EFFUSION  or  BLOOD  IX  THE  VAGINAL  WALLS. 

This  is  common  as  a  result  of  difficult  parturition,  but  it  may  occur 
from  local  injury  before  that  act,  and  may  seriously  interfere  with  it. 
This  condition  is  easily  recognized  by  the  soft,  doughy  swelling  so 
characteristic  of  blood  clots,  and  by  the  dark-red  color  of  the  mucous 
membrane.  I  have  laid  open  such  swellings  with  the  knife  as  late  as 
ten  days  before  parturition,  evacuated  the  clots,  and  dressed  the 
wound  daily  with  an  astringent  lotion  (sulphate  of  zinc  1  dram, 
carbolic  acid  1  dram,  water  1  quart).  A  similar  resort  might  be  had, 
if  necessary,  during  parturition. 

CALCULUS    (stone)    AND  TUMOR  IN  THE  BLADDER. 

The  pressure  upon  the  bladder  containing  a  stone  or  a  tumor  may 
prove  so  painful  that  the  mare  will  voluntarily  suppress  the  labor 
pains.  Examination  of  the  bladder  with  the  finger  introduced 
through  the  urethra  will  detect  the  offending  agent.  A  stone  should 
be  extracted  with  forceps.     (See  "  Lithotomy.")     The  large  papillary 


170  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

tumors  which  I  have  met  with  in  the  mare's  bladder  have  been  inva- 
riably delicate  in  texture  and  could  be  removed  piecemeal  by  forceps. 
P^ortunately,  mares  aflfected  in  this  way  rarely  breed. 

IMPACTION    OF   THE    RECTUM    WITH    FECES. 

In  some  animals,  with  more  or  less  paralysis  or  weakness  of  the  tail 
and  rectum,  the  rectum  may  become  so  impacted  with  solid  feces  that 
the  mare  is  imable  to  discharge  them,  and  the  accumulation  both  by 
reason  of  the  mechanical  obstruction  and  the  pain  caused  by  pressure 
upon  it  will  impel  the  animal  to  cut  short  all  labor  pains.  The 
rounded  swelling  surrounding  the  anus  will  at  once  suggest  the  con- 
dition, when  the  obstruction  may  be  removed  by  the  well-oiled  or 
well-soaped  hand. 

SPASM    OF   THE    NECK    OF   THE    WOMB. 

This  occurs  in  the  mare  of  specially  excitable  temperament,  or 
under  particular  causes  of  irritation,  local  or  general.  Labor  pains, 
though  continuing  for  some  time,  produce  no  dilatation  of  the  neck  of 
the  womb,  which  will  be  found  firmly  closed  so  as  to  admit  but  one  or 
two  fingers,  and  this,  although  the  projection  at  the  mouth  of  the 
womb  may  have  been  entirely  effaced,  so  that  a  simple  round,  opening 
is  left,  with  rigid  margins. 

Treatment. — The  simplest  treatment  consists  in  smearing  this  part 
with  solid  extract  of  belladonna,  and  after  an  interval  inserting  the 
hand  with  fingers  and  thumb  drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  ruptur- 
ing the  membranes  and  bringing  the  fetus  into  position  for  extrac- 
tion, as  advised  under  "  Prolonged  retention  of  the  fetus."  Another 
mode  is  to  insert  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  an  ovoid  caoutchouc 
bag,  empty,  and  furnished  with  an  elastic  tube  12  feet  long.  Carry 
the  free  end  of  this  tube  upward  to  a  height  of  8,  10,  or  12  feet,  insert 
a  filler  into  it,  and  proceed  to  distend  the  bag  with  tepid  or  warm 
water. 

FIBROUS  BANDS  CJONSTRICTINO  OR  CROSSING  THE  NECK  OP  THE  WOMB. 

These,  occurring  as  the  result  of  disease,  have  been  several  times 
observed  in  the  mare.  They  may  exist  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen 
and  compress  and  obstruct  the  neck  of  the  womb,  or  they  may  extend 
from  side  to  side  of  the  vagina  across  and  just  behind  the  neck  of  the 
womb.  In  the  latter  position  they  may  be  felt  and  quickly  remedied 
by  cutting  them  across.  In  the  abdomen  they  can  only  be  reached  by 
incision,  and  two  alternatives  are  presented:  (1)  To  perform  embry- 
otomy and  extract  the  fetus  piecemeal  and  (2)  to  make  an  incision 
into  the  abdomen  and  extract  by  the  Ca?sarean  operation,  or  simply  to 
cut  the  constricting  band  and  attempt  delivery  by  the  usual  channel. 


DIPPICITLT   PARTURITION.  171 

FIBROUS    CONSTRICTION    OF    VAGINA    OR    VULVA. 

This  is  probably  always  the  result  of  direct  mechanical  injury  and 
the  formation  of  rigid  cicatrices  which  fail  to  dilate  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  passages  at  the  approach  of  parturition.  The  pre- 
sentation of  the  fetus  in  the  natural  way  and  the  occurrence  of  suc- 
cessive and  active  labor  pains  without  any  favorable  result  will  direct 
attention  to  the  rigid  and  unyielding  cicatrices  which  may  be  incised 
at  one,  two,  or  more  points  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more,  after 
which  the  natural  expulsive  efforts  will  usually  prove  effective.  The 
resulting  wounds  may  be  washed  frequently  with  a  solution  of  1  part 
of  carbolic  acid  to  50  parts  of  water,  or  of  1  part  of  mercuric  chloride 
to  1,000  parts  of  water. 

FETUS    ADHERENT    TO    THE    WALLS    OF    THE    WOMB. 

In  injQammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  cavity  of  the 
womb  and  implicating  the  fetal  membranes,  the  resulting  embryonic 
tissue  sometimes  establishes  a  medium  of  direct  continuity  between 
the  womb  and  fetal  membranes ;  the  blood  vessels  of  the  one  commu- 
nicate freely  with  those  of  the  other  and  the  fibers  of  the  one  are 
prolonged  into  the  other.  This  causes  retention  of  the  membranes 
after  birth,  and  a  special  risk  of  bleeding  from  the  womb,  and  of 
septic  poisoning.  In  exceptional  cases  the  adhesion  is  more  extensive 
and  binds  a  portion  of  the  body  of  the  foal  firmly  to  the  womb.  In 
such  cases  it  has  repeatedly  been  found  impossible  to  extract  the 
foal  until  such  adhesions  were  broken  down.  If  they  can  be  reached . 
with  the  hand  and  recognized,  they  may  be  torn  through  with  the 
fingers  or  with  a  blunt  hook,  after  which  delivery  may  be  attempted 
with  hope  of  success. 

EXCESSIVE  SIZE  OF  THE  FETUS. 

It  would  seem  that  a  small  mare  may  usually  be  safely  bred  to  a 
large  stallion,  yet  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and  when  the  small  size 
is  an  individual  rather  than  a  racial  characteristic  or  the  result  of 
being  very  young,  the  rule  can  not  be  expected  to  hold.  There  is 
always  great  danger  in  breeding  the  young,  small,  and  undeveloped 
female,  and  the  dwarfed  representative  of  a  larger  breed,  as  the  off- 
spring tend  to  partake  of  the  large  race  characteristics  and  to  show 
them  eveii  prior  to  birth.  AVhen  impregnation  has  occurred  in  the 
very  young  or  in  the  dwarfed  female,  there  are  two  alternatives — to 
induce  abortion  or  to  wait  until  there  are  attempts  at  parturition  and 
to  extract  by  embryotomy  if  impracticable  otherwise. 

CONSTRICTION  OF  A  MEMBER  BY  THE  NAVEL  STRING. 

In  man  and  animals  alike  the  winding  of  the  umbilical  cord  around 
a  member  of  the  fetus  sometimes  leads  to  the  amputation  of  the 


172  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

latter.  It  is  also  known  to  get  wound  around  the  neck  or  a  limb  at 
birth,  but  in  the  mare  this  does  not  seriously  impede  parturition,  as 
the  loosely  attached  membranes  are  easily  separated  from  the  womb 
and  no  strangulation  or  retarding  occurs.  The  foal  may,  however, 
die  from  the  cessation  of  the  placental  circulation  unless  it  is  speedily 
delivered. 

WATER  IN  THE  HEAD    (HYDROCEPHALUS)    OF  THE  FOAL. 

This  consists  in  the  excessive  accumulation  of  liquid  in  the  ventricles 
of  the  brain  so  that  the  cranial  cavity  is  enlarged  and  constitutes  a 
great  projecting  rounded  mass  occupying  the  space  from  the  eyes 
upward.  (See  Plate  XV,  fig.  3.)  With  an  anterior  presentation 
(fore  feet  and  nose)  this  presents  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  progress, 
as  the  diseased  cranium  is  too  large  to  enter  the  pelvis  at  the  same 
time  with  the  forearms.  With  a  posterior  presentation  (hind  feet) 
all  goes  well  until  the  body  and  shoulders  have  passed  out,  when 
progress  is  suddenly  arrested  by  the  great  bulk  of  the  head.  In 
the  first  case,  the  oiled  hand  introduced  along  the  face  detects  the 
enormous  size  of  the  head,  which  may  be  diminished  by  puncturing 
it  with  a  knife  or  trocar  and  cannula  in  the  median  line,  evacuating 
the  water  and  pressing  in  the  thin  bony  walls.  With  a  posterior 
presentation,  the  same  course  must  be  followed;  the  hand  passed 
along  the  neck  will  detect  the  cranial  swelling,  which  may  be  punc- 
tured with  a  knife  or  trocar.  Oftentimes  with  an  anterior  presen- 
tation the  great  size  of  the  head  leads  to  its  displacement  backward, 
and  thus  the  fore  limbs  alone  engage  in  the  passages.  Here  the  first 
object  is  to  seek  and  bring  up  the  missing  head,  and  then  puncture  it 
as  above  suggested. 

DROPSY  OF  THE  ABDOMEK  IN   THE  FOAL,  OR  ASCITES. 

The  accumulation  of  liquid  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  fetus  is 
less  frequent,  but  when  present  it  may  arrest  parturition  as  com- 
pletely as  will  hydrocephalus.  With  an  anterior  presentation  the 
foal  may  pass  as  far  as  the  shoulders,  but  behind  this  all  efforts  fail 
to  secure  a  further  advance.  With  a  posterior  presentation  the  hind 
legs  as  far  as  the  thighs  may  be  expelled,  but  at  this  point  all  progress 
ceases.  In  either  case  the  oiled  hand,  passed  inward  by  the  side  of 
the  foal,  will  detect  the  enormous  distention  of  the  abdomen  and  its 
soft,  fluctuating  contents.  The  only  course  is  to  puncture  the  cavity 
and  evacuate  the  liquid.  With  the  anterior  presentation  this  may 
be  done  with  a  long  trocar  and  cannula,  introduced  through  the  chest 
and  diaphragm;  or  with  a  knife  an  incision  may  be  made  between 
the  first  two  ribs  and  the  lungs  and  heart  cut  or  torn  out,  when  the 
diaphragm  will  be  felt  projecting  strongly  forward,  and  may  be 
easily  punctured.     Should  there  not  be  room  to  introduce  the  hand 


DIPPICTJLT    PABTUBITION.  173 

through  the  chest,  the  oiled  hand  may  be  passed  along  beneath  the 
breast  bone  and  the  abdomen  punctured.  With  a  posterior  presenta- 
tion the  abdomen  must  be  punctured  in  the  same  way,  the  hand,  armed 
with  a  knife  protected  in  its  palm,  being  passed  along  the  side  of  the 
flank  or  between  the  hind  limbs.  It  should  be  added  that  moderate 
dropsy  of  the  abdomen  is  not  incompatible  with  natural  delivery,  the 
liquid  being  at  first  crowded  back  into  the  portion  of  the  belly  still 
engaged  in  the  womb,  and  passing  slowly  from  that  into  the  ad- 
vanced portion  as  soon  as  that  has  cleared  the  narrow  passage  of  the 
pelvis  and  passed  out  where  it  can  expand. 

GENERAL    DROPSY    OF    THE    FETUS. 

In  this  case  the  tissues  generally  are  distended  with  liquid,  and  the 
skin  is  found  at  all  points  tense  and  rounded,  and  pitting  on  pressure 
with  the  fingers.  In  some  such  cases  delivery  may  be  effected  after 
the  skin  has  been  punctured  at  narrow  intervals  to  allow  the  escape 
of  the  fluid  and  then  liberally  smeared  with  fresh  lard.  More  com- 
monly, however,  it  can  not  be  reached  at  all  points  to  be  so  punctured 
nor  sufficiently  reduced  to  be  extracted  whole,  and  resort  must  be  had 
to  embryotomy. 

SWELLING   OP   THE   FETUS    WITH    GAS,    OR   EMPHYSEMA. 

This  has  been  described  as  occurring  in  a  living  fetus,  but  I  have 
only  met  with  it  in  the  dead  and  decomposing  foal  after  futile 
efforts  have  been  made  for  several  days  to  effect  delivery.  These 
cases  are  very  difficult  ones,  as  the  foal  is  inflated  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  impossible  to  advance  it  into  the  passages,  and  the  skin  of 
the  fetus  and  the  walls  of  the  womb  and  vagina  have  become  so  dry 
that  it  is  impracticable  to  cause  the  one  to  glide  on  the  other.  The 
hair  comes  off  any  part  that  may  be  seized,  and  the  case  is  rendered 
the  more  offensive  and  dangerous  by  the  very  fetid  liquids  and  gases. 
The  only  resort  is  embryotomy,  by  which  I  have  succeeded  in  saving 
a  valuable  mare  that  had  carried  a  colt  in  this  condition  for  four 
days. 

CONTRACTIONS   OF   MUSCLES. 

The  foal  is  not  always  developed  symmetrically,  but  certain  groups 
of  muscles  are  liable  to  remain  short,  or  to  shorten  because  of  per- 
sistent spasmodic  contraction,  so  that  even  the  bones  become  distorted 
and  twisted.  This  is  most,  common  in  the  neck.  The  bones  of  this 
part  and  even  of  the  face  are  drawn  to  one  side  and  shortened,  the 
head  being  held  firmly  to  the  flank  and  the  jaws  being  twisted  to  the 
right  or  left.  In  other  cases  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fore  limbs  are 
contracted  so  that  these  members  are  strongly  bent  at  the  knee.  In 
neither  of  these  cases  can  the  distorted  part  be  extended  and  straight- 


174  DISEASES    OP   THE   HOESE. 

ened,  so  that  body  or  limbs  must  necessarily  present  double,  and 
natural  delivery  is  rendered  impossible.  The  bent  neck  may  some- 
times be  straightened  after  the  muscles  have  been  cut  on  the  side  ta 
which  it  is  turned,  and  the  bent  limbs  after  the  tendons  on  the  back 
of  the  shank  bone  have  been  cut  across.  Failing  to  accomplish  this, 
the  next  resort  is  embryotomy. 

TUMORS  OF  THE  FETUS,  OR  INCLOSED  OVUM. 

Tumors  or  diseased  growths  may  form  on  any  part  of  the  foal, 
internal  or  external,  and  by  their  size  impede  or  hinder  parturition. 
In  some  cases  what  appears  as  a  tumor  is  an  imprisoned  and  undevel- 
oped ovum,  which  has  grafted  itself  on  the  fetus.  These  are  usually 
sacculated,  and  may  contain  skin,  hair,  muscle,  bone,  and  other  natural 
tissues.  The  only  course  to  be  pursued  in  such  cases  is  to  excise  the 
tumor,  or,  if  this  is  not  feasible,  to  perform  embryotomy, 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrosity  in  the  foal  is  an  occasional  cause  of  difficult  parturi- 
tion, especially  such  monsters  as  show  excessive  development  of  some 
part  of  the  body,  a  displacement  or  distortion  of  parts,  or  a  redun- 
dancy of  parts,  as  in  double  monsters.  Monsters  may  be  divided 
into — 

(1)  Monsters  with  absence  of  parts — absence  of  head,  limb,  or 
other  organ. 

(2)  Monsters  with  some  part  abnormally  small — dwarfed  head, 
limb,  trunk,  etc. 

(3)  Monsters  through  unnatural  division  of  parts— cleft  head, 
trunk,  limbs,  etc. 

(4)  Monsters  through  absence  of  natural  divisions — absence  of 
mouth,  nose,  eyes,  anus,  confluent  digits,  etc. 

(5)  Monsters  through  fusion  of  parts— one  central  eye,  one  nasal 
opening,  etc. 

(6)  Monsters  through  abnormal  position  or  form  of  parts — curved 
spine,  face,  limb,  etc. 

(7)  Mohsters  through  excess  of  formation — enormous  head, super- 
numerary digits,  etc. 

(8)  Monsters  through  imperfect  differentiation  of  sexual  organs — 
hermaphrodites. 

(0)  Double  monsters — double-headed,  double-bodied,  extra  limbs, 
etc. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  monstrosities  api^ear  to  be  very  varied. 
Some  monstrosities,  like  extra  digits,  absence  of  horns  or  tail,  etc., 
run  in  families  and  are  produced  almost  as  certainly  as  color  or  form. 
Others  are  associated  with  too  close  breeding,  the  powers  of  symmet- 


DIFFICULT    PARTURITION.  175 

rical  development  being  interfered  with,  just  as  in  other  cases  a  sex- 
ual incompatibility  is  developed,  near  relatives  failing  to  breed  with 
each  other.  Mere  arrest  of  development  of  a  part  may  arise  from 
accidental  disease  of  the  embryo ;  hence  vital  organs  are  left  out,  or 
portions  of  organs,  like  the  dividing  Vails  of  the  heart,  are  omitted. 
Sometimes  an  older  fetus  is  inclosed  in  the  body  of  another,  each 
having  started  independently  from  a  separate  ovum,  but  the  one 
having  become  embedded  in  the  semifluid  mass  of  the  other  and  hav- 
ing developed  there  simultaneously  with  it,  but  not  so  largely  nor 
perfectly.  In  many  cases  of  redundance  of  parts,  the  extra  part  or 
member  has  manifestly  developed  from  the  same  ovum  and  nutrient 
center  with  the  normal  member  to  which  it  remains  adherent,  just  as 
a  new  tail  will  grow  out  in  a  newt  when  the  former  has  been  cut  off. 
In  the  early  embryo,  with  its  great  powers  of  development,  this  fac- 
tor can  operate  to  far  greater  purpose  than  in  the  adult  animal.  Its 
influence  is  seen  in  the  fact  pointed  out  by  St.  Hilaire  that  such 
redundant  parts  are  nearly  always  connected  with  the  corresponding 
portions  in  the  normal  fetus.  Thus  superfluous  legs  or  digits  are 
attached  to  the  normal  ones,  double  heads  or  tails  are  connected  to  a 
common  neck  or  rump,  and  double  bodies  are  attached  to  each  other 
by  corresponding  points,  navel  to  navel,  breast  to  breast,  back  to 
back.  All  this  suggests  the  development  of  extra  parts  from  the 
same  primary  layer  of  the  impregnated  and  developing  ovum.  The 
effect  of  disturbing  conditions  in  giving  such  wrong  directions  to 
the  developmental  forces  is  well  shown  in  the  experiments  of  St. 
Hilaire  and  Valentine  in  varnishing,  shaking,  and  otherwise  break- 
ing up  the  natural  connections  in  eggs,  and  thereby  determining  the 
formation  of  monstrosities  at  will.  So,  in  the  mammal,  blows  and 
other  injuries  that  detach  the  fetal  membranes  from  the  walls  of  the 
womb  or  that  modify  their  circulation  by  inducing  inflammation  are 
at  times  followed  by  the  development  of  a  monster.  The  excitement, 
mental  and  physical,  attendant  on  fright  occasionally  acts  in  a  simi- 
lar way,  acting  probably  through  the  same  channels. 

The  monstrous  forms  likely  to  interfere  with  parturition  are  such 
as,  from  contracted  or  twisted  limbs  or  spine,  must  be  presented 
double;  where  supernumerary  limbs,  head,  or  body  must  approach  the 
passages  with  the  natural  ones;  where  a  head  or  other  member  has 
attained  to  an  unnatural  size ;  where  the  body  of  one  fetus  has  become 
inclosed  in  or  attached  to  another,  etc. 

Extraction  is  sometimes  possible  by  straightening  the  members  and 
securing  such  a  presentation  as  will  reduce  the  presenting  mass  to  its 
smallest  and  most  wedgelike  dimensions.  To  effect  this  it  may  be 
needful  to  cut  the  flexor  tendons  of  bent  limbs  ot*  the  muscles  on  the 
side  of  a  twisted  neck  or  body;  and  one  or  more  of  the  manipulations 
necessary  to  secure  and  bring  up  a  missing  member  may  be  required. 


176  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

In  most  cases  of  monstrosity  by  excess,  however,  it  is  needful  to 
remove  the  superfluous  parts,  in  which  case  the  general  principles 
employed  for  embryotomy  must  be  followed.  The  Caesarean  section, 
by  which  tjie  fetus  is  extracted  through  an  incision  in  the  walls  of 
the  abdomen  and  womb,  is  inadmissible,  as  it  practically  entails  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mare,  which  should  never  be  done  for  the  sake  of  a 
monster.     (See  "  Embryotomy,"  p.  182.) 

ENTRANCE   OF   TWINS   INTO   THE   PASSAGE'  AT   ONCE. 

Twins  are  rare  in  the  mare,  and  still  more  rare  is  the  impaction  of 
both  at  once  into  the  pelvis.  The  condition  would  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  fact  that  two  fore  limbs  and  two  hind  would  occupy  the 
passage  at  once,  the  front  of  the  hoofs  of  the  fore  feet  being  turned 
upward  and  those  of  the  hind  feet  downward.  If  both  belonged  to 
one  foal  they  would  be  turned  in  the  same  direction.  Once  recog- 
nized, the  condition  is  easily  remedied  by  passing  a  rope  with  a  run- 
ning noose  round  each  foot  of  the  foal  that  is  farthest  advanced  or 
that  promises  to  be  most  easily  extracted,  and  to  push  the  members  of 
the  other  fetus  back  into  the  depth  of  the  womb.  As  soon  as  the  one 
fetus  is  fully  engaged  in  the  passage  it  will  hold  its  place  and  its 
delivery  will  proceed  in  the  natural  way. 

TABLE  OF   WRONG   PRESENTATIONS. 


Anterior   pres-_ 
entations. 


Fore  liinl)R. 


Head. 


Incompletely  extended.     Flexor  tendons  sborfr* 
ened. 

Crossed  over  the  neck. 

Bent  back  at  the  knee. 

Bent  back  from  the  shoulder. 

Bent  downward  on  the  neck. 

Head  and  neck  turned  bEick  beneath  the  breast. 

Turned  to  one  Bide. 

Turned  upward  and  backwartl  on  the  back. 

Hind  liml)8 Hind  feet  engaged  in  the  pelvis. 

TranHverw! Back  of  foal  to  side  of  pel  vis. 

Inverted Back  of  foal  to  floor  of^pelvia. 

1tt:_  J  i:~Ka  /Bent  on  itself  at  the  hock, 

nmaumos   ^Bent  at  the  hip. 
Transverse Back  of  foal  to  side  of  pelvis. 
Inverted Back  of  foal  to  floor  of^ pelvis. 

FORE  LIMBS  INCOMPLETELY  EXTENDED. 

In  cases  of  this  kind,  not  only  are  the  back  tendons  behind  the 
knee  and  shank  bone  unduly  short,  but  the  sinew  extending  from  the 
front  of  the  shoulder  blade  over  the  front  of  the  elbow  and  down  to 
the  head  of  the  shank  bone  is  also  shortened.  The  result  is  that  the 
fore  limb  is  bent  at  the  knee  and  the  elbow  is  also  rigidly  bent.  The 
condition  obstructs  parturition  by  the  feet  becoming  pressed  against 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  or  by  the  elbow  pressing  on  its  anterior  brim. 
Relief  is  to  be  obtained  by  forcible  extension.    A  rope  with  a  running 


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DIFFICULT    PAETUEITION.  •  177 

noose  is  passed  around  each  fetlock  and  a  repeller  (see  Plate  IX) 
planted  in  the  breast  is  pressed  in  a  direction  upward  and  backward 
while  active  traction  is  made  on  the  ropes.  If  the  feet  are  not  thereby 
raised  from  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  the  palm  of  the  hand  may  be 
placed  beneath  them  to  protect  the  mucous  membrane  until  they  have 
advanced  sufficiently  to  obviate  this  danger.  In  the  absence  of  a 
repeller,  a  smooth  rounded  fork  handle  may  be  employed.  If  the 
shortening  is  too  great  to  allow  of  the  extension  of  the  limbs  in  this 
way,  the  tense  tendons  may  be  cut  across  behind  the  shank  bone  and 
in  front  of  the  elbow,  and  the  limb  will  be  easily  straightened  out. 
This  is  most  easily  done  with  an  embryotomy  knife  furnished  with  a 
ring  for  the  middle  finger,  so  that  the  blade  may  be  protected  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand.     (See  Plate  XV,  fig.  4.) 

ONE   FORE   LIMB   CROSSED   OVER   THE   BACK   OF   THE    NECK. 

With  the  long  fore  limbs  of  the  foal  this  readily  occurs,  and  the 
resulting  increase  in  thickness,  both  at  the  head  and  shoulder,  offers 
a  serious  obstacle  to  progress.  (See  Plate  XI,  fig.  2.)  The  hand 
introduced  into  the  passage  detects  the  head  and  one  fore  foot,  and 
farther  back  on  the  same  side  of  the  head  the  second  foot,  from  which 
the  limb  may  be  traced  obliquely  across  the  back  of  the  neck. 

If  parturition  continues  to  make  progress  the  displaced  foot  may 
bruise  and  lacerate  the  vagina.  By  seizing  the  limb  above  the  fetlock 
it  may  be  easily  pushed  over  the  head  to  the  proper  side,  when  partu- 
rition will  proceed  normally. 

FORE    LIMB    BENT    AT    THE    KNEE. 

The  nose  and  one  fore  foot  present,  and  on  examination  the  knee  of 
the  missing  fore  limb  is  found  farther  back.  (Plate  XI,  fig.  1.)  First 
place  a  noose  each  on  the  presenting  pastern  and  lower  jaw,  and  push 
back  the  body  of  the  fetus  with  a  repeller,  while  the  operator  seizing 
the  shank  of  the  bent  limb  extends  it  so  as  to  press,  back  the  knee  and 
bring  forward  the  fetlock  and  foot.  As  progress  is  made  little  by 
little  the  hand  is  slid  down  from  the  region  of  the  knee  to  the  fetlock, 
and  finally  that  is  secured  and  brought  up  into  the  passage,  when 
parturition  will  proceed  without  hindrance.  If  both  fore  limbs  are 
bent  back  the  head  must  be  noosed  and  the  limbs  brought  up  as  above, 
one  after  the  other.  It  is  usually  best  to  employ  the  left  hand  for  the 
right  fore  limb,  and  the  right  hand  for  the  left  fore  limb. 

FORE    LIMB    TTRNED    BACK    FROM    THE    SHOULDER. 

In  this  case,  on  exploration  by  the  side  of  the  head  and  presenting 
limb,  the  shoulder  only  can  be  reached  at  first.  (Plate  XI,  fig.  4.) 
By  noosing  the  head  and  presenting  fore  limb,  these  may  be  drawn 
forward  into  the  pelvis,  and  the  oiled  hand  being  carried  along  the 

H,  Doc.  705,  59-2 12 


178  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

shoulder  in  the  direction  of  the  missing  limb  is  enabled  to  reach  and 
seize  the  forearm  just  below  the  elbow.  The  body  is  now  pushed 
back  by  the  assistants  pressing  on  the  head  and  presenting  limb  or 
on  a  repeller  planted  in  the  breast  imtil  the  knee  can  be  brought  up 
into  the  pelvis,  after  which  the  procedure  is  the  same  as  described  in 
the  last  paragi*aph. 

HEAD    BEXT   DOWN    BETWTTEX    THE    FORE   LIMBS. 

This  may  be  so  that  the  poll  or  nape  of  the  neck,  with  the  ears,  can 
be  felt  far  back  between  the  fore  limbs,  or  so  that  only  the  upper 
border  of  the  neck  can  be  reached,  head  and  neck  being  bent  back 
beneath  the  body.  With  the  head  only  bent  on  the  neck,  noose  the 
two  presenting  limbs,  then  introduce  the  hand  between  them  until 
the  nose  can  be  seized  in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Next  have  the  assist- 
ants push  back  the  presenting  limbs,  while  the  nose  is  strongly  lifted 
upward  over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis.  This  accomplished,  it  assumes 
the  natural  position  and  parturition  is  easy. 

^Vhen  both  head  and  neck  are  bent  downward  it  may  he  impossible 
to  reach  the  nose.  If,  however,  the  labor  has  only  commenced,  the 
limbs  may  be  drawn  upon  until  the  operator  can  reach  the  ear,  by 
dragging  on  which  the  head  may  be  so  far  advanced  that  the  fingers 
may  reach  the  orbit ;  traction  upon  this  while  the  limbs  are  being 
pushed  back  may  bring  the  head  up  so  that  it  bends  on  the  neck  only, 
and  the  further  procedure  will  be  as  descril^ed  in  the  last  paragraph. 

If  the  labor  has  been  long  in  progress  and  the  fetus  is  jammed  into 
the  pelvis,  the  womb  emptied  of  the  waters  and  firmly  contracted  on 
its  solid  contents,  the  case  is  incomparably  more  difficult.  The  mare 
may  be  chloroformed  and  turned  on  her  back  with  hind  parts  ele- 
vated, and  the  womb  may  be  injected  with  sweet  oil.  Then,  if  the 
ear  can  Ixi  reached,  the  correction  of  the  malpresentation  may  be  at- 
tempted as  above  descriljed.  Should  this  fail,  one  or  more  sharp 
hooks  may  be  inserted  in  the  neck  as  near  the  head  as  can  be  reached, 
and  ropes  attached  to  these  may  be  dragged  on,  while  the  body  of  the 
foal  is  ])ushed  back  by  the  fore  limbs  or  by  a  repeller.  Such  repul- 
sion should  be  made  in  a  direction  obliquely  upward  toward  the  loins 
of  the  mother,  so  as  to  rotate  the  fetus  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the 
head  up.  As  this  is  accomplished  a  hold  shouM  be  secured  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  nose,  with  hand  or  hook,  until  the  head  can  be 
straightened  out  on  the  neck. 

All  means  failing,  it  Ijcromos  necessary  to  remove  the  fore  limbs 
(embryotomy)  so  as  to  make  more  space  for  l)ringing  up  the  head. 
If,  even  then,  this  can  not  be  accomplished,  it  may  l)e  possible  to 
push  the  Ixxly  backward  and  upward  with  the  repeller  until  the  hind 
limlw  are  brought  to  the  passage,  when  they  may  be  noosed  and 
<lelivery  effected  with  the  posterior  presentation. 


DIFFICULT    PAETURITION.  179 

HEAD  TURNED  BACK  ON  THE  SHOULDER. 

In  this  case  the  fore  feet  present,  and  the  oiled  hand  passed  along 
the  forearms  in  search  of  the  missing  head  finds  the  side  of  the  neck 
turned  to  one  side,  the  head  being  perhaps  entirely  out  of  reach. 
(Plate  XIV,  fig.  1.)  To  bring  forward  the  head  it  may  be  desirable 
to  lay  the  mare  on  the  opposite  side  to  that  to  which  the  head  is 
turned,  and  even  to  give  chloroform  or  ether.  Then  the  feet  being 
noosed,  the  body  of  the  fetus  is  pushed  by  the  hand  or  repeller  for- 
ward and  to  the  side  opposite  to  that  occupied  by  the  head  until  the 
head  comes  within  reach,  near  the  entrance  of  the  pelvis.  If  such 
displacement  of  the  fetus  is  difficult,  it  may  be  facilitated  by  a  free 
use  of  oil  or  lard.  When  the  nose  can  be  seized  it  can  be  brought  into 
the  passage,  as  when  the  head  is  turned  down.  .  If  it  can  not  be 
reached,  the  orbit  may  be  availed  of  to  draw  the  head  forward  until 
the  nose  can  be  seized  or  the  lower  jaw  noosed.  In  very  difficult 
cases  a  rope  may  be  passed  around  the  neck  by  the  hand  or  with  the 
aid  of  a  curved  carrier  (Plate  IX),  and  traction  may  be  made  upon 
this  while  the  body  is  being  rotated  to  the  other  side.  In  the  same 
way  in  bad  cases  a  hook  may  be  fixed  in  the  orbit  or  even  between 
the  bones  of  the  lower  jaw  to  assist  in  bringing  the  head  up  into 
position.  Should  all  fail,  the  amputation  of  the  fore  limbs  may  be 
resorted  to  as  advised  under  the  last  heading. 

HEAD  TURNED  UPWARD  ON    TI[E   BACK. 

This  differs  from  the  last  malpresentation  only  in  the  direction  of 
the  head,  which  has  to  be  sought  above  rather  than  at  one  side,  and 
is  to  be  secured  and  brought  forward  in  a  similar  manner.  (Plate 
XIV,  fig.  2.)  If  a  rope  can  be  passed  around  the  neck  it  will  prove 
most  effectual,  as  it  naturally  slides  nearer  to  the  head  as  the  neck  is 
straightened  and  ends  by  bringing  the  head  within  easy  reach. 

HIND   FEET  ENGAGED   IN   THE   PELVIS. 

In  this  case  fore  limbs  and  head  present  naturally,  but  the  hind 
limbs  bent  forward  from  the  hip  and  the  loins  arched  allow  the  hind 
feet  also  to  enter  the  passages,  and  the  further  labor  advances  the 
more  firmly  does  the  body  of  the  foal  become  wedged  into  the  pelvis. 
(Plate  XIII,  fig.  2.)  The  coadition  is  to  be  recognized  by  introduc- 
ing the  oiled  hand  along  the  belly  of  the  fetus,  when  the  hind  feet 
will  be  felt  advancing.  An  attempt  should  at  once  be  made  to  push 
them  back,  one  after  the  other,  over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis.  Failing 
in  this,  the  mare  may  be  turned  on  her  back,  head  downhill,  and  the 
attempt  renewed.  If  it  is  possible  to  introduce  a  straight  rope  car- 
rier, a  noose  passed  through  this  may  be  put  on  the  fetlock  and  the 
repulsion  thereby  made  more  effective.     In  case  of  continued  failure 


180  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

the  anterior  presenting  part  of  the  body  may  be  skinned  and  cut  off 
as  far  back  toward  the  pelvis  as  possible  (see  "  Embryotomy  ") ;  then 
nooses  are  placed  on  the  hind  fetlocks  and  traction  is  made  upon  these 
while  the  quarters  are  pushed  back  into  the  womb.  Then  the  re- 
maining portion  is  brought  away  by  the  posterior  presentation. 

ANTERIOR    PRESENTATION    WITH    BACK    TURNED    TO    ONE    SIDE. 

The  greatest  diameter  of  the  axis  of  the  foal,  like  that  of  the  pelvic 
passages,  is  from  above  downward,  and  when  ibfi  fetus  enters  the 
ix?lvis  with  this  greatest  diameter  engaged  transversely  or  in  the  nar- 
row diameter  of  the  pelvis,  parturition  is  rendered  diflBcult  or  impos- 
sible. In  such  a  case  the  pasterns  and  head  may  be  noosed,  and  the 
passages  and  engaged  portion  of  the  foal  freely  lubricated  with  lard, 
the  limbs  may  be  crossed  over  each  other  and  the  head,  and  a  move- 
ment of  rotation  effected  in  the  fetus  until  its  face  and  back  are 
turned  up  toward  the  croup  of  the  mother;  then  parturition  becomes 
natural. 

BACK  OP  THE  FOAL  TURNED  TO  THE  FLOOR  OF  THE   PELVIS. 

In  a  roomy  mare  this  is  not  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  parturi- 
tion, yet  it  may  seriously  impede  it,  by  reason  of  the  curvature  of  the 
body  of  the  foal  being  opposite  to  that  of  the  passages,  and  the  head 
and  withers  being  liable  to  arrest  against  the  border  of  tlic  jxilvis. 
Lubrication  of  the  passage  with  lard  and  traction  of  the  limbs  and 
head  will  usually  suffice  with,  or  without  the  turning  of  the  mare  on 
her  back. 

In  obstinate  cases  two  other  resorts  are  open:  First,  to  turn  the 
foal,  pushing  back  the  fore  parts  and  bringing  up  the  hind  so  as  to 
make  a  ])osterior  presentation,  and,  second,  the  amputation  of  the  fore 
limbs,  after  which  extraction  will  usually  be  easy. 

HIND   PRESENTATION    WITH   LEG   BENT    AT    HOCK. 

In  this  form  the  quarters  of  the  foal  with  the  hind  legs  bent  up 
beneath  them  present,  but  can  not  advance  through  the  pelvis  by 
reason  of  their  bulk.  (Plate  XI,  fig.  3.)  The  oiled  hand  introduced 
can  recognize  the  outline  of  the  buttocks,  with  the  tail  and  anus  in 
the  center  and  the  sharp  points  of  the  hocks  beneath.  First  pass  a 
rope  around  each  limb  at  the  hock,  then  Avith  hand  or  repeller  push 
the  l)utt(x-ks  backward  and  upward,  until  the  feet  can  be  brought  up 
into  the  jjassages.  The  great  length  of  the  shank  and  j)astern  in  the 
foal  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  this,  and  in  all  cases  the  foot  should  be 
prote<te<l  in  tlie  palm  of  the  hand  while  being  brought  up  over  the 
brinj  of  the  pelvis.  Otherwise  the  womb  may  Ix'  torn.  When  the 
pams  are  too  violent  and  constant  to  allow  effective  manipulation, 


DIFFICULT    PARTURITION.  181 

some  respite  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  chloroform  or  morphia 
and  by  turning  the  mare  on  her  back,  but  too  often  the  operator 
fails  and  the  foal  must  be  sacrificed.  Two  courses  are  still  open: 
First,  to  cut  through  the  cords  behind  and  above  the  hock  and  extend 
the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  leaving  the  hock  bent,  and  extract  in 
this  way,  and,  second,  to  amputate  the  hind  limbs  at  the  hip  joint 
and  remove  them  separately,  after  which  the  body  may  be  extracted. 

HIND   PRESENTATION    WITH    LEGS    BENT    FORWARD   FROM    THE    HIP. 

This  is  merely  an  aggravated  form  of  the  presentation  last  de- 
scribed. (Plate  XIII,  fig.  1.)  If  the  mare  is  roomy,  a  rope  may  be 
passed  around  each  thigh  and  the  body  pushed  upward  and  forward, 
so  as  to  bring  the  hocks  and  heels  upward.  If  this  can  be  accom- 
plished, nooses  are  placed  on  the  limb  farther  and  farther  down  until 
the  fetlock  is  reached  and  brought  into  position.  If  failure  is  met 
with,  then  amputation  at  the  hips  is  the  last  resort. 

HIND    PRESENTATIONS    WITH    THE    BACK    TURNED    SIDEWAYS    OR 

DOWNWARD. 

These  are  the  counterparts  of  similar  anterior  presentations  and 
are  to  be  managed  in  the  same  way. 

PRESENTATION    OF    THE    BACK. 

This  is  rare,  yet  not  unknown,  the  foal  being  bent  upon  itself  with 
the  back,  recognizable  by  its  sharp  row  of  spines,  presented  at  the 
entrance  of  the  pelvis  and  the  head  and  all  four  feet  turned  back  into 
the  womb.  (Plate  XII,  fig.  1.)  The  body  of  the  fetus  may  be  ex- 
tended across  the  opening  transversely,  so  that  the  head  corresponds 
to  one  side  (right  or  left),  or  it  may  be  vertical,  with  the  head  above 
or  below. 

In  any  such  position  the  object  should  be  to  push  the  body  of  the 
fetus  forward  and  upward  or  to  one  side,  as  may  best  promise  to  bring 
up  the  fore  or  hind  extremities,  and  bring  the  latter  into  the  passage 
so  as  to  constitute  a  normal  anterior  or  posterior  presentation.  This 
turning  of  the  fetus  may  be  favored  by  a  given  position  of  the  mother, 
by  the  free  use  of  oil  or  lard  on  the  surface  of  the  fetus,  and  by  the 
use  of  a  propeller. 

PRESENTATION    OF    BREAST    AND    ABDO^IEN. 

This  is  the  reverse  of  the  back  presentation,  the  foal  being  extended 
across  in  front  of  the  pelvic  opening,  but  with  the  belly  turned  toward 
the  passages  and  with  all  four  feet  engaged  in  the  passage.  (Plate 
XII,  fig.  2.)  The  most  promising  course  is  to  secure  the  hind  feet 
with  nooses  and  then  push  the  fore  feet  forward  into  the  womb.    As 


132  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

soon  as  the  fore  feet  are  pushed  forward  clear  of  the  brim  of  the 
pelvis,  traction  is  made  on  the  hind  feet  so  as  to  bring  the  thighs  into 
the  passage  and  prevent  the  reentrance  of  the  fore  limbs.  If  it 
prove  difficult  to  push  back  the  fore  limbs  a  noose  may  be  passed 
around  the  fetlock  of  each  and  the  cord  drawn  through  the  eye  of  a 
rope  carrier,  by  means  of  which  the  members  may  be  easily  pushed 
back. 

EMBRyOTOMY. 

This  consists  in  the  dissection  of  the  fetus,  so  as  to  reduce  its  bulk 
and  allow  of  its  exit  through  the  pelvis.  The  indications  for  its  adop- 
tion have  been  furnished  in  the  foregoing  pages.  The  operation  will 
v&ry  in  different  cases  according  to  the  necessity  for  the  removal  of 
one  or  more  parts  in  order  to  secure  the  requisite  reduction  in  size. 
Thus  it  may  be  needful  to  remove  head  and  neck,  one  fore  limb  or 
lx)tli,  one  hind  limb  or  both,  to  remove  different  parts  of  the  trunk,  or 
to  remove  superfluous  (monstrous)  parts.  Some  of  the  simplest  opera- 
tions in  embryotomy  (incision  of  the  head  in  hydrocephalus,  incision 
of  the  belly  in  dropsy)  have  already  been  described.  It  remains  to 
notice  the  more  difficult  procedures  which  can  be  best  undertaken  by 
the  skilled  anatomist. 

Amputation  of  the  head. — This  is  easy  when  both  fore  limbs  are 
turned  back  and  the  head  alone  has  made  its  exit  in  part.  It  is  more 
difficult  when  the  head  is  still  retained  in  the  passages  or  womb,  as 
in  double-headed  monsters.  The  head  is  secured  by  a  hook  in  the 
lower  jaw,  or  in  the  orbit,  or  by  a  halter,  and  the  skin  is  divided 
circularly  around  the  lower  part  of  the  face  or  at  the  front  of  the 
ears,  according  to  the  amount  of  head  protruding.  Then  an  incision 
is  made  backward  along  the  line  of  the  throat,  and  the  skin  dissected 
from  the  neck  us  far  back  as  possible.  Then  the  muscles  and  other 
soft  parts  of  the  neck  are  cut  across,  and  the  bodies  of  two  vertebra? 
(neck  Iwnes)  are  severed  by  cutting  completely  across  the  cartilage 
of  the  joint.  The  l)ulging  of  the  ends  of  the  bones  will  serve  to  indi- 
cate the  seat  of  the  joint.  The  head  and  detached  portion  of  the  neck 
may  now  be  removed  by  steady  pulling.  If  there  is  still  an  obstacle, 
the  knife  may  l>e  again  used  to  sever  any  obstinate  connections.  In 
the  case  of  a  double-headed  monster,  the  whole  of  tlie  second  neck 
must  Ix;  removed  with  the  head.  "When  the  head  has  been  detached, 
a  rope  should  be  passed  through  the  eyeholes,  or  through  an  artificial 
opening  in  the  skin,  and  tied  firmly  around  the  skin,  to  be  employed 
as  a  means  of  traction  when  the  missing  limbs  or  the  second  head  have 
l)een  brought  up  into  position. 

Ampi/tation  of  the  hind  limb. — This  may  Ijc  required  when  there 
are  extra  hind  limbs  or  when  the  hind  limbs  are  l^eiit  forward  at  hock 
or  hip  joint.  In  the  former  condition  the  procedure  resembles  that 
for  removal  of  a  fore  limb,  but  requires  more  anatomical  knowledge. 


DIFFICULT    PARTURITION.  183 

Having  noosed  the  pastern,  a  circular  incision  is  made  through  the 
skin  around  the  fetlock,  and  a  longitudinal  one  from  that  up  to  the 
groin,  and  the  skin  is  dissected  from  the  limb  as  high  up  as  can  be 
reached,  over  the  croup,  if  possible.  Then  cut  through  the  muscles 
around  the  hip  joint,  and,  if  possible,  the  two  interarticular  ligaments 
of  the  joint  (pubio-femoral  and  round),  and  extract  the  limb  by- 
strong  dragging. 

Amputation  of  the  fore  limhs. — This  may  usually  be  begun  on  the 
fetlock  of  the  limb  projecting  from  the  vulva.  An  embryotomy  knife 
is  desirable.  This  knife  consists  of  a  blade  with  a  sharp,  slightly 
hooked  point,  and  one  or  two  rings  in  the  back  of  the  blade  large 
enough  to  fit  on  the  middle  finger,  while  the  blade  is  protected  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  (See  Plate  XV,  fig.  4.)  Another  form  has  the 
blade  inserted  in  a  mortise  in  the  handle,  from  which  it  is  pushed 
out  by  a  movable  button  when  wanted.  First  place  a  noose  around 
the  fetlock  of  the  limb  to  be  amputated,  cut  the  skin  circularly  en- 
tirely around  the  fetlock,  then  make  an  incision  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  limb  from  the  fetlock  up  to  the  breastbone.  Next  dissect  the  skin 
from  the  limb,  from  the  fetlock  up  to  the  breastbone  on  the  inner  side, 
and  as  far  up  on  the  shoulder  blade  as  possible  on  the  outer  side. 
Finally,  cut  through  the  muscles  attaching  the  limb  to  the  breast- 
bone, and  emplo}'  strong  traction  on  the  limb,  so  as  to  drag  out  the 
whole  limb,  shoulder  blade,  included.  The  muscles  around  the  upper 
part  of  the  shoulder  blade  are  easily  torn  through  and  need  not  be 
cut,  even  if  that  were  possible.  In  no  case  should  the  fore  limb  be 
removed  unless  the  shoulder  blade  is  taken  with  it,  as  that  furnishes 
the  greatest  obstruction  to  delivery,  above  all  when  it  is  no  longer 
advanced  by  the  extension  of  the  fore  limb,  but  is  pressed  back  so  as 
to  increase  the  already  thickest  posterior  portion  of  the  chest.  The 
preservation  of  the  skin  from  the  whole  limb  is  advantageous  in 
various  ways;  it  is  easier  to  cut  it  circularly  at  the  fetlock  than  at 
the  shoulder;  it  covers  the  hand  and  knife  in  making  the  needful 
incisions,  thus  acting  as  a  protection  to  the  womb;  and  it  affords  a 
means  of  traction  on  the  body  aft^r  the  limb  has  been  removed.  In 
dissecting  the  skin  from  the  limb  the  knife  is  not  needful  at  all 
points;  much  of  it  may  be  stripped  off  with  the  fingers  or  knuckles, 
or  by  a  blunt  iron  spud  pushed  up  inside  the  hide,  which  is  mean- 
Avhile  held  tense  to  render  the  spud  effective. 

In  case  the  limb  is  bent  forward  at  the  hock,  a  rope  is  passed  round 
that  and  pulled  so  as  to  bring  the  point  of  the  liock  between  the  lips 
of  the  vulva.  The  hamstring  and  the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  hock 
are  now  cut  through,  and  the  limbs  extended  by  a  rope  tied  round  the 
lower  end  of  the  long  bone  above  (tibia).  In  case  it  is  still  needful 
to  remove  the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  the  further  procedure  is  the 
same  as  described  in  the  last  paragraph. 


Ig4  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

In  case  the  limb  is  turned  forward  from  the  hip,  and  the  fetus  so 
wedged  into  the  passage  that  turning  is  impossible,  the  case  is  very 
diflicult.  I  have  repeatedly  succeeded  by  cutting  in  on  the  hip  joint 
and  disarticulating  it,  then  dissecting  the  muscles  back  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  thigh  bone.  A  noose  was  placed  around  the  neck  of 
the  bone  and  pulled  on  forcibly,  while  any  unduly  resisting  struc- 
tures were  cut  with  the  knife. 

Cartwright  recommends  to  make  free  incisions  round  the  hip  joints 
and  tear  through  the  muscles  when  they  can  not  be  cut;  then  with 
cords  round  the  pelvic  bones,  and  hooks  inserted  in  the  openings  in 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  to  drag  out  the  pelvic  bones;  then  put  cords 
around  the  heads  of  the  thigh  bones  and  extract  them;  then  remove 
the  intestines;  and  finally,  by  means  of  the  loose,  detached  skin, 
draw  out  the  body  with  the  remainder  of  the  hind  limbs  bent  forward 
beneath  it. 

Reuff  cuts  his  way  into  the  pelvis  of  the  foal,  and  with  a  knife 
separates  the  pelvic  bones  from  the  loins,  then  skinning  the  quarter 
draws  out  these  pelvic  Iwnes  by  means  of  ropes  and  hooks,  and  along 
with  them  the  hind  limbs. 

The  hind  limbs  having  been  removed  by  one  or  the  other  of  these 
procedures,  the  loose  skin  detached  from  the  pelvis  is  used  as  a  means 
of  traction  and  delivery  is  effected.  If  it  has  been  a  monstrosity  with 
extra  hind  limbs,  it  may  be  possible  to  bring  these  up  into  the  passage 
and  utilize  them  for  traction. 

fiemoral  of  the  abdominal  viscera. — In  case  the  belly  is  unduly 
large,  from  decomposition,  tumors,  or  otherwise,  it  may  be  needful 
to  lay  it  o|)en  with  the  knife  and  cut  or  tear  out  the  contents. 

Removal  of  the  thoracic  riscera. — To  diminish  the  bulk  of  the  chest 
it  has  lx?en  found  advisable  to  cut  out  the  breastbone,  remove  the 
heart  and  lungs,  and  allow  the  ribs  to  collapse  with  the  lower  free 
ends  overhipping  each  other. 

Dissection  of  the  trunk. — In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove 
other  portions  of  the  trunk,  the  general  rule  should  be  followed  of 
preserving  the  skin  .so  that  all  manipulations  can  Ix^  made  inside  this 
as  a  protector,  that  it  may  remain  available  as  a  means  of  exercising 
traction  on  the  remaining  part  of  the  body,  and  as  a  covering  to 
protect  the  vaginal  walls  against  injuries  from  bones  while  such 
part  is  passing. 

FLOODING,    OR    IJLEEDINO    FROM    THE    WOMB. 

Tliis  is  rare  in  the  mare,  but  not  unknown,  in  connection  with  a 
failure  of  the  womb  to  contract  on  it.self  after  parturition,  or  with 
eversion  of  the  womb  (ca.sting  the  withers),  and  congestion  or  lacera- 
tion. If  the  blood  accumulates  in  the  flaccid  womb,  the  condition 
may  only  be  susiKJcted  by  reason  of  the  rapidly  advancing  weakness, 


DIFFICULT    PARTURITION.  185 

swaying,  unsteady  gait,  hanging  head,  paleness  of  the  eyes  and  other 
mucous  membranes,  and  weak,  small,  failing  pulse.  The  hand  in- 
troduced into  the  womb  detects  the  presence  of  the  blood  partly 
clotted.  If  the  blood  escapes  by  the  vulva,  the  condition  is  evident. 
Treatment  consists  in  evacuating  the  womb  of  its  blood  clots,  giv- 
ing a  large  dose  of  powdered  ergot  of  rye,  and  in  the  application  of 
cold  water  or  ice  to  the  loins  and  external  generative  organs.  Besides 
this,  a  sponge  impregnated  with  a  strong  solution  of  alum,  or,  still 
better,  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron^  may  be  introduced  into  the 
womb  and  squeezed  so  as  to  bring  the  liquid  in  contact  with  the 
walls  generally. 

EVEBSION    OF    THE    WOMB. 

If  the  womb  fails  to  contract  after  difficult  parturition,  the  after- 
pains  will  sometimes  lead  to  the  fundus  passing  into  the  body  of  the 
organ  and  passing  through  that  and  the  vagina  until  the  whole 
inverted  organ  appears  externally  and  hangs  down  on  the  thighs. 
The  result  is  rapid  engorgement  and  swelling  of  the  organ,  impaction 
of  the  rectum  with  feces,  and  distention  of  the  bladder  with  urine,  all 
of  which  conditions  seriously  interfere  with  the  return  of  the  mass. 
In  returning  the  womb  the  standing  is  preferable  to  the  recumbent 
position,  as  the  abdomen  is  more  pendent  and  there  is  less  obstruc- 
tion to  the  return.  It  may,  however,  be  necessary  to  put  hobbles  on 
the  hind  limbs  to  prevent  the  mare  from  kicking.  A  clean  sheet 
should  be  held  beneath  the  womb,  and  all  filth,  straw,  and  foreign 
bodies  washed  from  its  surface.  Then  with  a  broad,  elastic  (india 
rubber)  band,  or  in  default  of  that  a  long  strip  of  calico  4  or  5  inches 
wide,  wind  the  womb  as  tightly  as  possible,  beginning  at  its  most 
dependent  part  (the  extremity  of  the  horn).  This  serves  two  good 
ends.  It  squeezes  out  into  the  general  circulation  the  enormous  mass 
of  blood  which  engorged  and  enlarged  the  organ,  and  it  furnishes  a 
strong  protective  covering  for  the  now  delicate  friable  organ,  through 
which  it  may  be  safely  manipulated  without  danger  of  laceration. 
The  next  step  may  be  the  pressure  on  the  general  mass  while  those 
portions  next  the  vulva  are  gradually  pushed  in  with  the  hands;  or 
the  extreme  lowest  point  (the«nd  of  the  horn)  may  be  turned  within- 
itself  and  pushed  forward  into  the  vagina  by  the  closed  fist,  the 
return  being  assisted  by  manipulations  by  the  other  hand,  and  even 
by  those  of  assistants.  By  either  mode  the  manipulations  may  be 
made  with  almost  perfect  safety  so  long  as  the  organ  is  closely 
wrapped  in  the  bandage.  Once  a  portion  has  been  introduced  into 
the  vagina  the  rest  will  usually  follow  with  increasing  ease,  and  the 
operation  should  be  completed  with  the  hand  and  arm  extended  the 
full  length  within  the  womb  and  moved  from  point  to  point  so  as  to 
straighten  out  all  parts  of  the  organ  and  insure  that  no  portion  still 


Igg  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

remains  inverted  within  another  portion.  Should  any  such  partial 
inversion  be  left  it  will  give  rise  to  straining,  under  the  force  of  which 
it  will  gradually  increase  until  the  whole  mass  will  be  protruded  as 
before.  The  next  step  is  to  apply  a  truss  as"  an  effectual  me- 
chanical barrier  to  further  escape  of  the  womb  through  the  vulva. 
The  simplest  is  made  with  two  inch  ropes,  each  about  18  feet  long. 
These  are  each  doubled  and  interwoven  at  the  bend,  as  seen  in  Plate 
IX,  figure  4.  The  ring  formed  by  the  interlacing  of  the  two  ropes  is 
adjusted  around  the  vulva,  the  two  ends  of  the  one  rope  are  carried 
up  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  tail  and  along  the  spine,  being  wound 
round  each  other  in  their  course,  and  are  finally  tied  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  collar  encircling  the  neck.  The  remaining  two  ends, 
belonging  to  the  other  rope,  are  carried  downward  and  forward 
between  the  thighs  and  thence  forward  and  upward  on  the  sides  of 
the  belly  and  chest  to  be  attached  to  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  col- 
lar. These  roi)es  are  drawn  tightly  enough  to  keep  closely  applied  to 
the  opening  without  chafing,  and  will  fit  still  more  securely  when  the 
mare  raises  her  back  to  strain.  It  is  desirable  to  tie  the  mare  short  so 
that  she  may  be  unable  to  lie  down  for  a  day  or  two,  and  she  should 
be  kept  in  a  stall  with  the  hind  parts  higher  than  the  fore.  Violent 
straining  may  be  checked  by  full  doses  of  opium  (one-half  dram), 
and  any  costiveness  or  diarrhea  should  be  obviated  by  a  suitable  laxa- 
tive or  binding  diet. 

In  some  mares  the  contractions  are  too  violent  to  allow  of  the  return 
of  the  womb,  and  full  doses  of  opium  one-half  dram,  laudanum  2 
ounces,  or  chloral  hydrate  1  ounce,  may  be  demanded,  or  the  mare 
must  be  rendered  insensible  by  ether  or  chloroform. 

KUPTITRE,  OR  LACERATION,  OF  THE  WOMB. 

This  may  occur  from  the  feet  of  the  foal  during  parturition,  or 
from  ill-directed  efforts  to  assist,  but  it  is  especially  liable  to  take 
place  in  the  everted,  congested,  and  friable  organ.  The  resultant 
dangers  are  bleeding  from  the  wound,  escape  of  the  l>owels  through 
the  ofHining  and  their  fatal  injury  by  the  mare's  feet  or  otherwise,  and 
peritonitis  from  the  extension  of  inflammation  from  the  wound  and 
'from  the  poisonous  action  of  the  septic  liquids  of  the  womb  escaping 
into  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  first  object  is  to  close  the  wound, 
but  unless  in  eversion  of  the  womb  this  is  practically  impossible.  In 
the  last-named  condition  the  wound  must  be  carefully  and  accurately 
sewed  up  l)efore  the  womb  is  returned.  After  its  return,  the  womb 
must  be  injected  daily  with  an  antiseptic  solution  (borax,  one-half 
ounce,  or  carbolic  acid,  3  drams  to  a  quart  of  tepid  water).  If  in- 
flammation threatens,  the  ab<lomen  may  be  bathed  continuously  with 
hot  water  by  means  of  a  heavy  woolen  rag,  and  large  doses  of  opium 
(one-half  dram)  may  be  given  twice  or  thrice  daily. 


Dli'FICULT    PAKTUEITION.  187 

RUPTURES    OF   THE    VAGINA. 

These  are  attended  by  dangers  similar  to  those  belonging  to  rup- 
ture of  the  womb,  and  in  addition  by  the  risk  of  protrusion  of  the 
bladder,  which  appears  through  the  lips  of  the  vulva  as  a  red  pyri- 
form  mass.  Sometimes  such  lacerations  extend  downward  into  the 
bladder,  and  in  others  upward  into  the  terminal  gut  (rectum).  In 
still  other  cases  the  anus  is  torn  so  that  it  forms  one  common  orifice 
with  the  vulva. 

Too  often  such  cases  prove  fatal,  or  at  least 'a  recovery  is  not  at- 
tained, and  urine  or  feces  or  both  escape  freely  into  the  vagina.  The 
simple  laceration  of  the  anus  is  easily  sewed  up,  but  the  ends  of  the 
muscular  fibers  do  not  reunite  and  the  control  over  the  lower  bowel  is 
never  fully  reacquired.  The  successful  stitching  up  of  the  wound 
communicating  with  the  bladder  or  the  rectum  requires  unusual  skill 
and  care,  and  though  I  have  succeeded  in  a  case  of  the  latter  kind,  I 
can  not  advise  the  attempt  by  improfessional  persons. 

BLOOD   CLOTS   IN   THE  WALLS  Or   THE   VAGINA. 

(See  "  Effusion  of  blood  in  the  vaginal  walls,"  p.  169.) 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    WOMB    AND    PERITONEUM. 

These  may  result  from  injuries  sustained  by  the  womb  during  or 
after  parturition,  from  exposure  to  cold  or  wet,  or  from  the  irritant 
infective  action  of  putrid  products  within  the  womb.  Under  the 
inflammation  the  womb  remains  dilated  and  flaccid,  and  decomposi- 
tion of  its  secretions  almost  always  occurs,  so  that  the  inflammation 
tends  to  assume  a  putrid  character  and  general  septic  infection  is 
likely  to  occur. 

Symptoms. — ^The  symptoms  are  ushered  in  by  shivering,  staring 
coat,  small  rapid  pulse,  elevated  temperature,  accelerated  breathing, 
inappetence,  with  arched  back,  stiff  movement  of  the  body,  looking 
back  at  the  flanks,  and  uneasy  motions  of  the  hind  limbs,  discharge 
from  the  vulva  of  a  liquid  at  first  watery,  reddish,  or  yellowish,  and 
later  it  may  be  whitish  or  glairj',  and  fetid  or  not  in  different  cases. 
Tenderness  of  the  abdomen  shown  on  pressure  is  especially  character- 
istic of  cases  affecting  the  peritoneum  or  lining  of  the  belly,  and  is 
more  marked  lower  down.  If  the  animal  survives,  the  inflammation 
tends  to  become  chronic  and  attended  by  a  whitish  muco-purulent 
discharge.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  proves  fatal,  death  is  preceded  by 
extreme  prostration  and  weakness  from  the  general  septic  poisoning. 

Treatment. — In  treatment  the  first  thing  to  be  sought  is  the  removal 
of  all  offensive  and  irritant  matters  from  the  womb  through  a  caout- 
chouc tube  introduced  into  the  womb,  and  into  which  a  funnel  is 
fitted.    Warm  water  should  be  passed  until  it  comes  away  clear.     To 


188  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

insure  that  all  of  the  womb  has  been  washed  out,  the  oiled  hand 
may  be  introduced  to  carry  the  end  of  the  tube  into  the  two  horns 
successively.  When  the  offensive  contents  have  been  thus  removed, 
the  womb  should  be  injected  with  a  quart  of  water  holding  in  solu- 
tion 1  dram  permanganate  of  potash,  or,  in  the  absence  of  the  latter, 
2  teaspoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid.  Repeat  twice  daily.  Fomentation 
of  the  abdomen,  or  the  application  of  a  warm  flaxseed  poultice,  may 
greatly  relieve.  Acetanilid,  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  repeated  twice 
or  thrice  a  day,  or  sulphate  of  quinia  in  doses  of  one-third  ounce, 
may  be  employed  to  reduce  the  fever.  If  the  great  prostration  indi- 
cates septic  poisoning,  large  doses  (one-half  ounce)  bisulphite  of 
soda,  or  salicylate  of  soda,  or  sulphate  of  quinine  may  be  resorted  to. 

LEUCORRHEA. 

This  is  a  white,  glutinous,  chronic  discharge,  the  result  of  a  contin- 
ued subacute  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  womb. 
Like  the  discharge  of  acute  inflammation,  it  contains  many  forms  of 
bacteria,  by  some  of  which  it  is  manifestly  inoculable  on  the  penis  of 
the  stallion,  producing  ulcers  and  a  specific  gonorrheal  discharge. 

Treatment  may  consist  in  the  internal  use  of  tonics  (sulphate  of 
iron,  3  drams,  daily)  and  the"  washing  out  of  the  womb,  as  described 
under  the  last  heading,  followed  by  an  astringent  antiseptic  injection 
(carbolic  acid  2  teaspoonfuls,  tannic  acid  one-half  dram,  water  1 
quart).     This  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

LAMINITIS,   OR    FOUNDER,    FOLLOWING    PARTURITION. 

This  sometimes  follows  on  inflammation  of  the  womb,  as  it  fre- 
quently does  on  disorder  of  the  stomach.  Its  symptoms  agree  with 
those  of  the  common  form  of  founder,  and  treatment  need  not  differ. 

DISEASES    OK    THE    UDDER    AND    TEATS. 
CO.ViiKSTION    AND    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    UDDEB. 

This  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  mare,  though  in  some  cases  the 
udder  becomes  painfully  engorged  before  parturition,  and  a  doughy 
swelling,  pitting  on  pressure,  extends  forward  on  the  lower  surface  of 
the  abdomen.  When  this  goes  on  to  active  inflammation,  one  or  both 
of  the  glands  become  enlarged,  hot,  tense,  and  painful;  the  milk  is 
dried  up  or  replaced  by  a  watery  or  reddish  serous  fluid,  which  at 
times  becomes  fetid ;  the  animal  walks  lame,  loses  appetite,  and  shows 
general  disorder  and  fever.  The  condition  may  end  in  recovery,  in 
abscess,  induration,  or  gangrene,  and  in  some  cases  may  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  a  tumor  of  the  gland. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  simple  so  long  as  there  is  only  con- 
gestion.    Active  rubbing  with  lard  or  oil,  or,  better,  camphorated 


DISEASES    OF    THE    UDDER   AND    TEATS.  *  189 

oil,  and  the  frequent  drawing  off  of  the  milk,  by  the  foal  or  with 
the  hand,  will  usually  bring  about  a  rapid  improvement.  When 
active  inflammation  is  present,  fomentation  with  warm  water  may  be 
kept  up  for  an  hour  and  followed  by  the  application  of  the  cam- 
phorated oil,  to  which  has  been  added  some  carbonate  of  soda  and 
extract  of  belladonna.  A  dose  of  laxative  medicine  (4  drams  Bar- 
bados aloes)  will  be  of  service  reducing  fever,  and  one-half  ounce 
saltpeter  daily  will  serve  a  similar  end.  In  case  the  milk  coagulates 
in  the  udder  and  can  not  be  withdrawn,  or  when  the  liquid  becomes 
fetid,  a  solution  of  20  grains  carbonate  of  soda  and  10  drops  carbolic 
acid  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  water  should  be  injected  into  the  teat. 
In  doing  this  it  must  be  noted  that  the  mare  has  three  separate  ducts 
opening  on  the  summit  of  each  teat  and  each  must  be  carefully  in- 
jected. To  draw  off  the  fetid  product  it  may  be  needful  to  use  a 
small  milking  tube,  or  spring  teat  dilator  designed  by  the  writer. 
(Plate  VIII,  figs.  2  and  3.)  When  pus  forms  and  points  externally 
and  can  not  find  a  free  escape  by  the  teat,  the  spot  where  it  fluctu- 
ates must  be  opened  freely  with  the  knife  and  the  cavity  injected 
daily  with  the  carbolic-acid  lotion.  When  the  gland  becomes  hard 
and  indolent,  it  may  be  rubbed  daily  with  iodine  ointment  1  part, 
vaseline  G  parts. 

TUMORS    OF    THE    UDDEB. 

As  the  result  of  inflammation  of  the  udder  it  may  become  the  seat 
of  an  indurated  diseased  growth,  which  may  go  on  growing  and  seri- 
ously interfere  wnth  the  movement  of  the  hind  limbs.  If  such  swell- 
ings will  not  give  way  in  their  early  stages  to  treatment  by  iodine, 
the  only  resort  is  to  cut  them  out  with  a  knife.  As  the  gland  is  often 
implicated  and  has  to  be  removed,  such  mares  can  not  in  the  future 
suckle  their  colts  and  therefore  should  not  be  bred. 

SORE  TEATS,   SCABS,  CRACKS,    WARTS. 

By  the  act  of  sucking,  especially  in  cold  weather,  the  teats  are  sub- 
ject to  abrasions,  cracks,  and  scabs,  and  as  the  result  of  such  irrita- 
tion, or  independently,  warts  sometimes  grow  and  prove  troublesome. 
The  warts  should  be  clipped  off  with  sharp  scissors  and  their  roots 
burned  with  a  solid  pencil  of  lunar  caustic.  This  is  best  done  before 
parturition  to  secure  healing  before  suckling  begins.  For  sore  teats 
use  an  ointment  of  vaseline  1  ounce,  balsam  of  tolu  5  grains,  and 
sulphate  of  zinc  5  grains. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

By  M.  R.  Tbumboweb,  V.  S. 
[Revised  in  1903  by  Leonard  Pearson,  B.  S.,  V.  M.  D.J 

THE   ANATOMY    AND   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   THE   BRAIN   AND    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

The  nervous  system  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  sets  of 
organs,  peripheral  and  central,  the  function  of  one  being  to  establish 
a  communication  between  the  centers  and  the  different  parts  of  the 
body,  and  that  of  the  other  to  generate  nervous  force.  The  whole 
may  be  arranged  under  two  divisions:  First,  the  cerehro-spinal 
system;  second,  the  sympathetic^  or  ganglionic  system.  Each  is 
possessed  of  its  own  central  and  peripheral  organs. 

In  the  first,  the  center  is  made  up  of  two  portions — one  large  and 
expanded  (the  brain)  placed  in  the  cranial  cavity;  the  other  elon- 
gated (spinal  cord),  continuous  with  the  brain,  and  lodged  in  the 
canal  of  the  vertebral  column.  The  peripheral  portion  of  this  sys- 
tem consists  of  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves,  which  leave  the  axis  in 
symmetrical  pairs,  and  are  distributed  to  the  skin,  the  voluntary 
muscles,  and  the  organs. 

In  the  second,  the  central  organ  consists  of  a  chain  of  ganglia  con- 
nected by  nerve  cords  which  extends  from  the  head  to  the  rump  on 
each  side  of  the  spine.  The  nerves  of  this  sy.stem  are  distributed  to 
the  involuntary  mu.scles,  mucous  membrane,  viscera,  and  blood  vessels. 

The  two  systems  have  free  intercommunication,  ganglia  being  at 
the  junction.s. 

Two  substances,  distinguishable  by  their  color,  enter  into  the  forma- 
tion of  nervous  matter,  namely,  the  white  or  medullary,  and  the  gray 
or  cortical  substance.  Both  are  soft,  fragile,  and  easily  injured,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  principal  nervous  centers  are  well  protected 
by  bony  coverings.  The  nervous  substances  present  two  distinct 
forms — nerve  fibers  and  nerve  cells.  An  aggregation  of  nerve  cells 
constitutes  a  nerve  ganglion. 

The  nerve  fibers  represent  a  conducting  apparatus,  and  serve  to 

place  the  central  nervous  organs  in  connection  with  peripheral  end 

organs.     The  nerve  cells,  however,  l)esides  transmitting  impulses,  act 

as  physiological  centers  for  automatic,  or  reflex,  movements,  and  also 

190 


DISEASES    OP    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  191 

for  the  sensory,  perceptive,  trophic,  and  secretory  functions.  A 
nerve  consists  of  a  bundle  of  tubular  fibers,  held  together  by  a  dense 
areolar  tissue,  and  inclosed  in  a  membranous  sheath — the  neurilemma. 
Nerve  fibers  possess  no  elasticity,  but  are  very  strong.  Divided  nerves 
do  not  retract. 

Nerves  are  thrown  into  a  state  of  excitement  when  stimulated,  and 
are,  therefore,  said  to  possess  excitable  or  irritable  properties.  The 
stimuli  may  be  applied  to,  or  may  act  upon,  any  part  of  the  nerve. 
Nerves  may  be  paralyzed  by  continuous  pressure  being  applied. 
When  the  nerves  divide  into  branches,  there  is  never  any  splitting 
up  of  their  ultimate  fibers,  nor  yet  is  there  ever  any  coalescing  of 
them;  they  retain  their  individuality  from  their  source  to  their 
termination. 

Nerves  which  convey  impressions  to  the  centers  are  termed  sensory, 
or  centripetal,  and  those  which  transmit  stimulus  from  the  centers  to 
organs  of  motion  are  termed  motor,  or  centrifugal.  The  function  of 
the  nervous  system  may,  therefore,  be  defined  in  the  simplest  terms, 
as  follows :  It  is  intended  to  associate  the  different  parts  of  the  body 
in  such  a  manner  that  stimulus  applied  to  one  organ  may  excite  or 
depress  the  activity  of  another. 

The  brain  is  that  portion  of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  within  the  cra- 
nium, which  may  be  divided  into  four  parts — the  medulla  oblongata, 
the  cerebellum,,  the  pons  Varolii,  and  the  cerebrum — and  it  is  cov- 
ered by  three  membranes,  called  the  meninges.  The  outer  of  these 
membranes,  the  dura  mater,  is  a  thick,  white,  fibrous  membrane  which 
lines  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  forming  the  internal  periosteum  of 
the  bones ;  it  is  continuous  with  the  spinal  cord  to  the  extremity  of  the 
canal.  The  second,  the  arachnoid,  is  a  delicate  serous  membrane,  and 
loosely  envelops  the  brain  and  spinal  cord ;  it  forms  two  layers,  leav- 
ing between  them  the  arachnoid  space  which  contains  the  cerebro- 
spinal fluid,  the  use  of  which  is  to  protect  the  spinal  cord  and  brain 
from  pressure.  The  third,  or  inner,  the  pia  m.ater,  is  closely  adher- 
ent to  the  entire  surface  of  the  brain,  but  is  much  thinner  and  more 
vascular  than  when  it  reaches  the  spinal  cord,  which  it  also  envelops, 
and  is  continued  to  form  the  sheaths  of  the  spinal  nerves. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is  the  prolongation  of  the  spinal  cord, 
extending  to  the  pons  Varolii.  This  portion  of  the  brain  is  very 
large  in  the  horse;  it  is  pyramidal  in  shape,  the  narrowest  part  join- 
ing the  cord. 

The  pons  Varolii  is  the  transverse  projection  on  the  base  of  the 
brain,  between  the  medulla  oblongata  and  the  peduncles  of  the 
cerebrum. 

The  cerebellum  is  lodged  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  cranial  cavity, 
immediately  above  the  medulla  oblongata ;  it  is  globular  or  elliptical 


192  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

in  shape,  the  transverse  diameter  being  greatest.  The  body  of  the 
cerebellum  is  composed  of  gray  matter  externally  and  of  white  matter 
in  the  center.  The  cerebellum  has  the  function  of  coordinating  move- 
ments; that  is,  of  so  associating  them  as  to  cause  them  to  accomplish  a 
definite  purpose.  Injuries  to  the  cerebellum  cause  disturbances  of  tha 
equilibrium,  but  do  not  interfere  with  the  will  power  or  intelligence. 

The  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  occupies  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
cranial  cavity.  It  is  ovoid  in  shape,  with  an  irregular  flattened  base, 
and  consists  of  lateral  halves  or  hemispheres.  The  greater  part  of 
the  cerebrum  is  composed  of  white  matter.  The  hemispheres  of  the 
cerebrum  are  usually  said  to  be  the  seat  of  all  psychical  activities. 
Only  when  they  are  intact  are  the  process  of  feeling,  thinking,  and 
willing  possible.  After  they  are  destroyed,  the  organism  comes  to  be 
like  a  complicated  machine,  and  its  activity  is  only  the  expression  of 
the  internal  and  external  stimuli  which  act  upon  it. 

The  spinal  cord,  or  spinal  marrow,  is  that  part  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal system  which  is  contained  in  the  spinal  canal  of  the  backbone, 
and  extends  from  the  medulla  oblongata  to  a  short  distance  behind 
the  loins.  It  is  an  irregularly  cylindrical  structure,  divided  into  two 
lateral  symmetrical  halves  by  fissures.  The  spinal  cord  terminates 
p)osteriorly  in  a  pointed  extremity,  which  is  continued  by  a  mass  of 
nerve  trunks — cauda  equina^.  A  transverse  section  of  the  cord  reveals 
that  it  is  composed  of  white  matter  externally  and  of  gray  matter 
internally.  The  spinal  cord  does  not  fill  up  the  whole  spinal  canal. 
The  latter  contains,  besides,  a  large  venous  sinus,  fatty  matter,  the 
membranes  of  the  cord,  and  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid. 

The  spinal  nerves,  forty -two  or  forty-three  in  number,  arise  each 
by  two  roots,  a  superior,  or  sensory,  and  an  inferior,  or  motor.  The 
nerves  originating  from  the  brain  are  twenty-four  in  number,  and 
arrange<l  in  pairs,  which  are  named  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  counting 
from  Ixifore  backward.  They  also  receive  special  names,  according 
to  their  functions,  or  the  parts  to  which  they  arc  distributed,  viz : 

1.  Olfactory.  7.  Faclnl. 

2.  Optic.  8.  Audltor>-. 

3.  Oculo-iuotop.  0.  (JloHHo-pharyngeal. 

4.  rathetlc.  10.  Pneuinogn.Htric. 
C.  Trifacial.  11,  Spinal-accessory. 
6.  AbducetiH.  12,  Hyi)oglo8sal, 

IN'FX,AMMATION    OF    TIIK    BRAIN    AM)    ITS    MKMBKANES. 

Inflammation  may  attack  these  membranes  singly,  or  any  one  of  the 
anatomical  divisions  of  the  nerve  matter,  or  it  may  invade  the  whole 
at  once.  Practical  exj^erience,  however,  teaches  us  that  primary 
inflammation  of  the  dura  mater  is  of  rare  occurrence,  except  in  direct 
mechanical  injuries  to  the  head  or  diseases  of  the  bones  of  the  era- 


9 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BRAIN.  193 

nium.  Neither  is  the  arachnoid  often  aifected  with  acute  inflamma- 
tion, except  as  a  secondary  result.  The  pia  mater  is  most  commonly 
the  seat  of  inflammation,  acute  and  subacute,  but  from  its  intimate 
relation  with  the  surface  of  the  brain  the  latter  very  soon  becomes 
involved  in  the  morbid  changes.  Practically,  we  can  not  separate  in- 
flammation of  the  pia  mater  from  that  of  the  brain  proper.  Inflam- 
mation may,  however,  exist  in  the  center  of  the  great  nerve  masses — 
the  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  pons  Varolii,  or  medulla  at  the  base  of  the 
brain — without  involving  the  surface.  When,  therefore,  inflamma- 
tion invades  the  brain  and  its  enveloping  membranes  it  is  properly 
called  encephalitis;  when  the  membranes  alone  are  affected,  it  is 
called  meningitis;  or  the  brain  substance  alone,  cerehritis.  Since  all 
of  the  conditions  merge  into  each  other  and  can  scarcely  be  recognized 
separately  during  the  life  of  the  animal,  they  may  here  be  considered 
together. 

ENCEPHALITIS,   MENINGITIS,  AND  CEBEBBITIS    (INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRAIN   AND  ITS 

MEMBBANES). 

Causes. — Exposure  to  extreme  heat  or  cold,  sudden  and  extreme 
changes  of  temperature,  excessive  continued  cerebral  excitement,  over- 
feeding with  nitrogenous  foods,  direct  injuries  to  the  brain,  such  as 
concussion,  or  from  fracture  of  the  cranium,  overexertion,  sometimes 
as  sequelae  to  influenza,  pyemia,  poisons  having  a  direct  influence  upon 
the  encephalic  mass,  extension  of  inflammation  from  neighboring 
structures,  food  poisoning,  tumors,  parasites,  metastatic  abscesses,  etc. 

Symptoms. — The  diseases  here  grouped  together  are  accompanied 
by  a  variety  of  symptoms  almost  none  of  which,  however,  are  asso- 
ciated so  definitely  with  a  special  pathological  process  as  to  point 
unmistakably  to  a  given  lesion.  Usually  the  first  symptoms  indicate 
mental  excitement,  and  these  are  followed  by  symptoms  indicating 
depression.  Acute  encephalitis  may  be  ushered  in  by  an  increased 
sensibility  to  noises,  with  more  or  less  nervous  excitability,  contrac- 
tion of  the  pupils  of  the  eyes,  and  a  quick,  hard  pulse.  In  very  acute 
attacks  these  symptoms,  however,  are  not  always  noted.  This  condi- 
tion will  soon  be  followed  by  muscular  twitchings,  convulsive  or 
spasmodic  movements,  eyes  wide  open  with  shortness  of  sight.  The 
animal  becomes  afraid  to  have  his  head  handled.  Convulsions  and 
delirium  will  develop,  with  inability  of  muscular  control,  or  stupor  and 
coma  may  supervene.  WTiere  the  membranes  are  greatly  implicated, 
convulsions  and  delirium  with  violence  may  be  expected,  but  where 
the  brain  substances  are  principallj'^  affected  stupor  and  coma  will  be 
the  prominent  symptoms.  In  the  former  condition  the  pulse  will 
be  quick  and  hard;  in  the  latter,  soft  or  depressed  with  often  a  dila- 
tation  of  the   pupils,   and   deep,   slow,  stertorous  breathing.     The 

H.  Doc.  795,  50-2 13 


194  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

symptoms  may  follow  one  another  in  rapid  succession,  and  the  disease 
approach  a  fatal  termination  in  less  than  twelve  hours.  In  subacute 
attacks  the  symptoms  are  better  defined,  and  the  animal  seldom  dies 
before  the  third  day.  Within  three  or  four  days  gradual  improve- 
ment may  become  manifest,  or  cerebral  softening  with  partial  paral- 
ysis may  occur.  In  all  cases  of  encephalitis  there  is  a  marked  rise 
in  temperature  from  the  very  onset  of  the  disease,  with  a  tendency  to 
increase  until  the  most  alarming  symptoms  develop,  succeeded  by  a 
decrease  when  coma  becomes  manifest.  The  violence  and  character 
of  the  symptoms  greatly  depend  upon  the  extent  and  location  of  the 
structures  involved.  Thus,  in  some  cases  there  may  be  marked  paral- 
ysis of  certain  muscles,  while  in  others  there  may  Be  spasmodic 
rigidity  of  muscles  in  a  certain  region.  Very  rarely  the  animal  be- 
comes extremely  violent  early  in  the  attack,  and  by  rearing  up,  strik- 
ing with  the  fore  feet,  or  falling  over,  may  do  himself  great  injury. 
Usually,  however,  the  animal  maintains  the  standing  position,  prop- 
ping himself  against  the  manger  or  wall,  until  he  falls  from  inability 
of  muscular  control  or  unconsciousness.  Occasionally  he  may  go 
through  a  series  of  automatic  movements  in  his  delirium,  such  as 
trotting  or  walking,  and,  if  loose  in  a  stall,  will  move  around  in  a 
circle  persistently.  Early  and  persistent  constipation  of  the  bowels 
is  a  marked  symptom  in  nearly  all  acute  affections  of  the  brain;  re- 
tention of  the  urine,  also,  is  frequently  observed. 

Following  these  symptoms  there  are  depression,  loss  of  power  and 
consciousness,  lack  of  ability  or  desire  to  move,  and  usually  fall  of 
temperature.  At  this  stage  the  horse  stands  with  legs  propped,  the 
head  hanging  or  resting  on  the  manger,  the  eyes  partly  closed,  and 
does  not  respond  when  spoken  to  or  when  struck  with  a  whip. 

Chronic  encephalitis  or  meningitis  may  succeed  the  acute  stage,  or 
may  be  due  to  stable  miasma,  blood  poison,  narcotism,  lead  poison- 
ing, etc.  This  form  may  not  be  characterized  in  its  initial  stages  by 
excital)ility,  quick  and  hard  pulse,  and  high  fever.  The  animal 
usually  appears  at  first  stupid ;  eats  slowly;  the  pupil  of  the  eye  does 
not  lespond  to  light  quickly;  the  animal  often  throws  up  his  head  or 
shakes  it  as  if  suffering  sudden  twinges  of  ])ain.  He  is  slow  and 
sluggish  in  his  movements,  or  there  may  lie  partial  paralysis  of  one 
limb,  one  side  of  the  face,  neck,  or  lx)dy.  These  symptoms,  with  some 
variations,  may  be  present  for  several  days  and  then  subside,  or  the 
disease  may  pass  into  the  acute  stage  and  terminate  fatally.  Chronic 
encephalitis  may  affect  an  animal  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks  without 
much  variation  in  the  symptoms  before  the  crisis  is  reached.  If  im- 
provement commences,  the  symptoms  usually  disappear  in  the  reverse 
order  in  which  they  developed,  with  the  exception  of  the  paralytic 
effects,  which  remain  intractable  or  jjermanent.  Paralysis  of  certain 
.sets  of  muscles  is  a  very  conunon  result  of  chronic,  subacute,  and 


DISEASES   OF    THE    BRAIN.  196 

acute  encephalitis,  and  is  due  to  softening  of  the  brain  or  to  exuda- 
tion into  the  cavities  of  the  brain  or  arachnoid  space. 

Softening  and  abscess  of  the  brain  is  one  of  the  terminations  of 
cerebritis.  It  may  also  be  due  to  an  insufficient  supply  of  blood  as  a 
result  of  diseased  cerebral  arteries  and  of  apoplexy.  The  symptoms 
are  drowsiness,  vertigo,  or  attacks  of  giddiness,  increased  timidity,  or 
fear  of  familiar  objects,  paralysis  of  one  limb,  hemiplegia,  imperfect 
control  of  the  limbs,  and  usually  a  weak,  intermittent  pulse.  In  some 
cases  the  symptoms  are  analogous  to  those  of  apoplexy.  The  char- 
acter of  the  symptoms  depends  upon  the  seat  of  the  softening  or 
abscess  within  the  brain. 

Cerebral  sclerosis  sometimes  follows  inflammation  in  the  struct- 
ure of  the  brain  affecting  the  connective  tissues,  which  eventually 
become  hypertrophied  and  press  upon  nerve  cells  and  fibers,  causing 
their  ultimate  disappearance,  leaving  the  parts  hard  and  indurated. 
This  condition  gives  rise  to  a  progressive  paralysis  and  may  extend 
along  a  certain  bundle  of  fibers  into  the  spinal  cord.  Complete 
paralysis  almost  invariably  supervenes  and  causes  death. 

Lesions. — On  making  post-mortem  examinations  of  horses  which 
have  died  in  the  first  stages  of  either  of  these  diseases  we  will  find  an 
excessive  engorgement  of  the  capillaries  and  small  blood  vessels,  with 
correspondingly  increased  redness  and  changes  in  both  the  contents 
and  the  walls  of  the  vessels.  If  death  has  occurred  at  a  later  period 
of  the  disease  it  will  be  found  that,  in  addition  to  the  redness  and  en- 
gorgement, an  exudation  of  the  contents  of  the  blood  vessels  into  the 
tissues  and  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  inflamed  parts  has  supervened. 
If  the  case  has  been  one  of  encephalitis,  there  will  usually  be  found 
more  or  less  watery  fluid  in  the  ventricles  (natural  cavities  in  the 
brain),  in  the  subarachnoid  space,  and  a  serous  exudation  between  the 
convolutions  and  interstitial  spaces  of  the  gray  matter  under  the 
membranes  of  the  brain.  The  amount  of  fluid  varies  in  different 
cases.  Exudations  of  a  membranous  character  may  be  present  and 
are  found  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  pia  mater. 

In  meningitis,  especially  in  chronic  cases,  in  addition  to  the  serous 
effusion,  there  are  changes  which  may  be  regarded  as  characteristic  in 
the  formation  of  a  delicate  and  highly  vascular  layer  or  laj^ers  of 
membrane  or  organized  structure  on  the  surface  of  the  dura  mater, 
and  also  indications  of  hemorrhages  in  connection  with  the  membra- 
nous formations.  Hematoma,  or  blood  tumors,  may  be  found  em- 
bedded in  this  membrane.  In  some  cases  the  hemorrhages  are  copious, 
causing  paralysis  or  apoplexy,  followed  by  speedy  death.  The  menin- 
gitis may  be  suppurative.  In  this  case,  a  puslike  exudate  is  found 
between  the  membranes  covering  the  brain. 

In  cerebritis,  or  inflammation  of  the  interior  of  tlie  brain,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  softening  and  suppuration  and  the  formation  of 


196  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

abscesses.  In  some  cases  the  abscesses  are  small  and  numerous,  sur- 
rounded with  a  softened  condition  of  the  brain  matter,  and  some- 
times we  may  find  one  large  abscess.  In  cases  of  recent  development 
the  walls  of  the  abscesses  are  fringed  and  ragged  and  have  no  lining 
membrane.  In  older  or  chronic  cases,  the  walls  of  the  abscesses  are 
generally  lined  with  a  strong  membrane,  often  having  the  appearance 
of  a  sac,  or  cyst,  and  the  contents  have  a  very  offensive  odor. 

Treatment. — In  all  acute  attacks  of  inflammation  involving  the 
membranes  or  cerebral  masses,  it  is  the  pressure  from  the  distended 
and  engorged  blood  vessels  and  the  rapid  accumulation  of  inflamma- 
tory products  that  endangers  the  life  of  the  animal  in  even  the  very 
early  stage  of  the  disease.  The  earlier  the  treatment  is  commenced  to 
lessen  the  danger  of  fatal  pressure  from  the  engorged  blood  vessels, 
the  less  amount  of  inflammatory  products  and  effusion  \Ve  have  to 
contend  with  later  on.  The  leading  object,  then,  to  be  accomplished 
in  the  treatment  of  the  first  stages  of  encephalitis,  meningitis,  or  cere- 
britis  is  to  relieve  the  engorgement  of  the  blood  vessels  before  a  dan- 
gerous degree  of  effusion  or  exudation  has  taken  place,  and  thereby 
lessen  the  irritation  or  excitability  of  the  affected  structures.  If  the 
attempt  to  relieve  the  engorgement  in  the  first  stage  has  been  only 
partially  successful,  and  the  second  stage  with  its  inflammatory  prod- 
ucts and  exudations,  whether  serous  or  plastic,  has  set  in,  then  the 
main  objects  in  further  treatment  are  to  keep  up  the  strength  of  the 
animal  and  hasten  the  absorption  of  the  exudative  products  as  much 
as  possible.  To  obtain  these  results,  when  the  animal  is  found  in  the 
initial  stage  of  the  disease,  where  there  is  unnatural  excitability  or 
stupor  with  increase  of  temperature  and  quickened  pulse,  we  should 
apply  cold  to  the  head  in  the  form  of  cold  water  or  ice.  For  this  pur- 
pose cloths  or  bags  may  be  used,  and  they  should  Ije  renewed  as  often 
as  necessary.  If  the  disease  is  still  in  its  early  stages  and  the  animal 
is  strong,  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein  may  lie  beneficial.  Good 
results  are  to  be  exjiected  only  during  the  stage  of  excitement,  while 
there  is  a  strong,  full  pulse  and  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head 
are  red  from  a  plentiful  supply  of  blood.  The  finger  should  be  kept 
on  the  pulse  and  the  blood  allowed  to  flow  until  there  is  distinct 
softening  of  the  pulse.  As  soon  as  the  animal  recovers  somewhat 
from  the  shock  of  the  bleeding,  the  following  medicine  should  be 
made  into  a  ball  or  dissolve<l  in  a  pint  of  warm  water  and  be  given 
at  one  dose:  Barbados  aloes,  7  drams;  calomel,  2  drams;  powdered 
ginger,  1  dram ;  tincture  of  aconite,  20  drops. 

The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  as  free  from 
noise  as  possible.  When  the  animal  becomes  thirsty  half  an  ounce  of 
bromide  of  potash  may  be  dissolved  in  his  drinking  water  every  six 
hours.  Injections  of  warm  water  into  the  rectum  may  facilitate  the 
action  of  the  purgative.     Norwood's  tincture  of  veratrum  viride,  in 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BBAIN.  197 

20-drop  doses,  should  be  given  every  hour  and  1  dram  of  solid  extract 
of  belladonna  every  four  hours  until  the  symptoms  become  modified 
and  the  pulse  regular  and  full. 

If  this  treatment  fails  to  give  relief,  the  disease  will  pass  into  the 
advanced  stages,  or,  if  the  animal  has  been  neglected  in  the  early 
stages,  the  treatment  must  be  supplanted  with  the  hypodermic  injec- 
tion of  ergotin,  in  5-grain  doses,  dissolved  in  1  dram  of  water,  every 
six  hours.  The  limbs  may  be  poulticed  above  the  fetlocks  with  mus- 
tard. Warm  blanketing,  to  promote  perspiration,  is  to  be  observed 
in  all  cases  in  which  there  is  no  excessive  perspiration. 

If  the  disease  becomes  chronic  (encephalitis  or  meningitis) ,  we  must 
place  our  reliance  upon  alteratives  and  tonics,  with  such  incidental 
treatment  as  special  symptoms  may  demand.  Iodide  of  potassium  in 
2-dram  doses  should  be  given  three  times  a  day  and  1  dram  of  calo- 
mel once  a  day  to  induce  absorption  of  effusions  or  thickened  mem- 
branes. Tonics,  in  the  form  of  iodide  of  iron  in  1-dram  doses,  to 
which  is  added  2  drams  of  powdered  hydrastis,  may  also  be  given 
every  six  or  eight  hours,  as  soon  as  the  active  fever  has  abated. 
After  the  disappearance  of  the  acute  symptoms,  blisters  (cantharides 
ointment)  may  be  applied  behind  the  poll.  When  paralytic  effects 
remain  after  the  disappearance  of  all  other  symptoms,  sulphate  of 
strychnia  in  2-grain  doses,  in  combination  with  the  other  tonics,  may 
be  given  twice  a  day,  and  be  continued  until  it  produces  muscular 
twitching.  In  some  cases  of  paralysis,  as  of  the  lips  or  throat,  bene- 
fit may  be  derived  from  the  moderate  use  of  the  electric  battery. 
Many  of  the  recoveries  will,  however,  under  the  most  active  and  early 
treatment,  be  but  partial,  and  in  all  cases  the  animals  become  predis- 
posed to  subsequent  attacks,  A  long  period  of  time  should  be  allowed 
to  pass  before  the  animal  is  exposed  to  severe  work  or  great  heat. 
When  the  disease  depends  upon  mechanical  injuries,  they  have  to  be 
treated  and  all  causes  of  irritation  to  the  brain  removed.  If  it  is  due 
to  stable  miasma,  uremic  poisoning,  pyemia,  influenza,  rheumatism, 
toxic  agents,  etc.,  they  should  receive  prompt  attention  for  their 
removal  or  mitigation. 

Cerebral  softening,  abscess,  and  sclerosis  are  practically  inaccess- 
ible to  treatment,  otherwise  than  such  relief  as  may  be  afforded  by 
the  administration  of  opiates  and  general  tonics,  and,  in  fact,  the 
diagnosis  is  largely  presumptive. 

CONGESTION  OF  THE  BRAIN,  OR  MEGRIMS. 

Congestion  of  the  brain  consists  in  an  accumulation  of  blood  in  the 
vessels,  also  called  hyperemia,  or  engorgement.  It  may  be  active  or 
passive — active  when  there  is  an  undue  determination  of  blood  or 
diminished  arterial  resistance,  and  passive  when  it  accumulates  in  the 
vessels  of  the  brain,  owing  to  some  obstacle  to  its  return  by  the  vein?. 


198  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

Causes. — Active  cerebral  congestion  may  be  due  to  hypertrophy  of 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  excessive  exertion,  the  influence  of 
extreme  heat,  sudden  and  great  excitement,  artificial  stimulants,  etc. 
Passive  congestion  may  be  produced  by  any  mechanical  obstruction 
which  prevents  the  proper  return  of  blood  through  the  veins  to  thp 
heart,  such  as  a  small  or  ill-fitting  collar,  which  often  impedes  the 
blood  current,  tumors  or  abscesses  pressing  on  the  vein  in  its  course, 
and  organic  lesions  of  the  heart  with  regurgitation. 

Extremely  fat  animals  with  short  thick  necks  are  peculiarly  subject 
to  attacks  of  cerebral  congestion.  Simple  congestion,  however,  is 
merely  a  functional  affection,  and  in  a  slight  or  moderate  degree 
involves  no  immediate  danger.  Extreme  engorgement,  on  the  con- 
trary, may  be  followed  by  rupture  of  previously  weakened  arteries 
and  capillaries  and  cause  immediate  death,  designated  then  as  a 
stroke  of  apoplexy. 

Symptoms. — Congestion  of  the  brain  is  usually  sudden  in  its  mani- 
festation and  of  short  duration.  The  animal  may  stop  very  suddenly 
and  shake  his  head  or  stand  quietly  braced  on  his  legs,  then  stagger, 
make  a  plunge,  and  fall.  The  eyes  are  staring,  breathing  hurried  and 
stertorous,  and  the  nostrils  widely  dilated.  This  may  be  followed  by 
coma,  violent  convulsive  movements,  and  death.  Generally,  however, 
the  animal  gains  relief  in  a  short  time,  but  he  may  remain  weak  and 
giddy  for  several  days.  If  it  is  due  to  organic  change  of  the  heart  or 
to  disease  of  the  blood  vessels  in  the  brain,  then  the  symptoms  may 
be  of  slow  development  manifested  by  drowsiness,  dimness  or  im- 
perfect vision,  difficulty  in  voluntary  movements,  diminished  sensi- 
bility of  the  skin,  loss  of  consciousness,  delirium,  and  death.  In 
milder  cases  effusion  may  take  place  in  the  arachnoid  spaces  and 
ventricles  of  the  brain,  followed  by  paralysis  and  other  complications. 

Pathology. — In  congestion  of  the  brain  the  cerebral  vessels  are 
loaded  with  blood,  and  the  venous  sinuses  distended  to  an  extreme 
degree,  and  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  brain  constitutes  actual 
compression,  giving  rise  to  the  symptoms  just  mentioned.  On  post- 
mortem examinations  this  engorgement  is  found  universal  through- 
out the  brain  and  its  membranes,  which  serves  to  distinguish  it  from 
inflammations  of  these  structures,  in  which  the  engorgements  are 
confined  more  or  less  to  circumscribed  portions.  A  prolonged  con- 
ge~stion  may,  however,  lead  to  active  inflammation,  and  in  that  case 
we  will  find  serous  and  plastic  exudations  in  the  cavities  of  the  brain. 
In  addition  to  the  intensely  engorged  condition  of  the  vessels  we  find 
the  gray  matter  of  the  brain  redder  in  color  tiian  natural.  In  cases 
where  several  attacks  have  occurred  the  blood  vessels  are  often  found 
permanently  dilated. 

Treatment. — IVompt  removal  of  aU  mechanical  obstructions  to  the 
circulation.     If  it  is  due  to  venous  obstruction  by  too  tight  a  collar. 


SUNSTROKE.  199 

the  loosening  of  the  collar  will  give  immediate  relief.  The  horse 
should  be  bled  freely  from  the  jugular  vein.  If  due  to  tumors  or 
abscesses,  a  surgical  operation  becomes  necessary  to  afford  relief.  To 
revive  the  animal  if  he  becomes  partially  or  totally  unconscious,  cold 
water  should  be  dashed  on  the  head.  Give  a  purge  of  Glauber's 
salts.  If  the  limbs  are  cold,  tincture  of  capsicum  or  strong  mustard 
water  should  be  applied  to  them.  If  symptoms  of  paralysis  remain 
after  two  or  three  days,  an  active  cathartic  and  iodide  of  potassa  will 
be  indicated,  to  be  given  as  prescribed  for  inflammation  of  the  brain. 
Prevention. — Well-adjusted  collar,  with  strap  running  from  the 
collar  to  the  girth,  to  hold  down  the  collar  when  pulling  upgrade; 
regular  feed  and  exercise,  without  allowing  the  animal  to  become  ex- 
cessively plethoric;  moderate  checking,  allowing  a  free-and-easy 
movement  of  the  head;  well-ventilated  stabling,  proper  cleanliness, 
pure  water,  etc. 

SUNSTROKE,    HEAT   STROKE,   OR   HEAT   EXHAUSTION. 

The  term  sunstroke  is  applied  to  affections  occasioned  not  exclu- 
sively by  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays,  as  the  word  signifies,  but  by  the 
action  of  great  heat  combined  generally  with  humid  atmosphere. 
Exhaustion  produced  by  a  long-continued  heat  is  often  the  essential 
factor,  and  is  called  heat  exhaustion.  Horses  on  the  race  track  un- 
dergoing protracted  and  severe  work  in  hot  weather  often  succumb 
to  heat  exhaustion.  Draft  horses  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  for  many  hours,  which  do  not  receive  proper  care  in  watering, 
feeding,  and  rest  in  shady  places,  suffer  very  frequently  from  sun- 
stroke. 

Symptoms. — Sunstroke  is  manifested  suddenly.  The  animal  stops, 
drops  his  head,  begins  to  stagger,  and  soon  falls  to  the  ground  uncon- 
scious. The  breathing  is  marked  with  great  stertor,  the  pulse  is  very 
slow  and  irregular,  cold  sweats  break  out  in  patches  on  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  the  animal  often  dies  without  recovering  consciousness. 
The  temperature  becomes  very  high,  reaching  105°  to  109°  F. 

In  heat  exhaustion  the  animal  usually  requires  urging  for  some 
time  previous  to  the  appearance  of  any  other  symptoms,  generally 
perspiration  is  checked,  and  then  he  becomes  weak  in  his  gait,  the 
breathing  hurried  or  panting,  eyes  watery  or  bloodshot,  nostrils 
dilated  and  highly  reddened,  assuming  a  dark,  purple  color;  the  pulse 
is  rapid  and  weak,  the  heart  bounding,  followed  by  unconsciousness 
and  death.  If  recovery  takes  place,  convalescence  extends  over  a 
long  period  of  time,  during  which  incoordination  of  movement  may 
persist. 

Pathology. — Sunstroke,  virtually  active  congestion  of  the  brain, 
often  accompanied  by  effusion  and  blood  extravasation,  characteriz.es 
this  condition,  with*  often  rapid  and  fatal  lowering  of  all  the  vital 


200  DISEASES   OF    THE    HORSE. 

functions.  The  death  may  be  due  in  many  instances  to  the  complete 
stagnation  in  the  circulation  of  the  brain,  inducing  anemia,  or  want 
of  nourishment  of  that  organ.  In  other  cases  it  may  be  directly  due 
to  the  excessive  compression  of  the  nerve  matter  controlling  the 
heart's  action,  and  cause  paralysis  of  that  organ.  There  are  also 
changes  in  the  composition  of  the  blood. 

Treatment. — Under  no  circumstances  is  bloodletting  permissible  in 
sunstroke.  Ice  or  very  cold  water  should  be  applied  to  the  head  and 
along  the  spine,  and  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  or  6 
ounces  of  whisky  should  be  given  in  1  pint  of  water.  Cold  water 
should  be  showered  upon  the  body  of  the  horse  from  the  hose  or 
otherwise.  This  should  be  continued  until  the  temperature  is  down 
to  103°  F.  Brisk  friction  of  the  limbs  and  the  application  of  spirits 
of  camphor  often  yield  good  results.  The  administration  of  the  stim- 
ulants should  be  repeated  in  one  hour  if  the  pulse  has  not  become 
stronger  and  slower.  In  either  case,  when  reaction  has  occurred, 
preparations  of  iron  and  general  tonics  may  be  given  during  conva- 
lescence: Sulphate  of  iron,  1  dram;  gentian,  3  drams;  red  cinchona 
bark,  2  drams ;  mix  and  give  in  the  feed  morning  and  evening. 

Prevention. — In  very  hot  weather  horses  should  have  wet  sponges 
or  light  sunshades  on  the  head  when  at  work,  or  the  head  may  oe 
sponged  with  cold  water  as  many  times  a  day  as  possible.  Proper 
attention  should  be  given  to  feeding  and  watering,  never  in  excess. 
During  the  warm  months  all  stables  should  be  cool  and  well  ven- 
tilated, and  if  an  animal  is  debilitated  from  exhaustive  work  or 
di-sease  he  should  receive  such  treatment  as  will  tend  to  build  up  the 
system.  Horses  should  be  permitted  to  drink  as  much  water  as  they 
want  while  they  are  at  work  during  hot  weather. 

An  animal  which  has  been  affected  with  sunstroke  is  very  liable  to 
have  subsequent  attacks  when  exposed  to  the  necessary  exciting 
causes. 

APOPI^XY,  OR  CEREBRAL  HE:\[0RRHAGE. 

Apoplexy  is  often  confounded  with  cerebral  congestion,  but  true 
apoplexy  always  consists  in  rupture  of  cerebral  blood  vessels,  with 
blood  extravasation  and  formation  of  blood  clot. 

Causes. — Two  causes  are  involved  in  the  production  of  apoplexy, 
the  predisposing  and  the  exciting.  The  predisposing  cause  is  degen- 
eration, or  disease  which  weakens  the  blood  vessel ;  the  exciting  cause 
is  any  one  which  tends  to  induce  cerebral  congestion. 

Symptoms. — Apoplexy  is  characterized  by  a  sudden  loss  of  sensa- 
tion and  motion,  profound  coma,  and  stertorous  and  difficult  breath- 
ing. The  action  of  the  heart  is  little  disturbed  at  first,  but  soon  be- 
comes slower,  then  quicker  and  feebler,  and  after  a  little  time  ceases. 
If  the  rupture  is  one  of  a  small  artery  and  the  ^travasation  limited, 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BRAIlSr.  201 

sudden  paralysis  of  some  part  of  the  body  is  the  result.  The  extent 
and  location  of  the  paralysis  depend  upon  the  location  within  the 
brain  which  is  functionally  deranged  by  the  pressure  of  the  extrava- 
sated  blood ;  hence  these  conditions  are  very  variable. 

In  the  absence  of  any  premonitory  symptoms  or  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature in  the  early  stage  of  the  attack,  we  may  be  reasonably  certain 
in  making  the  distinction  between  this  disease  and  congestion  of  the 
brain,  or  sunstroke. 

Pathology. — In  apoplexy  there  is  generally  found  an  atheromatous 
condition  of  the  cerebral  vessels,  with  weakening  and  degeneration  of 
their  walls.  "When  a  large  artery  has  been  ruptured  it  is  usually  fol- 
lowed by  immediate  death,  and  large  rents  may  be  found  in  the  cere- 
brum, with  great  destruction  of  brain  tissue,  induced  by  the  forcible 
pressure  of  the  liberated  blood.  In  small  extravasations  producing 
local  paralysis  without  marked  general  disturbance,  the  animal  may 
recover  after  a  time;  in  such  cases  gradual  absorption  of  the  clot  takes 
place.  In  large  clots  atrophy  of  the  brain  substances  may  follow,  or 
softening  and  abscess  from  want  of  nutrition  may  result,  and  render 
the  animal  worthless,  ultimately  resulting  in  death. 

Treatment. — Place  the  animal  in  a  quiet,  cool  place  and  avoid  all 
stimulating  food.  Administer,  in  his  drinking  water  or  feed,  2  drams 
of  the  iodide  of  potassa  twice  a  day  for  several  weeks  if  necessary. 
Medical  interference  with  sedatives  or  stimulants  is  more  apt  to  be 
harmful  than  of  benefit,  and  bloodletting  in  an  apoplectic  fit  is 
extremely  hazardous.  From  the  fact  that  cerebral  apoplexy  is  due  to 
diseased  or  weakened  blood  vessels,  the  animal  remains  subject  to 
subsequent  attacks. 

COMPRESSION    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

Causes. — In  injuries  from  direct  violence  a  piece  of  broken  bone 
may  press  upon  the  brain,  and,  according  to  its  size,  the  brain  is 
robbed  of  its  normal  space  within  the  cranium.  It  may  also  be  due 
to  an  extravasation  of  blood  or  to  exudation  in  the  subdural  or  arach- 
noid spaces.  Death  from  active  cerebral  congestion  results  through 
compression.  The  occurrence  may  sometimes  be  traced  to  the  direct 
cause,  which  will  give  assurance  for  the  correct  diagnosis. 

Symptoms. — Impairment  of  all  the  special  senses  and  localized 
paralysis.  All  the  symptoms  of  lessened  functional  activity  of  the 
brain  are  manifested  to  some  degree.  The  paralysis  remains  to  be 
our  guide  for  the  location  of  the  cause,  for  it  will  be  found  that  the 
paralysis  occurs  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body  from  the  location  of 
the  injury,  and  the  parts  suffering  paralysis  will  denote,  to  an  expert 
veterinarian  or  physician,  the  part  of  the  brain  which  is  suffering 
compression. 

Treatment. — Trephining,  by  a  skillful  operator,  for  the  removal  of 


202  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

the  cause  when  due  to  depressed  bone  or  the  presence  of  foreign 
bodies.  Wlien  the  symptoms  of  compression  follow  other  acute 
diseases  of  the  brain,  apoplectic  fits,  etc.,  the  treatment  must  be  such 
as  the  exigencies  of  the  case  demands. 

CX)NCU88ION    OF   THE   BRAIN. 

Causes. — This  is  generally  caused  by  an  animal  falling  over  back- 
ward and  striking  his  poll,  or  perhaps  falling  forward  on  his  nose; 
by  a  blow  on  the  head,  etc.  Train  accidents  during  shipping  often 
cause  concussion  of  the  brain. 

Symptoms. — Concussion  of  the  brain  is  characterized  by  giddiness, 
stupor,  insensibility,  or  loss  of  muscular  power,  succeeding  imme- 
diately upon  a  blow  or  severe  injury  involving  the  cranium.  The 
animal  may  rally  quickly  or  not  for  hours;  death  may  occur  on  the 
spot  or  after  a  few  days.  When  there  is  only  slight  concussion  or 
stunning,  the  animal  soon  recovers  from  the  shock.  When  more 
severe,  insensibility  may  be  complete  and  continue  for  a  considerable 
time;  the  animal  lies  as  if  in  a  deep  sleep;  the  pupils  are  insensible 
to  light;  the  pulse  fluttering  or  feeble;  the  surface  of  the  body  cold, 
muscles  relaxed,  and  the  breathing  scarcely  perceptible.  After  a 
variable  interval  partial  recovery  may  take  place,  which  is  marked 
by  paralysis  of  some  parts  of  the  body,  often  of  a  limb,  the  lips,  ear, 
etc.  Convalescence  is  usually  tedious,  and  frequently  permanent  im- 
pairment of  some  organs  remains. 

Pathology. — Concussion  produces  laceration  of  the  brain,  or  at 
least  a  jarring  of  the  nervous  elements,  which,  if  not  sufficiently  severe 
to  produce  sudden  death,  may  lead  to  softening  or  inflammation,  with 
their  respective  symptoms  of  functional  derangement. 

Treatm^ent. — The  first  object  in  treatment  will  be  to  establish  reac- 
tion or  to  arouse  the  feeble  and  weakening  heart.  This  can  often  be 
accomplished  by  dashing  cold  water  on  the  head  and  body  of  the  ani- 
mal; frequent  injections  of  weak  ammonia  water,  ginger  tea,  or  oil 
and  turpentine  should  be  given  per  rectum.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
this  will  soon  bring  the  horse  to  a  state  of  consciousness.  In  more 
severe  cases  mustard  poultices  should  be  applied  along  the  spine  and 
above  the  fetlocks.  As  soon  as  the  animal  gains  partial  consciousness 
stimulants,  in  the  form  of  whisky  or  capsicum  tea,  should  be  given. 
Owing  to  severity  of  the  structural  injury  to  the  brain  or  the  pos- 
sible rupture  of  blood  vessels  and  blood  extravasation,  the  reaction 
may  often  be  followed  by  encephalitis  or  cerebritis,  and  will  then 
have  to  be  treated  accordingly.  For  this  reason  the  stimulants 
should  not  be  administered  too  freely,  and  they  must  be  abandoned 
as  soon  as  reaction  is  established.  There  is  no  need  for  further 
treatment  unless  complications  develop  as  a  secondary  result.  Bleed- 
ing, which  is  so  often  practiced,  proves  almost  invariably  fatal  in 


DISEASES    OF    THE   BRAIN.  203 

this  form  of  brain  affection.  We  should  also  remember  that  it  is 
never  safe  to  drench  a  horse  with  large  quantities  of  medicine  when 
he  is  unconscious,  for  he  is  very  liable  to  draw  the  medicine  into  the 
lungs  in  inspiration. 

Prevention. — Young  horses,  when  harnessed  or  bitted  for  the  first 
few  times,  should  not  have  their  heads  checked  up  high,  for  it  fre- 
quently causes  them  to  rear  up,  and,  being  unable  to  control  their 
balance,  they  are  liable  to  fall  over  sideways  or  backwards,  thus 
causing  brain  concussion  when  they  strike  the  ground. 

ANEMIA    OF    THE    BRAIN. 

This  is  a  physiological  condition  in  sleep. 

Causes. — It  is  considered  a  disease  or  may  give  rise  to  disease  when 
the  circulation  and  blood  supply  of  the  brain  are  interfered  with. 
In  some  diseases  of  the  heart  the  brain  becomes  anemic,  and  fainting 
fits  occur,  with  temporary  loss  of  consciousness.  Tumors  growing 
within  the  cranium  may  press  upon  one  or  more  arteries  and  stop  the 
supply  of  blood  to  certain  parts  of  the  brain,  thus  inducing  anemia, 
ultimately  atrophy,  softening,  or  suppuration.  Probably  the  most 
frequent  cause  is  found  in  plugging,  or  occlusion,  of  the  arteries  by 
a  blood  clot. 

Symptoms. — Imperfect  vision,  constantly  dilated  pupils,  frequently 
a  feeble  and  staggering  gait,  and  occasionally  cramps,  convulsions,  or 
epileptic  fits  occur. 

Pathology. — The  exact  opposite  of  cerebral  hyperemia.  The  blood 
vessels  are  found  empty,  the  membranes  blanched,  and  the  brain  sub- 
stance softened. 

Treatment. — Removal  of  the  remote  cause  when  possible.  General 
tonics,  nutritious  food,  rest,  and  removal  from  all  causes  of  nervous 
excitement. 

HYDROCEPHALUS,  OR  DROPSY  OF  THE   BRAIN. 

This  condition  consists  in  an  unnatural  collection  of  fluid  about  or 
in  the  brain.  Depending  upon  the  location  of  the  fluid,  we  speak  of 
external  and  internal  hydrocephalus. 

External  hydrocephalus  is  seen  chiefly  in  young  animals.  It  con- 
sists in  a  collection  of  fluid  under  the  meninges,  but  outside  of  the 
brain  proper.  This  defect  is  usually  congenital.  It  is  accompanied 
by  an  enlargement  of  the  skull,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  fore- 
head. The  pressure  of  the  fluid  may  cause  the  bones  to  soften.  The 
disease  is  incurable  and  usually  fatal. 

Internal  hydrocephalus  is  a  disease  of  mature  horses,  and  consists 
in  the  accumulation  of  an  excessive  quantity  of  fluid  in  the  cavities 
or  ventricles  of  the  cerebrum.  The  cause  of  this  accumulation  may 
be  a  previous  inflammation,  a   defect  in  the  circulation   of  blood 


204  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

through  the  brain,  heat  stroke,  overwork,  excessive  nutrition,  or  long- 
continued  indigestion.  Common,  heavy-headed  draft  horses  are  pre- 
disposed to  this  condition. 

The  symptoms  are  an  expression  of  dullness  and  stupidity,  and 
from  their  nature  this  disease  is  sometimes  known  as  "  dumminess  " 
or  "  immobility."  A  horse  so  afflicted  is  called  a  "  dummy."  Among 
the  symptoms  are  loss  of  intelligence,  stupid  expression,  poor  mem- 
ory, etc.  The  appetite  is  irregular;  the  horse  may  stop  chewing  with 
a  wisp  of  hay  protruding  from  his  lips ;  he  seems  to  forget  that  it  is 
there.  Unnatural  positions  are  sometimes  assumed,  the  legs  being 
placed  in  clumsy  and  unusual  attitudes.  Such  horses  are  difficult  to 
drive,  as  they  do  not  respond  readily  to  the  word,  to  pressure  of  the 
bit,  or  to  the  whip.  Gradually  the  pulse  becomes  weaker,  respiration 
becomes  faster,  and  the  subject  loses  weight.  Occasionally  there  are 
periods  of  great  excitement  due  to  temporary  congestion  of  the  brain. 
At  such  times  the  horse  becomes  quite  uncontrollable.  A  horse  so 
afflicted  is  said  to  have  ''  staggers."  Xhe  outlook  for  recovery  is  not 
good. 

Treatment  is  merely  palliative.  Regular  work  or  exercise  and  nutri- 
tious food  easy  of  digestion,  with  plenty  of  fresh  water,  are  strongly 
indicated.  Intensive  feeding  should  not  be  practiced.  The  bowels 
shouhJ  l)e  kept  open  by  the  use  of  appropriate  diet  or  by  the  use  of 
small  regular  doses  of  Glauber's  salts. 

TUMORS    WITHIN    THE    CRANIUM. 

Tumors  within  the  cranial  cavity  and  the  brain  occur  not  infre- 
quently, and  give  rise  to  a  variety  of  symptoms,  imperfect  control  of 
vohmtary  movement,  local  paralysis,  epilepsy,  etc.  Among  the  more 
common  tumors  are  the  following: 

Osseous  tumors^  growing  from  the  walls  of  the  cranium,  are  not 
very  uncommon. 

Dentiffcrous  rysts,  containing  a  formation  identical  to  that  of  a 
tooth,  growing  from  the  temporal  bone,  sometimes  are  found  lying 
loose  within  the  cranium. 

Tumors  of  the  choroid  plexus,  known  as  brain  sand,  are  frequently 
met  with  on  post-mortem  examinations,  but  seldom  give  rise  to  any 
appreciable  symptoms  during  life.  They  are  found  in  horses  at  all 
ages,  and  are  of  slow  development.  They  are  found  in  one  or  both 
of  the  lateral  ventricles,  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  the  choroid  plexus. 

Melanotic  tumors  have  Ix^en  found  in  the  brain  and  meninges  in 
the  form  of  small,  black  nodules  in  gray  horses,  and  in  one  instance 
are  believed  to  have  induced  the  condition  known  as  stringhalt. 

Fibrous  tumors  may  develop  within  or  from  the  meningeal  struc- 
tures of  the  brain. 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BRAIN.  205 

GUowMtous  tumor  is  a  variety  of  sarcoma  very  rarely  found  in  the 
structure  of  the  cerebellum. 

Treatment  for  tumors  of  the  brain  is  impossible. 

SPASMS,  OR  CRAMPS. 

Causes. — Spasm  is  a  marked  symptom  in  many  diseases  of  the  brain 
and  of  the  spinal  cord.  Spasms  may  result  from  irritation  of  the 
motor  nerves  as  conductors,  or  may  result  from  irritation  of  any 
part  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system,  and  they  usually  indicate 
an  excessive  action  of  the  reflex  motor  centers.  Spasms  may  be 
induced  by  various  medicinal  agents  given  in  poisonous  doses,  or  by 
effete  materials  in  the  circulation,  such  as  nux  vomica  or  its  alkaloid 
strychnia,  lead  preparations,  or  an  excess  of  the  urea  products  in  the 
circulation,  etc.  Spasms  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  Tonio 
spasm^  when  the  cramp  is  continuous  or  results  in  persistent  rigidity, 
as  in  tetanus;  clonic  spasm^  Avhen  the  cramping  is  of  short  duration, 
or  is  alternated  with  relaxations.  Spasms  may  affect  involuntary 
as  well  as  the  voluntary  muscles,  the  muscles  of  the  glottis,  intestines, 
and  even  the  heart.     They  are  always  sudden  in  their  development. 

Spasm  of  the  glottis. — This  is  manifested  by  a  strangling  respira- 
tion ;  a  wheezing  noise  is  produced  in  the  act  of  inspiration ;  extreme 
anxiety  and  suffering  for  want  of  air.  The  head  is  extended,  the 
body  profusely  perspiring;  pulse  very  rapid;  soon  great  exhaustion 
becomes  manifest;  the  mucous  membranes  become  turgid  and  very 
dark  colored,  and  the  animal  thus  may  suffocate  in  a  short  time. 

/Spasms  of  the  intestines. —  (See  "  Cramp  colic,"  p.  58.) 

Spasms  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder. — This  may  be  due  to  spinal  irri- 
tation or  a  reflex  from  intestinal  irritation,  and  is  manifested  by  fre- 
quent but  ineffectual  attempts  to  urinate. 

Spasm  of  the  diaphragm,  or  thumps. — Spasmodic  contraction  of 
the  diaphragm,  the  principal  muscle  used  in  respiration,  is  generally 
occasioned  by  extreme  and  prolonged  speeding  on  the  race  track  or 
road.  The  severe  strain  thus  put  upon  this  muscle  finally  induces 
irritation  of  the  nerv^es  controlling  it,  and  the  contractions  become 
very  forcible  and  violent,  giving  the  jerking  character  known  among 
horsemen  as  "  thumps."  This  condition  may  be  distinguished  from 
violent  beating  of  the  heart  by  feeling  the  pulse  beat  at  the  angle  of 
the  jaw,  and  at  the  same  time  watching  the  jerking  movement  of  the 
body,  when  it  will  be  discovered  that  the  two  bear  no  relation  to  each 
other.     (See  "  Palpitation  of  the  heart,"  p.  236.) 

Spasm  of  the  thigh,  or  cramp  of  a  hind  limb. — This  is  frequently 
witnessed  in  horses  that  stand  on  sloping  plank  floors — ^generally  in 
cold  weather — or  it  may  come  on  soon  after  severe  exercise.  It  is 
probably  due.  to  an  irritation  of  the  nerves  of  the  thigh.  In  cramps 
of  the  hind  leg  the  limb  becomes  perfectly  rigid,  and  attempts  to  flex 


206  DISEASES   OP   THE  HORSE. 

the  leg  are  unsuccessful ;  the  animal  stands  on  the  affected  limb,  but 
is  unable  to  move  it;  it  is  unnaturally  cold;  it  does  not,  however, 
appear  to  cause  much  suffering  unless  attempts  are  made  to  change 
position.  This  cramp  may  be  of  short  duration — a  few  minutes — or 
it  may  persist  for  several  days.  This  condition  is  often  taken  for  a 
dislocation  of  the  stifle  joint.  In  the  latter  the  foot  is  extended  back- 
ward, and  the  horse  is  unable  to  advance  it,  but  drags  the  limb  after 
him.  An  examination  of  the  joint  also  reveals  a  change  in  form. 
Spasms  may  affect  the  eyelids,  by  closure  or  by  retraction.  Spasm  of 
the  stemo-maxillaris  muscle  has  been  witnessed,  and  the  animal  was 
unable  to  close  the  jaws  until  the  muscle  became  relaxed. 

Treatment  of  spasms. — An  anodyne  liniment,  composed  of  chloro- 
form 1  part  and  soap  liniment  4  parts,  applied  to  cramped  muscles 
will  usually  cause  relaxation.  This  may  be  used  where  single  exter- 
nal muscles  are  affected.  In  spasms  of  the  glottis,  inhalation  of  sul- 
phuric ether  will  give  quick  relief.  In  spasm  of  the  diaphragm,  rest 
and  the  administration  of  half  an  ounce  of  chloroform  in  3  ounces  of 
whisky,  with  a  pint  of  water  added,  will  generally  suffice  to  bring 
relief,  or  if  this  fails  give  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  by  hypo- 
dermic injection.  If  spasms  result  from  organic  disease  of  the  nerv- 
ous system,  the  latter  should  receive  such  treatment  as  its  character 
demands.  In  cramp  of  the  leg  compulsory  movement  usually  causes 
relaxation  very  quickly;  therefore  the  animal  should  be  led  out  of 
the  stable  and  be  forced  to  run  or  trot.  Sudden  nervous  excitement 
caused  by  a  crack  of  the  whip  or  smart  blow,  will  often  bring  about 
immediate  relief.  Should  this  fail,  the  anodyne  liniment  may  be 
used  along  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  and  chloroform,  ether,  or  lauda- 
num given  internally.  An  ounce  of  the  chloral  hydrate  will  cer- 
tainly relieve  the  spasm  when  given  internally,  but  the  cramp  may 
return  soon  after  the  effect  has  passed  off,  which  in  many  cases  it 
does  very  quickly. 

Convulsions. — Although  there  is  no  disease  of  the  nervous  system 
which  can  be  properly  termed  convulsive,  or  justify  the  use  of  the 
word  convulsion  to  indicate  any  particular  disease,  yet  it  is  often 
such  a  prominent  symptom  that  a  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place. 
General,  irregular  muscular  contractions  of  various  parts  of  the  body, 
with  unconsciousness,  characterize  what  we  regard  as  convulsions, 
and  like  ordinary  spasms  are  dependent  upon  some  disease  or  irrita- 
tion of  the  nervous  structures,  chiefly  of  the  brain.  No  treatment  is 
required;  in  fact,  a  general  convulsion  must  neceasarily  be  self- 
limited  in  its  duration.  Suspending,  as  it  does,  respiratory  move- 
ments, checking  the  oxygenation  and  decarbonization  of  the  blood, 
the  rapid  accumulation  of  carbonic-acid  gas  in  the  blood  and  the 
exclusion  of  oxygen  quickly  puts  the  blood  in  a  condition  to  produce 
the  most  reliable  and  speedy  sedative  effect  upon  the  nerve  excitabil- 


DISEASES    OF    THE   BRAIN.  207 

ity  that  could  be  found,  and  consequently  furnishes  its  own  remedy 
so  far  as  the  continuance  of  the  convulsive  paroxysm  is  concerned. 
Whatever  treatment  is  instituted  must  be  directed  toward  a  removal 
of  the  cause  of  the  convulsive  paroxysm. 

CHOREA,  OR   ST.  VITUS   DANCE. 

Chorea  is  characterized  by  involuntary  contractions  of  voluntary 
muscles.  This  disease  is  an  obscure  disorder,  which  may  be  due  to 
pressure  upon  a  nerve,  cerebral,  or  spinal  sclerosis,  small  aneurisms 
in  the  brain,  etc.  Choreic  symptoms  have  been  produced  by  injecting 
granules  of  starch  into  the  arteries  entering  the  brain.  Epilepsy  and 
other  forms  of  convulsions  simulate  chorea  in  appearance. 

Stringhalt  is  by  some  termed  chorea.  This  is  manifested  by  a  sud- 
den jerking  up  of  one  or  both  hind  legs  when  the  animal  is  walking. 
This  symptom  may  be  very  slight  in  some  horses,  but  has  a  tendency 
to  increase  with  the  age  of  the  animal.  In  some  the  catching  up  of 
the  affected  leg  is  very  violent,  and  when  it  is  lowered  to  the  ground 
the  motion  is  equally  sudden  and  forcible,  striking  the  foot  to  the 
ground  like  a  pile  driver.  Very  rarely  chorea  may  be  found  to  affect 
one  of  the  fore  legs,  or  the  muscles  of  one  side  of  the  neck  or  the 
upper  part  of  the  neck.  Involuntary  jerking  of  the  muscles  of  the 
hip  or  thigh  is  seen  occasionally,  and  is  termed  "  shivering "  by 
horsemen. 

Chorea  is  often  associated  with  a  nervous  disposition,  and  is  not  so 
frequent  in  animals  with  a  sluggish  temperament.  The  involuntary 
muscular  contractions  cause  no  pain,  and  do  not  appear  to  produce 
much  exhaustion  of  the  affected  muscles,  although  the  jerking  may  be 
regular  and  persistent  w^henever  the  animal  is  in  motion. 

Treatment. — In  a  few  cases,  early  in  the  appearance  of  this  affec- 
tion, general  nerve  tonics  may  be  of  benefit,  viz,  iodide  of  iron,  1 
dram ;  pulverized  nux  vomica,  1  dram ;  pulverized  Scutellaria,  1  ounce. 
]\Iix  and  give  in  the  feed  once  a  day  for  two  weeks.  Arsenic  in  the 
form  of  Fowler's  solution  is  often  beneficial.  If  the  cause  is  con- 
nected with  organic  brain  lesions,  treatment  is  usually  unsuccessful. 

EPILEPSY,  OR  FALLING   FITS. 

The  cause  of  epilepsy  is  seldom  traceable  to  any  special  brain  lesions. 
In  a  few  cases  it  accompanies  disease  of  the  pituitary  body,  which  is 
located  in  the  under  surface  of  the  brain.  Softening  of  the  brain 
may  give  rise  to  this  affection.  Attacks  may  occur  only  once  or  twice 
a  year  or  they  may  be  of  frequent  recurrence. 

Symptoms. — No  premonitory  symptoms  precede  an  epileptic  jfit. 
The  animal  suddenly  staggers;  the  muscles  become  cramped;  the 
jaws  may  be  spasmodically  opened  and  closed,  and  the  tongue  be- 


208  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

come  lacerated  between  the  teeth;  he  foams  at  the  mouth  and  falls 
down  in  a  spasm.  The  urine  flows  away  involuntarily,  and  the 
breathing  may  be  temporarily  arrested.  The  paroxysm  soon  passes 
off,  and  the  animal  gets  on  his  feet  in  a  few  minutes  after  the  return 
of  consciousness. 

Treatment. — Dashing  cold  water  on  the  head  during  the  paroxysm. 
After  the  recovery,  1  dram  of  oxide  of  zinc  may  be  given  in  his  feed 
twice  a  day  for  several  weeks,  or  benefit  may  be  derived  from  the 
tonic  prescribed  for  chorea. 

PARALYSI8,   OR   PALSY. 

Paralysis  is  a  weakness  or  cessation  of  the  muscular  contraction, 
by  diminution  of  loss  of  the  conducting  power  or  stimulation  of  the 
motor  nerves.  Paralytic  affections  are  of  two  kinds,  the  complete  and 
the  incomplete.  The  former  includes  those  in  which  both  motion  and 
sensibility  are  affected ;  the  latter  those  in  which  only  one  or  the  other 
is  lost  or  diminished.  Paralysis  may  be  general  or  partial.  The 
latter  is  divided  into  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia.  AVhen  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  body  is  affected,  as  the  face,  a  limb,  the  tail,  it  is  desig- 
nated by  the  term  local  paralysis.  "When  the  irritation  extends  from 
the  periphery  of  the  center  it  is  termed  reflex  paralysis. 

Causes. — They  are  very  varied.  Most  of  the  acute  affections  of  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  may  lead  to  paralysis.  Injuries,  tumors,  disease 
of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  brain,  etc.,  all  have  a  tendency  to  produce 
suspension  of  the  conducting  motive  power  to  the  muscular  structures. 
Pressure  upon,  or  the  severing  of,  a  nerve  causes  a  paralysis  of  the 
parts  to  which  such  a  nerve  is  distributed.  Apoplexy  may  be  termed 
a  general  paralysis,  and  in  nonfatal  attacks  is  a  frequent  cause  of  the 
various  forms  of  palsy. 

General  paralysis. — This  can  not  take  place  without  producing 
immediate  death.  The  term  is,  however,  usually  applied  to  paralysis 
of  the  four  extremities,  whether  any  other  portions  of  the  body  are 
involved  or  not.  This  form  of  palsy  is  due  to  compression  of  the 
brain  by  congestion  of  its  vessels,  large  clot  formation  in  apoplexy, 
concussion,  or  shock,  or  any  disease  in  which  the  whole  brain  structure 
is  involved  in  functional  disturbance. 

Hemiplegia.,  or  paralynin  of  one  side,  or  half,  of  the  body. — Hemi- 
plegia is  frequently  the  result  of  a  tumor  in  the  lateral  ventricles  of 
the  brain,  softening  of  one  hemisphere  of  the  cerebrum,  pressure  from 
extravasated  bloo<l,  fracture  of  the  cranium,  or  it  may  Ijc  due  to  poi- 
sons in  the  blood  or  to  reflex  origin.  ANlien  hemiplegia  is  due  to  or 
the  result  of  a  prior  disease  of  the  brain,  es|>ecially  of  an  inflamma- 
tory character,  it  is  seldom  complete;  it  may  affect  only  one  limb  and 
one  side  of  the  head,  neck,  or  muscles  along  the  back,  and  may  pass  off 
in  a  few  days  after  the  disappearance  of  all  the  other  evidences  of  the 


PABALYSIS.  209 

primary  affection.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  hemiplegia 
arises  from  emboli  obstructing  one  or  more  blood  vessels  of  the  brain, 
or  the  rupture  of  some  vessel  the  wall  of  which  had  become  weakened 
by  degeneration  and  the  extravasation  of  blood.  Sensibility  in  most 
cases  is  not  impaired,  but  in  some  there  is  a  loss  of  sensibility  as  well 
as  of  motion.  In  some  cases  the  bladder  and  rectum  are  involved  in 
the  paralysis. 

Symptoms. — In  hemiplegia  the  attack  may  be  very  sudden,  and  the 
animal  fall  down  powerless  to  move  one  side  of  the  body,  one  side  of 
the  lips  will  be  relaxed ;  the  tongue  may  hang  out  on  one  side  of  the 
mouth ;  the  tail  curved  around  sideways ;  an  inability  to  swallow  food 
or  water  may  be  present,  and  often  the  urine  dribbles  away  as  fast  as 
it  collects  in  the  bladder.  Sensibility  of  the  affected  side  may  be 
entirely  lost  or  only  partial;  the  limbs  may  be  cold  and  sometimes 
unnaturally  warm.  In  cases  wherein  the  attack  is  not  so  severe  the 
animal  may  be  able  to  maintain  the  standing  position,  but  will  have 
great  difficulty  in  moving  the  affected  side.  In  such  cases  the  animal 
may  recover  from  the  disability.  In  the  more  severe,  where  there  is 
complete  loss  of  power  of  movement,  recoveries  are  rare. 

Paraplegia,  or  transverse  paralysis  of  the  hind  extremities. — ^Pa- 
ralysis of  the  hind  extremities  is  usually  due  to  some  injury  or  inflam- 
mation affecting  the  spinal  cord.  (See  "  Spinal  meningitis,"  p.  211, 
and  "  Myelitis,  p.  213.)  It  may  also  be  due  to  a  reflex  irritation 
from  disease  of  peripheral  nerves,  to  spinal  irritation  or  congestion 
caused  by  blood  poisons,  etc. 

Symptoms. — When  due  to  mechanical  injury  of  the  spinal  cord, 
from  a  broken  back  or  spinal  hemorrhage,  it  is  generally  progressive 
in  its  character,  although  it  may  be  sudden.  When  it  is  caused  by 
agents  in  the  blood,  it  may  be  intermittent  or  recurrent. 

Paraplegia  is  not  difficult  to  recognize,  for  it  is  characterized  by  a 
weakness  and  imperfect  control  of  the  hind  legs  and  powerless  tail. 
The  urine  usually  dribbles  away  as  it  is  formed  and  the  manure  is 
pushed  out,  ball  by  ball,  without  any  voluntary  effort,  or  the  passages 
may  cease  entirely.  When  paraplegia  is  complete,  large  and  ill- 
conditioned  sores  soon  form  on  the  hips  and  thighs  from  chafing  and 
bruising,  which  have  a  tendency  to  quickly  weaken  the  animal  and 
necessitate  his  destruction. 

Locomotor  ataxia,  or  incoordination  of  movement. — This  is  charac- 
terized by  an  inability  to  control  properly  the  movement  of  the  limbs. 
The  animal  appears  usually  perfectly  healthy,  but  when  he  is  led  out 
of  his  stall  his  legs  have  a  wobbly  movement,  and  he  will  stumble  or 
stagger,  especially  in  turning.  "Wlien  this  is  confined  to  the  hind 
parts  it  may  be  termed  a  modified  form  of  paraplegia,  but  often  it 
may  be  seen  to  affect  nearly  all  the  voluntary  muscles  when  they  are 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 14 


''210  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

called  into  play,  and  must  be  attributed  to  some  pressure  exerted  on 
the  base  of  the  brain. 

Local  paralysis. — This  is  frequently  met  with  in  horses.  It  may 
affect  many  parts  of  the  body,  even  vital  organs,  and  it  is  very 
frequently  overlooked  in  diagnosis. 

Facial  paralysis. — This  is  a  frequent  type  of  local  paralysis,  and  is 
due  to  impairment  of  function  of  the  motor  nerve  of  the  facial 
muscles,  the  portio  dura.  The  cause  may  exist  at  the  base  of  the 
brain,  compression  along  its  course  after  it  leaves  the  medulla  oblon- 
gata, or  to  a  bruise  after  it  spreads  out  on  the  great  masseter  muscle. 

Symptoms. — A  flaccid  condition  of  the  cheek  muscles,  pendulous 
lips,  inability  to  grasp  the  food,  often  a  slow  and  weak  movement  in 
chewing,  and  difficulty  and  slowness  in  drinking. 

Laryngismus  paralyticus,  or  roaring. — This  condition  is  character- 
ized by  roaring,  and  is  usually  caused  by  an  inflamed  or  hypertro- 
phied  bronchial  gland  pressing  against  the  left  recurrent  laryngeal 
nerve,  which  interferes  with  its  conducting  power.  A  similar  con- 
dition is  occasionally  induced  in  acute  pleurisy,  where  the  recurrent 
nerve  becomes  involved  in  the  diseased  process  or  compressed  by 
plastic  exudation. 

Paralysis  of  the  rectum  and  tail. — This  is  generally  the  result  of  a 
blow  or  fall  on  the  rump,  which  causes  a  fracture  of  the  sacrum  bone 
and  injury  to  the  nerves  supplying  the  tail  and  part  of  the  rectum 
and  muscles  belonging  thereto.  This  fracture  would  not  be  suspected 
were  it  not  for  the  loss  of  motion  of  the  tail. 

Intestinal  paralysis. — Characterized  by  persistent  constipation; 
frequently  the  strongest  purgatives  have  no  effect  whatever  on  the 
movement  of  the  bowels.  In  the  absence  of  symptoms  of  indigestion, 
or  special  diseases  implicating  the  intestinal  canal,  torpor  of  the 
bowels  must  be  attributed  to  deficient  innervation.  This  condition 
may  depend  upon  brain  affections  or  be  due  to  reflex  paralysis.  Sud- 
den checks  of  perspiration  may  induce  excessive  action  of  the  bowels 
or  paralysis. 

Paralysis  of  the  bladder. — This  usually  affects  the  neck  of  the  blad- 
der, and  is  characterized  by  incontinence  of  urine;  the  urine  dribbles 
away  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted.  The  cause  may  be  of  reflex  origin, 
disease  of  the  rectum,  tumors  growing  within  the  pelvic  cavity,  injury 
to  the  spinal  cord,  etc. 

Paralysis  of  the  optic  neriw,  or  amaurosis. — A  paralysis  of  eyesight 
may  occur  very  suddenly  from  rupture  of  a  blood  vessel  in  the  brain, 
acute  local  congestion  of  the  brain,  the  administration  of  excessive 
doses  of  belladonna  or  its  alkaloid  atropia.  etc.  In  amaurosis  the 
pupil  is  dilated  to  its  full  extent,  the  eye  looks  clear,  but  does  not 
respond  to  light. 


SPINAL    MENINGITIS.  211 

Paralysis  of  hearing,  of  the  external  ear,  of  the  eyelid,  partial 
paralysis  of  the  heart  and  organs  of  respiration,  of  the  blood  vessels 
from  injury  to  the  vaso-motor  nerves  of  the  esophagus,  or  loss  of 
deglutition,  palsy  of  the  stomach,  all  may  be  manifested  when  the 
supply  of  nervous  influence  is  impaired  or  suspended. 

Treatment  for  'paralysis. — In  all  paralytic  affections  there  may  be 
anesthesia.,  or  impairment  of  sensibility,  in  addition  to  the  loss  of 
motion,  or  there  may  be  hyperesthesia.,  or  increased  sensibility,  in 
connection  with  the  loss  of  motion.  These  conditions  may  call  for 
special  treatment  in  addition  to  that  for  loss  of  motion.  Where 
hyperesthesia  is  well  marked  local  anodynes  may  be  needed  to  relieve 
suffering.  Chloroform  liniment  or  hypodermic  injections  of  from 
3  to  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  will  allay  local  pain.  If  there  is 
marked  anesthesia,  or  loss  of  sensibility,  it  may  become  necessary  to 
secure  the  animal  in  such  a  way  that  he  can  not  suffer  serious 
injury  from  accidents  which  he  can  not  avoid  or  feel.  In  the  treat- 
ment of  any  form  of  paralysis  we  must  always  refer  to  the  cause,  and 
attempt  its  removal  if  it  can  be  discovered.  In  cases  where  the 
cause  can  not  be  determined  we  have  to  rely  solely  upon  a  general 
external  and  internal  treatment.  Externally,  fly  blisters  or  strong 
irritant  liniments  may  be  applied  to  the  paralyzed  parts.  In  hemi- 
plegia they  should  be  applied  along  the  bony  part  of  the  side  of  the 
neck ;  in  paraplegia,  across  the  loins.  In  some  cases  hot-water  cloths 
will  be  beneficial.  Internally,  it  is  well  to  administer  1  dram  of 
powdered  nux  vomica  or  2  grains  of  sulphate  of  strychnia  twice  a 
day  until  twitching  of  some  of  the  voluntary  muscles  occurs;  then 
discontinue  it  for  several  days,  and  then  commence  again  with  a 
smaller  dose,  gradually  increasing  it  until  twitching  recurs.  Iodide 
of  potash  in  1  to  2  dram  doses  two  or  three  times  daily  may  be  em- 
ployed with  the  hope  that  it  will  favor  the  absorption  of  the  clot  or 
obstruction  to  the  nervous  current.  In  some  cases  Fowler's  solution 
of  arsenic  in  teaspoonful  doses  twice  a  day  in  the  drinking  water 
proves  beneficial.  Occasionally  benefit  may  be  derived  from  the 
application  of  the  electric  current,  especially  in  cases  of  roaring, 
facial  paralysis,  paralysis  of  the  eyelid,  etc.  Nutritious  but  not 
too  bulky  food,  good  ventilation,  clean  stabling,  moderate  exercise 
if  the  animal  is  capable  of  taking  it,  good  grooming,  etc.,  should 
be  observed  in  all  cases. 

SPINAIi  MENINGITIS,  OR  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  MEMBRANES  ENVELOPING 

THE  SPINAL  CORD. 

Causes. — This  may  be  induced  by  the  irritant  properties  of  blood 
poisons,  exhaustion  and  exposure,  spinal  concussion,  all  forms  of 
injury  to  the  spine,  tumors,  caries  of  the  vertebrne,  rheumatism,  etc. 

Symptoms. — A  chill  may  be  the  precursor,  a  rise  in  temperature,  or 


212  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

a  general  weakness  and  shifting  of  the  legs.  Soon  a  painful,  convul- 
sive twitching  of  the  muscles  sets  in,  followed  by  muscular  rigidity 
along  the  spine,  in  which  condition  the  animal  will  move  very  stiffly 
and  evince  great  pain  in  turning.  Evidences  of  paralysis  or  para- 
plegia develop,  retention  or  incontinence  of  urine,  and  oftentimes 
sexual  excitement  is  present.  •  The  presence  of  marked  fever  at  the 
beginning  of  the  attack,  associated  with  spinal  symptoms,  should  lead 
us  to  suspect  spinal  meningitis  or  myelitis.  These  two  conditions 
usually  appear  together,  or  myelitis  follows  inflammation  of  the 
meninges  so  closely  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  separate  the  two; 
practically  it  does  not  matter  much,  for  the  treatment  will  be  about 
the  same  in  both  cases.  Spinal  meningitis  generally  becomes  chronic, 
and  is  then  marked  principally  by  paralysis  of  that  portion,  or  parts 
of  it,  posterior  to  the  seat  of  the  disease. 

Pathology. — In  spinal  meningitis  we  will  find  essentially  the  same 
condition  as  in  cerebral  meningitis;  there  will  be  an  effusion  of  serum 
between  the  membranes,  and  often  a  plastic  exudation  firmly  adherent 
to  the  -pia  mater  serves  to  maintain  a  state  of  paralysis  for  a  long  time 
after  the  acute  symptoms  have  disappeared  by  compressing  the  cord. 
Finally,  atrophy,  softening,  and  even  abscess  may  develop  within  the 
cord.     Unlike  in  man,  it  is  usually  found  localized  in  horses. 

Treatment. — Bags  filled  with  ice  should  be  applied  along  the  spine, 
to  be  followed  later  on  by  strong  blisters.  The  fever  should  be  con- 
trolled as  early  as  possible  by  giving  20  drops  of  Norwood's  tincture 
of  veratrum  viride  every  hour  until  the  desired  result  is  obtained. 
One  dram  of  the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna,  to  control  pain  and  vas- 
cular excitement  of  the  spinal  cord,  may  be  given  every  five  or  six 
hours  until  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  become  pretty  well  dilated.  If  the 
pain  is  very  intense  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  should  be  injected 
hypodermically.  The  animal  must  be  kept  as  free  from  excitement 
as  possible.  If  the  urine  is  retained  in  the  bladder  it  must  be  drawn 
off  every  four  or  six  hours.  In  very  acute  attacks  the  disease  gener- 
ally proves  fatal  in  a  few  days.  If,  however,  the  animal  grows  better 
some  form  of  paralysis  is  apt  to  remain  for  a  long  time,  and  the 
treatment  will  have  to  be  directed  then  toward  a  removal  of  the  exuda- 
tive products  and  a  strengthening  of  the  system  and  stimulation  of 
the  nervous  functions.  To  induce  absorption,  iodide  of  potassa  in 
2-dram  doses  may  be  given,  dissolved  in  the  drinking  water,  twice  a 
day.  To  strengthen  the  system,  iodide  of  iron  1  dram  twice  a  day 
and  1  dram  of  nux  vomica  once  a  day  may  be  given  in  the  feed. 
Electricity  to  the  paralyzed  and  weakened  muscles  is  advisable;  the 
current  should  be  weak,  but  be  continued  for  half  an  hour  two  or 
three  times  daily.  If  the  disease  is  due  to  a  broken  back,  caries  of 
the  vertebrae,  or  some  other  irremediable  cause,  the  animal  should  be 
destroyed  at  once. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SPINAL    COED.  213 

MYELITIS,  OR   INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  SPINAL   CORD. 

This  is  a  rare  disease,  except  as  a  secondary  result  of  spinal  menin- 
gitis or  injuries  to  the  spine.  Poisoning  by  lead,  arsenic,  mercury, 
■phosphorus,  carbonic-acid  gas,  etc.,  has  been  known  to  produce  it. 
Myelitis  may  be  confined  to  a  small  spot  in  the  cord  or  may  involve 
the  whole  for  a  variable  distance.  It  may  lead  to  softening,  abscess, 
or  degeneration. 

Symptoms. — The  attack  may  begin  with  a  chill  or  convulsions ;  the 
muscles  twitch  or  become  cramped  very  early  in  the  disease,  and  the 
bladder  usually  is  affected  at  the  outset,  in  which  there  may  be  either 
retention  or  incontinence  of  urine.  These  conditions  are  followed  by 
complete  or  partial  paralysis  of  the  muscles  posterior  to  the  locality  of 
the  inflamed  cord,  and  the  muscles  begin  to  waste  away  rapidly.  The 
paralyzed  limb  becomes  cold  and  dry,  due  to  the  suspension  of  proper 
circulation;  the  joints  may  swell  and  become  edematous;  vesicular 
eruptions  appear  on  the  skin;  and  frequently  gangrenous  sloughs 
form  on  the  paralyzed  parts.  It  is  exceedingly  seldom  that  recovery 
takes  place.  In  a  few  instances  it  may  assume  a  chronic  type,  when 
all  the  symptoms  become  mitigated,  and  thus  continue  for  some  time, 
until  septicemia,  pyemia,  or  exhaustion  causes  death. 

Pathology. — The  inflammation  may  involve  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  the  cord,  but  generally  it  is  more  intense  in  some  places  than  others ; 
when  due  to  mechanical  injury,  the  inflammation  may  remain  con- 
fined to  a  small  section.  The  cord  is  swollen  and  congested,  reddened, 
often  softened  and  infiltrated  with  pus  cells,  and  the  nerve  elements 
are  degenerated. 

Treatment. — Similar  to  that  of  spinal  meningitis. 

SPINAL   CONGESTION. 

This  condition  consists  in  an  excess  of  blood.  As  the  blood  vessels 
of  the  pia  mater  are  the  principal  source  of  supply  to  the  spinal  cord, 
peremia  of  the  cord  and  of  the  meninges  usually  go  together.  The 
symptoms  are,  therefore,  closely  allied  to  those  of  spinal  meningitis 
and  congestion.  When  the  pia  mater  is  diseased,  the  spinal  cord  is 
almost  invariably  affected  also. 

Cause. — Sudden  checking  of  the  perspiration,  violent  exercise, 
blows,  and  falls. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  may  vary  somewhat  with  each  case, 
and  closely  resemble  the  first  symptoms  of  spinal  meningitis,  spinal 
tumors,  and  myelitis.  First,- some  disturbance  in  movement,  lower- 
ing of  the  temperature,  and  partial  loss  of  sensibility  posterior  to  the 
seat  of  the  congestion.  If  in  the  cervical  region,  it  may  cause  inter- 
ference in  breathing  and  the  action  of  the  heart.  When  in  the  region 
of  the  loins,  there  may  be  loss  of  control  of  the  bladder.     Wlien  the 


214  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

congestion  is  sufficient  to  produce  compression  of  the  cord,  paraplegia 
may  be  complete.     Usually   fever,  spasms,  muscular  twitching,  or. 
muscular  rigidity  are  absent,  which  will  serve  to  distinguish  spinal 
congestion  from  spinal  meningitis. 

Treatment. — Hot-water  applications  to  the  spine,  1-dram  doses 
fluid  extract  of  belladonna  repeated  every  four  hours,  and  tincture 
of  aconite  root  20  drops  every  hour  until  the  symptoms  become  amel- 
iorated. If  no  inflammatory  products  occur,  the  animal  is  likely  to 
recover. 

SPINAIi   ANEMIA. 

This  may  be  caused  by  extreme  cold,  exhausting  diseases,  spinal 
embolism  or  plugging  of  a  spinal  blood  vessel,  an  interference  with 
the  circulation  through  the  abdominal  aorta,  from  compression, 
thrombosis,  or  aneurism  of  that  vessel;  the  spinal  vessels  may  be 
caused  to  contract  through  vaso-motor  influence,  a  result  of  periph- 
eral irritation  of  some  nerve. 

Symptoms. — Spinal  anemia  causes  paralysis  of  the  muscles  used  in 
extending  the  limbs.  When  the  bladder  is  affected,  it  precedes  the 
weakness  of  motion,  while  in  spinal  congestion  it  follows,  and  in- 
creased sensibility,  in  place  of  diminished  sensibility,  as  in  spinal  con- 
gestion, is  observed.     Pressure  along  the  spine  causes  excessive  pain. 

Treatment. — If  the  exciting  cause  can  be  removed,  the  animal  re- 
covers ;  if  this  fails,  the  spinal  cord  may  imdergo  softening. 

SPINAL.   COMPRESSION. 

When  caused  by  tumors  or  otherwise,  when  pressure  is  slight,  it 
produces  a  paralysis  of  the  muscles  used  in  extending  a  limb  and  con- 
traction of  those  which  flex  it.  When  compression  is  great  it  causes 
complete  loss  of  sensibility  and  motion  posterior  to  the  compressed 
part  of  the  cord. 

Compression  of  a  lateral  half  of  the  cord  produces  motor  paralysis, 
disturbance  of  the  circulation,  and  difficulty  of  movement,  an  in- 
creased sensibility  on  the  side  corresponding  to  the  compressed  sec- 
tion, and  a  diminished  sensibility  and  some  paralysis  on  the  opposite 
side. 

Treatment. — When  it  occurs  as  a  sequence  of  a  preceding  inflam- 
matory disease,  iodide  of  pK)tassa  and  general  tonics  are  indicated. 
"SMien  due  to  tumors  growing  within  the  spinal  canal,  or  to  pressure 
from  displaced  bone,  no  form  of  treatment  will  result  in  any  benefit. 

8PINAI.   HEMORRHAGE. 

This  may  occur  from  changes  in  the  wall  of  the  blood  vessels,  in 
connection  with  tumors,  acute  myelitis,  traumatic  injuries,  etc.  The 
blood  may  escape  through  the  pia  mater  into  the  subarachnoid  cavity, 
and  large  clots  be  formed. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SPINAL    CORD.  215 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  seat 
and  extent  of  the  hemorrhage,  as  they  are  principally  due  to  the  com- 
pression of  the  cord.  A  large  clot  may  produce  sudden  paraplegia, 
accompanied  by  severe  pain  along  the  spine;  usually,  however,  the 
paralysis  of  both  motion  and  sensation  is  not  very  marked  at  first; 
on  the  second  or  third  day  fever  is  apt  to  appear,  and  increased  or 
diminished  sensibility  along  the  spine  posterior  to  the  seat  of  the  clot. 
When  the  bladder  and  rectum  are  involved  in  the  symptoms  it  indi- 
cates that  the  spinal  cord  is  compressed. 

Treatment. — In  the  occurrence  of  injuries  to  the  back  of  a  horse, 
whenever  there  is  any  evidence  of  paralysis,  it  is  always  advisable  to 
apply  bags  of  ice  along  the  spine  to  check  or  prevent  hemorrhage  or 
congestion,  and  2  drams  of  the  fluid  extract  of  ergot  and  20  drops  of 
tincture  of  digitalis  may  be  given  every  hour  until  three  doses  have 
been  taken.  Subsequently  tincture  of  belladonna  in  half-ounce  doses 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day.  If  there  is  much  pain,  5  grains  of 
sulphate  of  morphia,  injected  under  the  skin,  will  afford  relief  and 
lessen  the  excitability  of  the  animal.  In  all  cases  the  animal  should 
be  kept  perfectly  quiet. 

SPINAL    CONCUSSION. 

This  is  rarely  observed  in  the  horse,  and  unless  it  is  sufficiently 
severe  to  produce  well-marked  symptoms  it  would  not  be  suspected. 
It  may  occur  in  saddle  horses  from  jumping,  or  it  may  be  produced 
by  falling  over  an  embankment,  or  a  violent  fall  upon  the  haunches 
may  produce  it.  Concussion  may  be  followed  by  partial  paralysis  or 
spinal  liemorrhage ;  generally,  however,  it  is  confined  to  a  jarring  and 
some  disturbance  of  the  nerve  elements  of  the  cord,  and  the  paralytic 
effect  which  ensues  soon  passes  off.  Treatment  consists  in  rest  until 
the  animal  has  completely  recovered  from  the  shock.  If  secondary 
effects  follow  from  hemorrhage  or  compression,  they  have  to  be 
treated  as  heretofore  directed. 

SPINAL   TUMORS. 

Within  the  substance  of  the  cord  glioma  or  the  mixed  gliosarco- 
mata  are  found  to  be  the  most  frequent,  tumors  may  form  from  the 
meninges  and  the  vertebrae,  being  of  a  fibrous  or  bony  nature,  and 
affect  the  spinal  cord  indirectly  by  compression.  In  the  meninges  we 
may  find  glioma,  cancers,  and  psammoma,  fibromata ;  and  aneurisms 
of  the  spinal  arteries  have  been  discovered  in  the  spinal  canal. 

Symptoms. — ^Tumors  of  the  spinal  canal  cause  symptoms  of  spinal 
irritation  or  compression  of  the  cord.  The  gradual  and  slow  develop- 
ment of  symptoms  of  paralysis  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs  or  certain 
muscles  may  lead  to  a  suspicion  of  spinal  tumors.  The  paralysis 
induced  is  progressive,  but  not  usually  marked  with  atrophy  of  the 


216  DISEASES   OP   THE   H0B8E. 

muscles  or  increased  sensibility  along  the  spine.  When  the  tumor  is 
within  the  spinal  cord  itself  all  the  symptoms  of  myelitis  may  be 
present. 

Treatment. — General  tonics  and  1-dram  doses  of  nux  vomica  may 
be  given;  iodide  of  iron  or  iodide  of  potassa  in  1-dram  doses,  three 
times  a  day  in  feed,  may,  in  a  very  few  cases,  give  some  temporary 
benefit.    Usually  the  disease  progresses  steadily  until  it  proves  fatal. 

NEURITIS,   OR   INFLAMMATION    OF   A    NERVE. 

This  is  caused  by  a  bruise  or  wound  of  a  nerve  or  by  strangulation 
in  a  ligature  when  the  nerve  is  included  in  the  ligation  of  an  artery. 
The  changes  in  an  inflamed  nerve  are  an  enlargement,  reddening  of 
the  nerve  sheath,  spots  of  extravasated  blood,  and  sometimes  an  infil- 
tration of  serum  mixed  with  pus. 

Symptoms. — Acute  pain  of  the  parts  supplied  by  the  nerve  and 
absence  of  swelling  or  increased  heat  of  the  part. 

Treatment. — Hypodermic  injections  of  from  3  to  5  grains  of  mor- 
phia to  relieve  pain,  hot  fomentations,  and  rest.  If  it  is  due  to  an 
inclusion  of  a  ligature,  the  nerve  should  be  divided  above  and  below 
the  ligature. 

NEUROMA,   OR   TUMOR   OF   A    NERVE. 

Neuroma  may  be  from  enlargement  of  the  end  of  a  divided  nerve 
or  due  to  fibrous  degeneration  of  a  nerve  which  has  been  bruised  or 
wounded.  Its  most  frequent  occurrence  is  found  after  the  operation 
of  neurotomy  for  foot  lameness,  and  it  may  appear  after  the  lapse  of 
months  or  even  years.  Neuroma  usually  develops  within  the  sheath 
of  the  nerve  with  or  without  implicating  the  nerve  fibers.  It  is  oval, 
running  lengthwise  with  the  direction  of  the  nerve. 

Symptoms. — Pain  of  the  affected  limb  or  part  is  manifested,  more 
especially  after  resting  a  while  and  when  pressure  is  made  upon  the 
tumor  it  causes  extreme  suffering. 

Treatment. — Excision  of  the  tumor,  including  part  of  the  nerve 
above  and  below,  and  then  treat  it  like  any  other  simple  wound, 

INJURIES   TO    NERVES. 

These  may  consist  in  wounding,  bruising,  laceration,  stretching, 
compression,  etc.  The  symptoms  which  are  produced  will  depend 
upon  the  extent,  seat,  and  character  of  the  injury.  Recovery  may 
quickly  take  place,  or  it  may  lead  to  neuritis,  neuroma,  or  spinal  or 
cerebral  irritation,  which  may  rasult  in  tetanus,  paralysis,  and  other 
serious  derangements.  In  all  diseases,  whether  produced  by  some 
form  of  external  violence  or  intrinsic  causes,  the  nerves  are  necessa- 
rily involved,  and  sometimes  it  is  to  a  primary  injury  of  them  that  the 
principal  fault  in  movement  or  change  of  nutrition  of  a  part  is  due. 


FORAGE   POISONING.  217 

It  is  often  difficult  or  impossible  to  discover  that  an  injury  to  a  nerve 
has  been  inflicted,  but  whenever  this  is  possible  it  may  enable  us  to 
remedy  that  which  otherwise  would  result  in  permanent  evil.  Treat- 
ment should  consist  in  relieving  compression,  in  hot  fomentations, 
the  application  of  anodyne  liniments,  excision  of  the  injured  part, 
and  rest. 

FORAGE  POISONING,  OR  SO-CALLED   CEREBRO- SPINAL  MENINGITIS. 

This  disease  prevails  among  horses  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  most  common  in  Maryland,  Delaware,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Certain  localities  are  visited  by  it 
almost  every  year.  This  condition  consists  in  a  poisoning  and  de- 
pression of  the  nervous  system  from  eating  or  drinking  food  or  water 
containing  poison  generated  by  mold  or  bacteria.  It  has  been  shown 
to  be  due  to  eating  damaged  ensilage,  corn,  brewers'  grains,  oats,  etc., 
or  to  drinking  stagnant  pond  water  or  water  from  a  well  contami- 
nated by  surface  drainage.  Horses  at  pasture  may  contract  this  dis- 
ease when  the  growth  of  grass  is  so  profuse  that  it  mats  together  and 
the  lower  part  dies  and  ferments  or  becomes  moldy. 

In  England  a  similar  disease  has  been  called  "  grass  staggers,"  due 
to  eating  rye  grass  when  it  is  ripening  or  when  it  is  cut  and  eaten 
while  it  is  heating  and  undergoing  fermentation.  In  eastern  Penn- 
sylvania it  was  formerly  known  by  the  name  of  "  putrid  sore  throat " 
and  "  choking  distemper."  A  disease  similar  in  many  respects,  which 
is  very  prevalent  in  Virginia,  especially  along  the  eastern  border,  is 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  ''  blind  staggers,"  and  in  many  of 
the  Southern  States  this  has  been  attributed  to  the  consumption  of 
worm-eaten  com.  Horses  of  all  ages  and  mules  are  subject  to  this 
disease. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  which  typify  sporadic,  or  epidemic, 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis  in  man  are  not  witnessed  among  horses, 
namely,  excessive  pain,  high  fever,  and  early  musculai'  rigidity.  In 
the  recognition  of  the  severity  of  the  attack  we  may  divide  the  symp- 
toms into  three  grades.  In  the  most  rapidly  fatal  attacks  the  animal 
may  first  indicate  it  by  weak,  staggering  gait,  partial  or  total  inabil- 
ity to  swallow  solids  or  liquids,  impairment  of  eyesight;  twitching  of 
the  muscles,  and  slight  cramps  may  be  observed.  As  a  rule,  the  tem- 
perature is  not  elevated — indeed,  it  is  sometimes  below  normal.  This 
is  soon  followed  by  a  paralysis  of  the  whole  body,  inability  to  stand, 
delirium  in  which  the  animal  sometimes  goes  through  a  series  of  auto- 
matic movements  as  if  trotting  or  running ;  the  delirium  may  become 
very  violent  and  the  animal  in  his  unconsciousness  may  bruise  his  head 
in  his  struggles  very  seriously,  but  usually  a  deep  coma  renders  him 
quiet  until  he  expires.     Death  in  these  cases  usually  takes  place  in 


218  DISEASES    OF   THE   H0B8E. 

from  four  to  twenty-four  hours  from  the  time  the  first  symptoms  be- 
come manifest.  The  pulse  is  variable  during  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease; it  may  be  almost  imperceptible  at  times,  and  then  again  very 
rapid  and  irregular;  the  respirations  generally  are  quick  and  catch- 
ing. In  the  next  form  in  which  this  disease  may  develop  it  first  be- 
comes manifest  by  a  difficulty  in  swallowing  and  slowness  in  mastica- 
lion,  and  a  weakness  which  may  be  first  noticed  in  the  strength  of  the 
tail ;  the  animal  will  be  unable  to  switch  it  or  to  offer  resistance  when 
we  bend  it  up  over  the  croup.  The  pulse  is  often  a  little  slower  than 
normal.  There  is  no  evidence  of  pain ;  the  respirations  are  unchanged, 
and  the  temperature  little  less  than  normal ;  the  bowels  may  be  some- 
what constipated.  These  symptoms  may  remain  unchanged  for  two 
or  three  days  and  then  gradual  improvement  take  place,  or  the  power 
to  swallow  may  become  entirely  lost  and  the  weakness  and  uncertainty 
in  gait  more  and  more  perceptible;  then  sleepiness  or  coma  may  ap- 
pear; the  pulse  becomes  depressed,  slow,  and  weak,  the  breathing 
stertorous,  and  paroxysms  of  delirium  develop,  with  inability  to 
stand,  and  some  rigidity  of  the  spinal  muscles  or  partial  cramp  of 
the  neck  and  jaws.  In  such  cases  death  may  occur  in  from  six  to  ten 
days  from  the  commencement  of  the  attack.  In  many  cases  there  is 
no  evidence  of  pain,  spasm,  or  fever  at  any  time  during  the  progress 
of  the  disease,  and  finally  profound  coma  develops  and  death  fol- 
lows, painless  and  without  a  struggle. 

In  the  last  or  mildest  form  the  inability  of  voluntary  control  of  the 
limbs  becomes  but  slightly  marked,  the  power  of  swallowing  never 
entirely  lost,  and  the  animal  has  no  fever,  pain,  or  unconscious  move- 
ments. Generally  the  animal  will  begin  to  improve  about  the  fourth 
day  and  recovers. 

In  a  few  cases  the  spinal  symptoms,  manifested  by  paraplegia,  may 
be  the  most  prominent  symptoms;  in  others  they  may  be  altogether 
absent  and  the  main  symptoms  be  difficulty  in  mastication  and  swal- 
lowing; rarely  it  may  affect  one  limb  only.  In  all  cases  where  coma 
remains  absent  for  six  or  seven  days  the  animal  is  likely  to  recover. 
When  changes  toward  recovery  take  place,  the  symptoms  usually 
leave  in  the  reverse  order  in  which  they  developed,  but  local  paralysis 
may  remain  for  some  time,  rarely  persistent. 

One  attack  does  not  give  immunity,  for  it  may  recur  at  some  later 
time  and  prove  fatal.  Horses  have  been  known  to  pass  through  three 
attacks,  being  affected  for  a  week  or  longer  each  time. 

Treatment. — In  the  worst  class  of  cases  treatment  is  very  seldom 
successful,  and  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt  the  administration  of  medi- 
cine by  the  mouth,  on  account  of  the  inability  of  the  animal  to  swal- 
low. If  the  condition  of  the  animal  will  admit  of  a  drench,  give  4  to 
6  ounces  of  whisky  in  2  pints  of  milk;   the  inhalatjon  of  ammonia 


TETANUS,  OR  LOCKJAW.    >  219 

vapor  from  a  sponge  saturated  with  dilute  aqua  ammonia  may  arouse 
consciousness. 

In  the  second  class  of  cases  a  purge  should  always  be  given,  and 
the  further  treatment  recojnmended  is  to  give  strychnia  in  2-grain 
doses  twice  or  three  times  daily.  If  there  is  twitching  of  the  shoulder 
muscles  or  gnashing  of  the  teeth,  this  should  be  discontinued.  The 
strength  of  the  heart  should  be  kept  up  with  carbonate  of  ammonia 
or  whisky.  When  the  animal  is  unable  to  swallow,  one- fourth-grain 
doses  of  sulphate  of  atropia  may  be  injected  under  the  skin  every 
four,  six,  or  eight  hours,  as  the  case  may  demand.  The  atropia  is  a 
heart  stimulant,  increases  capillary  circulation,  and  quiets  pain  and 
excitability.  When  the  most  prominent  symptoms  abate  give  such 
food  as  they  may  be  able  to  eat,  and  keep  fresh,  cool  water  constantly 
before  them,  supporting  them  in  slings  if  necessary;  clean  stabling 
and  plenty  of  fresh  air  are  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Pathology. — Post-mortem  examination  reveals,  in  some  cases,  more 
or  less  congestion  of  the  blood  vessels  at  the  base  of  the  brain  and 
effusion  in  the  ventricles  and  in  the  subarachnoid  space,  both  in  the 
cranial  and  the  spinal  cavities.  The  brain  and  cord  appear  softened 
in  some  cases  where  the  greatest  evidence  of  inflammatory  action 
existed.  In  other  cases  the  post-mortem  examination  is  entirely 
negative,  no  gross  lesions  being  visible. 

Hygienic  measures  needful. — Whenever  this  disease  appears  in  a 
stable  all  the  animals  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  possible.  They 
should  be  provided  with  clean,  well-ventilated,  and  well-drained 
stables,  and  each  animal  should  receive  a  laxative  and  be  fed  food 
and  given  water  from  a  new,  clean  source.  The  abandoned  stable 
should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  wastfe  matters,  receive  a  coat 
of  whitewash  containing  4  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  the  gallon  of 
water,  and  should  have  time  to  dry  thoroughly  before  the  horses  are 
replaced.  A  complete  change  of  food  is  of  the  very  greatest  im- 
portance, on  account  of  the  belief  that  the  cause  resides  in  diseased 
grain,  hay,  and  grass. 

TETANUS,  OR  LOCKJAW. 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  spasms  affecting  the  muscles  of 
the  face,  neck,  body,  and  limbs,  and  of  all  the  muscles  supplied  by 
the  cerebro-spinal  nerves.  The  spasms  or  muscular  contractions  are 
rigid  and  persistent,  yet  mixed  with  occasional  more  intense  con- 
tractions of  convulsive  violence. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  caused  by  a  bacillus  that  is  often  found  in 
the  soil,  in  manure  and  in  dust.  This  germ  grows  only  in  the  ab- 
sence of  oxygen.  It  produces  a  powerful  nerve  poison,  which  causes 
the  symptoms  of  tetanus.     The  germ  itself  multiplies  at  the  point 


220  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

where  it  is  introduced,  but  its  poison  is  absorbed,  and  is  carried  by 
the  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  thus  the  nervous  system  is 
poisoned.  Deep  wounds  infected  by  this  germ  are  more  dangerous 
than  superficial  wounds,  because  in  them,  the  germ  is  more  remote 
from  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Hence,  nail  pricks,  etc.,  are  especially 
dangerous.  In  the  majority  of  instances  the  cause  of  tetanus  can  be 
traced  to  wounds,  especially  pricks  and  wounds  of  the  feet  or  of 
tendinous  structures.  It  sometimes  follows  castration,  docking,  the 
introduction  of  setons,  inclusion  of  a  nerve  in  a  ligature,  etc.  It  may 
come  on  a  long  time  after  the  wound  is  healed — three  or  four  months. 
In  some  countries  where  tetanus  appears  to  be  enzootic  the  presump- 
tion is  that  it  is  due  to  a  specific  germ.  Horses  with  a  nervous,  ex- 
citable disposition  are  more  predisposed  than  those  of  a  more  slug- 
gish nature.  Stallions  are  more  subject  to  develop  tetanus  as  the 
result  of  wounds  than  geldings,  and  geldings  more  than  mares. 

Symptoms. — The  attacks  may  be  acute  or  subacute.  In  an  acute 
attack  the  animal  usually  dies  within  four  days.  The  first  symptoms 
which  attract  the  attention  of  the  owner  is  difficulty  in  chewing  and 
swallowing,  an  extension  of  the  head  and  protrusion  over  the  inner 
part  of  the  eye  of  the  membrana  nictitans,  or  haw.  An  examination 
of  the  mouth  will  reveal  an  inability  to  open  the  jaws  to  their  full 
extent,  and  the  endeavor  to  do  so  will  produce  great  nervous  excita- 
bility and  increased  spasm  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaw  and  neck.  The 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  along  the  spine  become  rigid  and  the  legs  are 
moved  in  a  stiflF  manner.  The  slightest  noise  or  disturbance  throws 
the  animal  into  increased  spasm  of  all  the  affected  muscles.  The  tail 
is  usually  elevated  and  held  immovable;  the  bowels  become  consti- 
pated early  in  the  attack.  The  temperature  and  pulse  are  not  much 
changed.  These  symptoms  in  the  acute  type  become  rapidly  aggra- 
vated until  all  the  muscles  are  rigid — in  a  state  of  tonic  spasm — with 
a  continuous  tremor  running  through  them;  a  cold  perspiration 
breaks  out  on  the  body;  the  breathing  becomes  painful  from  the 
spasm  of  the  muscles  used  in  respiration;  the  jaws  are  completely 
set,  ej'ebal's  retracted,  lips  drawn  tightly  over  the  teeth,  nostrils  di- 
lated, and  the  animal  presents  a  picture  of  the  most  extreme  agony 
until  death  relieves  him.  The  pulse,  which  at  first  was  not  much 
affected,  will  become  quick  and  hard,  or  small  and  thready  when  the 
spasm  affects  the  muscles  of  the  heart.  In  the  subacute  cases  the  jaws 
may  never  become  entirely  locked ;  the  nervous  excitability  and  rigid- 
ity of  the  muscles  are  not  so  great.  There  is,  however,  always  some 
stiffness  of  the  neck  or  spine  manifest  in  turning;  the  haw  is  turned 
over  the  eyeball  when  the  nose  is  elevated.  It  is  not  unconunon  for 
owners  to  continue  such  animals  at  their  work  for  several  days  after 
the  first  symptoms  have  been  observed.  All  the  symptoms  may  grad- 
ually increase  in  severity  for  a  period  of  ten  days,  and  then  gradually 


TETANUS,  OR   LOCKJAW.  221 

diminish  under  judicious  treatment,  or  they  may  reach  the  stage 
wherein  all  the  characteristics  of  acute  tetanus  become  developed.  In 
some  cases,  however,  we  find  the  muscular  cramps  almost  solely  con- 
fined to  the  head  or  face,  perhaps  involving  those  of  the  neck.  In 
such  cases  we  have  complete  trismus  (lockjaw),  and  all  the  head 
symptoms  are  acutely  developed.  On  the  contrary,  we  may  find  the 
head  almost  exempt  in  some  cases,  and  have  the  body  and  limbs  per- 
fectly rigid  and  incapable  of  movement  without  falling. 

Tetanus  may  possibly  be  confounded  with  spinal  meningitis,  but 
the  character  of  the  spasm-locked  jaw,  retraction  of  the  eyeballs,  the 
difficulty  in  swallowing  due  to  spasms  of  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx, 
and  above  all.  the  absence  of  paralysis,  should  serve  to  make  the 
distinction. 

Prevention. — Where  a  valuable  horse  has  sustained  a  wound  that  it 
is  feared  may  be  followed  by  tetanus,  it  is  well  to  administer  a  dose  of 
tetanus  antitoxin.  This  is  injected  beneath  the  skin  with  a  hypoder- 
mic syringe.  A  very  high  degree  of  protection  may  in  this  way  be 
afforded. 

Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  box  stall  without 
bedding,  as  far  away  as  possible  from  other  horses.  If  in  a  country 
district,  the  animal  should  be  put  into  an  outbuilding  or  shed,  where 
the  noise  of  other  animals  will  not  reach  him ;  if  the  place  is  moder- 
ately dark  it  is  all  the  better ;  in  fly  time  he  should  be  covered  with  a 
light  sheet.  The  attendant  must  be  very  careful  and  quiet  about  him, 
to  prevent  all  unnecessary  excitement  and  increase  of  spasm.  Teta- 
nus antitoxin  appears  to  be  useful  as  a  remedy  in  some  cases,  if  given 
in  very  large  quantities  early  in  the  disease;  otherwise  it  is  useless. 
Subcutaneous  injections  of  carbolic  acid  in  glycerin  and  water  (car- 
bolic acid  30  grains,  glycerin  and  water  each  1  ounce)  appear  to  be 
useful  in  some  cases.     Injections  should  be  given  twice  daily. 

A  cathartic,  composed  of  Barbados  aloes  6  to  8  drams,  with  which 
may  be  mixed  2  drams  of  the  solid  extract  of  belladonna,  should  be 
given  at  once.  This  is  best  given  in  a  ball  form ;  if,  however,  the  ani- 
mal is  greatly  excited  by  the  attempt  or  can  not  swallow,  the  ball  may 
be  dissolved  in  2  ounces  of  olive  oil  and  thrown  on  the  back  of  the 
tongue  with  a  syringe.  If  the  jaws  are  set,  or  nearly  so,  an  attempt 
to  administer  medicine  by  the  mouth  should  not  be  made.  In  such 
cases  one-quarter  of  a  grain  of  atropia,  with  5  grains  of  sulphate  of 
morphia,  should  be  dissolved  in  1  dram  of  pure  water  and  injected 
under  the  skin.  This  should  be  repeated  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the 
animal  continually  under  its  effect.  This  will  usually  mitigate  the 
severity  of  the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  affected  muscles  and 
lessen  sensibility  to  pain.  Good  results  may  be  obtained  sometimes 
by  the  injection  per  rectum  of  the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna  and  of 
cannabis  indica,  of  each  1  dram,  every  four  or  six  hours.     This  may 


222  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

be  diluted  with  a  quart  of  milk.  When  the  animal  is  unable  to  swal- 
low liquids,  oatmeal  gruel  and  milk  should  be  given  by  injection  per 
rectum  to  sustain  the  strength  of  the  animal.  A  pailful  of  cool  water 
should  be  constantly  before  him,  placed  high  enough  for  him  to  reach 
it  without  special  effort ;  even  if  he  can  not  drink,  the  laving  of  the 
mouth  is  refreshing.  Excellent  success  frequently  may  be  obtained 
by  clothing  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  the  neck,  and  greater  part  of 
the  body  in  woolen  blankets  kept  saturated  with  very  warm  water. 
This  treatment  should  be  continued  for  six  or  eight  hours  at  a  time. 
It  often  relaxes  the  cramped  muscles  and  gives  them  rest  and  the  ani- 
mal almost  entire  freedom  from  pain ;  but  it  should  be  used  every  day 
until  the  acute  spasms  have  permanently  subsided  in  order  to  be  of 
any  lasting  benefit. 

Recently  subcutaneous  injections  of  brain  emulsion  have  been  rec- 
ommended. It  is  thought  that  the  tetanus  toxin  will  attach  itself  to 
the  brain  cells  so  injected  and  thus  free  the  system  of  this  poison. 
When  it  is  due  to  a  wound,  the  wound  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  disinfected  with  carbolic  acid.  If  from  a  wound  which  has 
healed,  an  excision  of  the  cicatrix  may  be  beneficial.  In  all  cases  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  have  a  partial  recovery  followed  by  relapse  when 
the  animal  becomes  excited  from  any  cause. 

RABIES,    HYDROPHOBIA,   OR   MADNESS. 

This  disease  does  not  arise  spontaneously  among  horses,  but  is  the 
(result  of  a  bite  from  a  rabid  animal — generally  a  dog  or  cat.  The 
development  of  the  disease  follows  the  bite  in  from  three  weeks  to 
three  months — very  rarely  in  two  weeks.     (See  also  page  548.) 

Symptoms. — The  first  manifestation  of  the  development  of  this  dis- 
ease may  be  an  increased  excitability  and  viciousness;  very  slight 
noises  or  the  approach  of  a  person  incites  the  animal  to  kick,  strike, 
or  bite  at  any  object  near  him.  Very  often  the  horse" will  bite  his  own 
limbs  or  sides,  lacerating  the  flesh  and  tearing  the  skin.  The  eyes 
appear  staring,  bloodshot;  the  ears  are  on  the  alert  to  catch  all 
sounds;  the  head  is  held  erect.  In  some  cases  the  animal  will  con- 
tinually rub  and  bite  the  locality  of  the  wound  inflicted  by  the  rabid 
animal.  This  symptom  may  precede  all  others.  Generally  the 
bowels  become  constipated  and  he  makes  frequent  attempts  at  urina- 
tion, which  is  painful,  and  the  urine  very  dark  colored.  The  furious 
symptoms  appear  in  paroxysms;  at  other  times  the  animal  may  eat 
and  drink,  although  swallowing  appears  to  become  painful  toward 
the  latter  stage  of  the  disease,  and  may  cause  renewed  paroxysms. 
The  muscles  of  the  limbs  or  back  may  be  subject  to  intermittent 
spasms,  or  spasmodic  tremors;  finally,  the  hind  limbs  l)ecome  para- 
lyzed, breathing  very  difficult,  and  convulsions  supervene,  followed 


liEAD   POISONING.  223 

by  death.  The  pulse  and  respirations  are  increased  in  frequency 
from  the  outset  of  the  attack.  Rabies  may  possibly  be  mistaken  for 
tetanus.  In  the  latter  disease  we  find  tonic  spasms  of  the  muscles  of 
the  jaws,  or  stiflfness  of  the  neck  or  back  very  early  in  the  attack,  and 
evidence  of  viciousness  is  absent. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  the  true  nature  of  the  disease  is  ascertained 
the  animal  should  be  killed. 

Prevention. — When  a  horse  is  known  to  have  been  bitten  by  a 
rabid  animal,  immediate  cauterization  of  the  wound  with  a  red-hot 
iron  may  possibly  destroy  the  virus  before  absorption  of  it  takes  place. 

PLUMBISM,    OR    LEAD    POISONING. 

This  disease  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  may  be  due  to  habit- 
ually drinking  water  which  has  been  standing  in  leaden  conductors 
or  in  old  paint  barrels,  etc.  It  has  been  met  with  in  enzootic  form 
near  smelting  works,  where,  by  the  fumes  arising  from  such  works, 
lead  in  the  form  of  oxide,  carbonate,  or  sulphate  was  deposited  on 
the  grass  and  herbage  which  the  horses  ate. 

Symptoms. — Lead  poisoning  produces  derangement  of  the  func- 
tions of  digestion  and  locomotion,  or  it  may  affect  the  lungs  princi- 
pally. In  whatever  system  of  organs  the  lead  is  deposited  mostly 
there  will  we  have  the  symptoms  of  nervous  debility  most  manifest. 
If  in  the  lungs,  the  breathing  becomes  difficult  and  the  animal  gets 
out  of  breath  very  quickly  when  he  is  compelled  to  run.  Roaring, 
also,  is  very  frequently  a  symptom  of  lead  poisoning.  When  it 
affects  the  stomach,  the  animal  gradually  falls  away  in  flesh,  the  hair 
becomes  rough,  the  skin  tight,  and  colicky  symptoms  develop.  When 
the  deposit  is  principally  in  the  muscles,  partial  or  complete  paralysis 
gradually  develops.  When  large  quantities  of  lead  have  been  taken 
in  and  absorbed,  symptoms  resembling  epilepsy  may  result,  or  coma 
and  delirium  develop  and  prove  fatal.  In  lead  poisoning  there  is 
seldom  any  increase  in  temperature.  A  blue  line  forms  along  the 
gums  of  the  front  teeth,  and  the  breath  assumes  a  peculiarly  offensive 
odor.     Lead  can  always  be  detected  in  the  urine  by  chemical  tests. 

Treatment. — The  administration  of  2-dram  doses  of  iodide  of 
potassa  three  times  a  day.  This  will  form  iodide  of  lead  in  the  sys- 
tem, which  is  rapidly  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  If  much  muscular 
weakness  or  paralysis  is  present,  sulphate  of  iron  in  l-dram  doses 
and  strichnia  in  2-grain  doses  may  be  given  twice  a  day.  In  all  cases 
of  suspected  lead  poisoning  all  utensils  which  have  entered  into  the 
supply  of  feed  or  water  should  be  examined  for  the  presence  of 
soluble  lead.  If  it  occurs  near  lead  works,  great  care  must  be  given 
to  the  supply  of  uncontaminated  fodder,  etc. 


224  DISEASES   OP  THE   HORSE. 

UKEMIA. 

Uremic  poisoning  may  affect  the  brain  in  nephritis,  acute  albumi- 
nuria, or  when,  from  any  cause,  the  functions  of  the  kidneys  become 
impaired  or  suppressed  and  urea  (a  natural  product)  is  no  longer 
eliminated  from  these  organs,  causing  it  to  accumulate  in  the  system 
and  give  rise  to  uremic  poisoning. 

Symptoms. — Uremic  poisoning  is  usually  preceded  by  dropsy  of 
the  limbs  or  abdomen ;  a  peculiar  fetid  breath  is  often  noticed ;  then 
drowsiness,  attacks  of  diarrhea,  and  general  debility  ensue.  Sud- 
denly extreme  stupor  or  coma  develops;  the  surface  of  the  body 
becomes  cold;  the  pupils  are  insensible  to  light;  the  pulse  slow  and 
intermitting;  the  breathing  labored,  and  death  supervenes.  The 
temperature  throughout  the  disease  is  seldom  increased,  unless  the 
disease  becomes  complicated  with  acute  inflammatory  disease  of  the 
brain  or  respiratory  organs,  which  often  occur  as  a  result  of  the  urea 
in  the  circulation.  Albumen  and  tube  casts  may  frequently  be  found 
in  the  urine.     The  disease  almost  invariably  proves  fatal. 

Treatment. — This  must  be  directed  to  a  removal  of  the  cause. 

ELECTRIC    SHOCK. 

Electric  shock,  from  coming  in  contact  with  electric  wires,  is  becom- 
ing a  matter  of  rather  frequent  occurrence,  and  has  a  similar  effect 
upon  the  animal  system  as  a  shock  from  lightning.  Two  degrees  of 
electric  or  lightning  shock  may  be  observed,  one  producing  temporary 
contraction  of  muscles  and  insensibility,  from  which  recovery  is  pos- 
sible, the  other  killing  directly,  by  producing  a  condition  of  nervous 
and  general  insensibility.  In  shocks  which  are  not  immediately  fatal 
the  animal  is  usually  insensible,  the  respiration  slow,  labored,  or  gasp- 
ing, the  pulse  slow,  feeble,  and  irregular,  and  the  pupils  dilated  and 
not  sensitive,  or  they  may  be  contracted  and  sensitive.  The  tempera- 
ture is  lowered.  There  may  be  a  tendency  to  convulsions  or  spasms. 
The  predominating  symptoms  are  extreme  caraiac  and  respiratory 
depression. 

Treatment. — Sulphate  of  atropia  should  be  given  hypodermically  in 
one-quarter  grain  doses  every  hour  or  two  hours  until  the  heart  beats 
are  invigorated,  the  number  and  fullness  of  the  respirations  increased, 
and  consciousness  returns.  Stimulating  injections  per  rectum  may 
also  be  useful  in  arousing  the  circulation ;  for  this  purpose  whisky  or 
ammonia  water  may  be  used. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART,  BLOOD  VESSELS, 
AND  LYMPHATICS. 

By  M.  R.  Trumboweb,  V.  S. 

[Revised  in  1903  by  Leonard  Pearson,  B.  S.,  V,  M.  D.] 

ANATOMY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    THE    HEART    AND    BLOOD    VESSELS. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow,  muscular  organ,  situated  a  little  to  the  left  of 
the  center  of  the  chest.  Its  impulse  is  felt  on  the  left  side  on  account 
of  its  location  and  from  the  rotary  movement  of  the  organ  in  action. 
It  is  cone-shaped,  with  the  base  upward;  the  apex  points  downward, 
backward,  and  to  the  left  side.  It  extends  from  about  the  third  to 
the  sixth  ribs,  inclusive.  The  average  weight  is  about  7  to  8  pounds. 
In  horses  used  for  speed  the  heart  is  relatively  larger,  according  to 
the  weight  of  the  animal,  than  in  horses  used  for  slow  work.  It  is 
suspended  from  the  spine  by  the  large  blood  vessels,  and  held  in  posi- 
tion below  by  the  attachment  of  the  pericardium  to  the  sternum.  It 
is  inclosed  in  a  sac,  the  pericardium,  which  is  composed  of  a  dense 
fibrous  membrane  lined  by  a  delicate  serous  membrane,  which  is 
reflected  over  the  heart;  the  inner  layer  is  firmly  adherent  to  the 
heart,  the  outer  to  the  fibrous  sac,  and  there  is  an  intervening  space, 
known  as  the  pericardial  space,  in  which  a  small  amount  of  serum — a 
thin  translucent  liquid — is  present  constantly. 

The  heart  is  divided  by  a  shallow  fissure  into  a  right  and  left  side ; 
each  of  these  is  again  subdivided  by  a  transverse  partition  into  two 
compartments  which  communicate.  Thus  there  are  four  cardiac 
cavities — the  superior,  or  upper,  ones  called  the  auricles ;  the  inferior, 
or  lower,  ones  the  ventricles.  These  divisions  are  marked  on  the  out- 
side by  grooves,  which  contain  the  cardiac  blood  vessels,  and  are 
generally  filled  with  fat. 

The  right  side  of  the  heart  may  be  called  the  venous  side,  the  left 
the  arterial  side,  named  from  the  kind  of  blood  which  passes  through 
them.  The  auricles  are  thin-walled  cavities  placed  at  the  base,  and 
are  connected  with  the  great  veins — the  venae  cavoe  and  pulmonary 
veins — through  which  they  receive  blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body. 
The  auricles  communicate  with  the  ventricles  each  by  a  large  aper- 
ture, the  auriculo-vent-ncular  orifice,  which  is  furnished  with  a 
remarkable  mechanism  of  valves,  allowing  the  transmission  of  blood 
from  the  auricles  into  the  ventricles,  but  preventing  a  reverse  course. 
The  ventricles  are  thick-walled  cavities,  forming  the  more  massive 
portion  of  the  heart  toward  the  apex.  They  are  separated  by  a  par- 
tition, and  are  connected  with  the  great  arteries— the  pulmonary 
artery  and  the  aorta — by  which  they  send  blood  to  all  parts  of  the 

H.  Doc.  795,  50-2 15  225 


226  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOUSE. 

body.  At  the  mouth  of  the  aorta  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  is  an  arrangement  of  valves  m  each  case  which  prevents  the 
reflux  of  blood  into  the  ventricles.  The  auriculo-ventricular  valves 
in  the  left  side  are  composed  of  two  flaps,  hence  it  is  called  the 
bicuspid  valve;  in  the  right  side  this  valve  has  three  flaps  and  is 
called  the  tricuspid  valve.  The  flaps  which  form  these  valves  are 
connected  with  a  tendinous  ring  between  the  auricles  and  ventricles; 
and  each  flap  of  the  auriculo-ventricular  valves  is  supplied  with 
tendinous  cords,  which  are  attached  to  the  free  margin  and  under- 
surf ace,  so  as  to  keep  the  valves  tense  when  closed — a  condition  which 
is  produced  by  the  shortening  of  muscular  pillars  with  which  the 
cords  are  connected.  The  arterial  openings,  both  on  the  right  and 
on  the  left  side,  are  provided  with  three-flapped  semilunar-shaped 
valves,  to  prevent  the  regurgitation  of  blood  when  the  ventricles 
contract.  The  veins  emptying  into  the  auricles  are  not  capable  of 
closure,  but  the  posterior  vena  cava  has  an  imperfect  valve  at  its 
aperture. 

The  inner  surface  of  the  heart  is  lined  by  a  serous  membrane,  the 
endocardium,  which  is  smooth  and  firmly  adherent  to  the  muscular 
structure  of  the  heart.  This  membrane  is  continuous  with  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  it  enters  into  the  formation  of 
the  valves. 

The  circulation  through  the  heart  is  as  follows:  The  venous  blood 
is  carried  into  the  right  auricle  by  the  anterior  and  posterior  vena; 
cava?.  It  then  passes  through  the  right  auriculo-ventricular  opening 
into  the  right  ventricle,  thence  through  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the 
lungs.  It  returns  by  the  pulmonary  veins  to  the  left  auricle,  then  is 
forced  through  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening  into  the  left  ven- 
tricle, which  propels  it  through  the  aorta  and  its  branches  into  the 
system,  the  veins  returning  it  again  to  the  heart.  The  circulation, 
therefore,  is  double,  the  pulmonary,  or  lesser,  being  performed  by  the 
right  side,  and  the  systemic,  or  greater,  by  the  loft  side. 

As  the  blood  is  forced  througli  the  heart  by  forcible  contractions  of 
its  mustnilar  walls,  it  has  the  action  of  a  force  pump,  and  gives  the 
impulse  at  each  Ix^at,  which  we  call  the  pulse — the  dilatation  of  the 
arteries  throughout  the  system.  The  contraction  of  the  auricles  is 
quickly  followed  by  that  of  the  ventricles,  and  then  a  slight  pause 
occurs;  this  takes  place  in  regular  rhythmical  order  during  health. 

The  action  of  the  heart  is  governed  and  maintained  by  the  pneumo- 
gastric  nerve  (tenth  pair  of  cranial  nerves)  ;  it  is  the  inhibitory  nerve 
of  the  heart,  and  regulates,  slows,  and  governs  its  action.  When  the 
nerve  is  cut,  the  heart-beats  increase  rapidly,  and  in  fact  the  organ 
works  without  control.  "UTien  the  nerve  is  unduly  irritated  the  hold- 
back, or  inhibitor^'  force,  is  increased,  and  the  heart  slows  up  in  the 
same  measure.     The  left  cavities  of  the  heart,  the  pulmonary  veins, 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    HEABT.  227 

and  the  aorta,  or  systemic  artery,  contain  red  or  florid  blood,  fit  to  cir- 
culate through  the  body.  The  right  cavities  of  the  heart,  with  the 
vense  cavse,  or  systemic  veins,  and  pulmonary  artery,  contain  dark 
blood,  which  must  be  transmitted  through  the  lungs  for  renovation. 

The  arteries,  commencing  in  two  great  trunks,  the  aorta  and  the 
pulmonary  artery,  undergo  division,  as  in  the  branching  of  a  tree. 
Their  branches  mostly  come  off  at  acute  angles,  and  are  commonly  of 
uniform  diameter  in  each  case,  but  successively  diminish  after  and  in 
consequence  of  division,  and  in  this  manner  gradually  merge  into  the 
capillary  system  of  blood  vessels.  As  a  general  rule,  the  combined 
area  of  the  branches  is  greater  than  that  of  the  vessels  from  which 
they  emanate,  and  hence  the  collective  capacity  of  the  arterial  system 
is  greatest  at  the  capillary  vessels.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the 
veins.  The  effect  of  the  division  of  the  arteries  is  to  make  the  blood 
move  more  slowly  along  their  branches  to  the  capillary  vessels,  and 
the  effect  of  the  union  of  the  branches  of  the  veins  is  to  accelerate  the 
speed  of  the  blood  as  it  returns  from  the  capillary  vessels  to  the 
venous  trunks. 

In  the  smaller  vessels  a  frequent  running  together,  or  anastomosis^ 
occurs.  This  admits  of  a  free  conmiunication  between  the  currents  of 
blood,  and  must  tend  to  promote  equability  of  distribution  and  of 
pressure,  and  to  obviate  the  effects  of  local  interruption.  The  arteries 
are  highly  elastic,  being  extensile  and  retractile  both  in  length  and 
breadth.  During  life  they  are  also  contractile,  being  provided  with 
muscular  tissue.  When  cut  across  they  present,  although  empty,  an 
open  orifice;  the  veins,  on  the  other  hand,  collapse. 

In  most  parts  of  the  body  the  arteries  are  inclosed  in  a  sheath 
formed  of  connective  tissue,  but  are  connected  so  loosely  that,  when 
the  vessel  is  cut  across,  its  ends  readily  retract  some  distance  within 
the  sheath.  Independently  of  this  sheath,  arteries  are  usually  de- 
scribed as  being  formed  of  three  coats,  named,  from  their  relative 
positions,  external,  middle,  and  internal.  This  applies  to  their  struc- 
ture so  far  as  it  is  discernible  by  the  naked  eye.  The  internal,  serous, 
or  tunica  intima,  is  the  thinnest,  and  is  continuous  with  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  heart.  It  is  made  up  of  two  layers — an  inner,  con- 
sisting of  a  layer  of  epithelial  scales,  and  an  outer,  transparent, 
whitish,  highly  elastic,  and  perforated.  The  middle  coat,  t>/niea 
media,  is  elastic,  dense,  and  of  a  yellow  color,  consisting  of  nonstriated 
muscular  and  elastic  fibers,  thickest  in  the  largest  arteries  and  be- 
coming thinner  in  the  smaller.  In  the  smallest  vessels  it  is  almost 
entirely  muscular.  The  external  coat,  tunica  adventitia,  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  fine  and  closely  woven  bundles  of  white  connective 
tissue,  which  chiefly  run  diagonally  or  obliquely  round  the  vessel. 
In  this  coat  the  nutrient  vessels,  the  vasa  vasorum,  forni  a  capillary 
network,  from  which  a  few  penetrate  as  far  as  the  muscular  coat. 


228  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

The  veins  differ  from  arteries  in  possessing  thinner  walls,  less 
elastic  and  muscular  tissue,  and  for  the  most  part  a  stronger  tunica 
adventitia.  They  collapse  when  cut  across  or  when  they  are  empty. 
The  majority  of  veins  are  provided  with. valves;  these  are  folds  of 
the  lining  membrane,  strengthened  by  fibrous  tissue.  They  favor  the 
course  of  the  blood  and  prevent  its  reflux.  The  nerves  which  supply 
both  the  arteries  and  the  veins  come  from  the  sympathetic  system. 
The  smaller  arteries  terminate  in  the  system  of  minute  vessels  known 
as  the  capillaries,  which  are  interposed  between  the  termination  of  the 
arteries  and  the  commencement  of  the  veins.  Their  average  diameter 
is  about  one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch. 

DISEASES  OF   THE   HEART  AND  BLOOD   VESSELS. 

In  considering  diseases  of  the  heart  we  meet  with  many  difficulties, 
depending  much  upon  the  position  which  this  organ  occupies  in  the 
animal.  The  shoulders  cover  so  much  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
chest,  and  often  in  very  heavy-muscled  horses  the  chest  walls  are  so 
thick  that  a  satisfactory  examination  of  the  heart  is  attended  with 
difficulty.  Diseases  of  the  heart  are  not  uncommon  among  horses; 
the  heart  and  its  membranes  are  frequently  involved  in  diseases  of 
the  respiratory  organs,  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  rheumatism,  influenza, 
etc.  Some  of  the  diseases  of  this  organ  are  never  suspected  by  the 
ordinary  observer  during  life,  and  are  so  difficult  to  diagnose  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  that  we  will  have  to  confine  ourselves  to  a 
general  outline,  giving  attention  to  such  symptoms  as  may  serve  to 
lead  to  a  knowledge  of  their  existence,  with  directions  for  treatment, 
care,  etc. 

Nervous  affections  often  produce  prominent  heart  symptoms  by 
causing  functional  disturbance  of  that  organ,  which,  if  removed,  will 
leave  the  heart  restored  to  perfect  vigor  and  normal  action.  Organic 
changes  involving  the  heart  or  valves,  however,  usually  grow  worse 
and  eventually  i)rove  fatal.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  that  we  arrive 
at  an  appreciation  of  the  true  nature  and  causes,  so  that  we  may  be 
able  to  form  a  true  estimate  of  the  possibilities  for  recovery  or  en- 
couragement for  medical  treatment. 

Disease  of  the  heart  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  it  is  witnessed  most 
frequently  in  young  horses,  which,  when  being  trained  for  fast  work, 
are  often  subjected  to  excessive  hardship  and  fatigue.  Nervous  or 
timid  animals  also  suffer  from  such  diseases  more  frequently  than 
those  of  a  sluggish  disposition.  Any  cause  which  induces  a  violent 
or  sudden  change  in  the  circulation  may  result  in  injury  to  the  heart. 
Symptoms  which  may  frequently  denote  disease  of  the  heart  are  diffi- 
cult breathing  or  short-windedness,  dropsies  of  the  limbs,  habitual 
coldness  of  the  extremities,  giddiness  or  fainting  attacks,  inability  to 
stand  work,  although  the  general  appearance  would  indicate  strength 
and  ability,  etc. 


■-■^    -o  t^   >: 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HEABT.  229 

INFI.AMMATORY  DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART. 

This  will  embrace  myocarditis,  endocarditis,  and  pericarditis. 

MTOCABDITIS,  OB  INFLAMMATION   OF  THE  MUSCULAK  STBUCTUBE  OF  THE   HEABT. 

The  heart  muscle  sometimes  becomes  inflamed  as  a  complication  or 
result  of  the  existence  of  general  or  febrile  and  of  infectious  diseases. 
Severe  influenza  or  infectious  pneumonia  is  not  infrequently  followed 
by  myocarditis.  By  extension  of  inflammation  of  the  endocardium 
or  pericardium  the  muscle  of  the  heart  may  become  involved.  Over- 
exertion or  especially  hard  work  continued  for  a  long  time  may  cause 
this  muscle  to  become  inflamed. 

Symftoms. — Inflammation  of  the  heart  muscle  is  shown  by  inabil- 
ity to  contract  forcibly;  this  results  in  a  rapid  but  weak,  soft  pulse 
and  irregular  heart  sounds.  The  pulse  may  be  quite  irregular  as  a 
result  of  the  irregular,  tumultuous  action  of  the  heart.  There  is 
great  general  weakness,  shortness  of  breath,  and  rapid  respiratory 
movements.  In  some  cases,  where  the  muscle  is  very  mu'ch  softened 
and  weakened,  or,  perhaps  when  an  abscess  forms  in  the  wall  of  the 
heart,  the  course  of  the  disease  is  very  rapid  and  terminates  suddenly 
from  paralysis  or  rupture  of  the  heart. 

Alterations. — The  heart  muscle  has  a  brownish  or  yellowish,  boiled 
appearance,  and  is  so  brittle  that  it  tears  easily.  There  may  be  a 
spotted  appearance  of  the  muscle  from  the  intense  changes  in  struc- 
ture in  small  areas;  these  small  areas  may  be  due  to  suppuration,  in 
which  case  they  have  the  characteristics  of  small  abscesses.  This  last 
condition  is  seen  in  pyemia  (blood  poisoning).  If  the  disease  is  of 
long  duration,  the  fibrous  tissue  in  the  wall  of  the  heart  may  increase 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  an  unnatural  hardness  of  the  wall. 

Treatment. — In  this  disease  the  nutrition  and  strength  of  the  heart 
should  be  kept  up  as  much  as  possible  with  good  food,  good  care, 
and  heart  tonics  and  stimulants.  The  horse  should  be  tempted  to  eat 
such  foods  as  he  will  take;  he  should  be  kept  in  an  airy  box  stall;  his 
legs  should  be  well  rubbed  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  them  warm 
and  bandaged  loosely  with  flannel  bandages.  Internally,  the  horse 
may  have  strychnia  in  2-grain  doses  twice  daily,  whisky  in  4-ounce 
doses  every  two  to  four  hours,  digitalis  in  the  form  of  the  tincture  in 
doses  of  1  dram  every  three  to  six  hours.  Artificial  Carlsbad  salts  in 
heaping  tablespoon ful  doses  in  the  feed  may  be  given  three  times  daily 
for  a  couple  of  weeks.  Rest  is  of  the  greatest  importance  and  should 
be  allowed  for  a  few  weeks  after  recovery  seems  to  be  complete. 

ENDOCARDITIS,    OB    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    LINING    MEMBRANE    OF    THE    HEABT, 
USUALLY   INVOLVING   THE    MUSCULAR   STRUCTURE. 

Endocarditis  frequently  occurs  as  a  complication  of  rheumatism, 
some  of  the  specific  or  zymotic  fevers,  specific  poisoning,  etc.  This 
is  a  more  frequent  disease  among  horses  than  is  generally  known, 


230  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

and  oft  on  ^ves  rise  to  symptoms  which,  at  first,  are  obscure  and 
unnoticed. 

In  influenzii  we  may  find  the  heart  becoming  involved  in  the  dis- 
ease, in  consequence  of  the  morbid  material  conveyed  through  the 
heart  in  the  blood  stream.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  affections, 
in  even  remote  portions  of  the  body,  may  be  traced  directly  to  a 
primary  endocardial  disease,  we  shall  feel  justified  in  inviting  special 
attention  to  this  disease. 

Endocarditis  may  be  acute,  subacute,  or  chronic.  In  acute  inflam- 
mation we  find  a  thickening  and  a  roughened  appearance  of  the  endo- 
cardium throughout  the  cavities  of  the  heart.  This  condition  may  be 
followed  by  a  coagulation  of  fibrin  upon  the  inflamed  surface,  which 
adheres  to  it,  and  by  attrition  soon  becomes  worked  up  into  shreddy- 
like  granular  elevations;  this  may  lead  to  a  formation  of  fibrinous 
clots  in  the  heart  and  sudden  death  early  in  the  disease,  the  second  or 
third  day. 

Subacute  endocarditis,  which  is  the  most  common  form,  may  not 
become  appreciable  for  several  days  after  its  commencement.  It  is 
characterized  by  being  confined  to  one  or  more  anatomical  divisions 
of  the  heart,  and  all  the  successive  morbid  changes  follow  each  other 
in  a  comparatively  slow  process.  Often  we  would  not  be  led  to  sus- 
pect heart  affection  were  it  not  for  the  distress  in  breathing,  which 
it  generally  occasions  when  the  animal  is  exercised,  especially  if  the 
valves  are  much  involved.  When  coagula  or  vegetations  form  upon 
the  inflamed  membrane,  either  in  minute  shreds  or  patches,  or  when 
formation  of  fibrinous  clots  occurs  in  the  cavity  affected,  some  of  these 
materials  may  be  carried  from  the  cavity  of  the  heart  by  the  blood 
current  into  remote  organs,  constituting  emboli  that  are  liable  to  sud- 
denly plug  vessels  and  thereby  interrupt  important  functions.  In 
the  great  majority  of  either  acute  or  subacute  grades  of  endocarditis, 
whatever  the  exciting  cause,  the  most  alarming  symptoms  disappear 
in  a  week  or  ten  days,  often  leaving,  however,  such  changes  in  the 
interior  lining  or  valvular  structures  as  to  cause  impairment  in  the 
circulation  for  a  much  longer  period  of  time.  These  changes  usually 
consist  of  thickening  or  induration  of  the  inflamed  structures.  But 
while  the  effects  of  the  inflammation  in  the  membrane  lining  the 
walls  of  the  ventricles  may  subside  to  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  little 
or  no  inconvenience,  or  even  wholly  disappear,  yet  after  the  valvular 
structures  have  been  involved,  causing  them  to  l)e  thicker,  less  flexible 
than  normal,  they  usually  remain,  obstructing  the  free  passage  of  the 
blood  through  the  openings  of  the  heart,  thereby  inducing  secondary 
changes,  whirh  take  place  slowly  at  first,  but  ultimately  seriously  im- 
pair the  animal's  usefulness.  What  was  but  a  slight  obstruction  to 
the  circulation  during  the  first  few  weeks  after  the  sul)sidence  of  the 
cardiac  inflammatory  attack  becomes  in  process  of  time  so  much  in- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HEART.  231 

creased  as  to  induce  increased  growth  in  the  muscular  structure  of 
the  heart,  constituting  hypertrophy  of  the  walls  of  the  ventricles, 
more  particularly  of  the  left,  with  corresponding  fullness  of  the  left 
auricle  and  pulmonary  veins,  thereby  producing  fullness  of  the  cap 
illaries  in  the  lungs,  pressure  upon  the  air  cells,  difficult  or  asth- 
matic breathing — greatly  increased  in  attempts  to  work — until  in  a 
few  months  many  of  these  cases  become  entirely  disabled  for  work. 
Sometimes,  too,  dropsical  effusions  in  the  limbs  or  into  the  cavities  of 
the  body  result  from  the  irregular  and  deficient  circulation.  De- 
rangement of  the  urinary  secretion,  with  passive  congestion  of  the 
kidneys,  may  also  appear. 

Endocardial  inflammation  is  seldom  fatal  in  its  early  stages,  but 
in  many  cases  the  recovery  is  incomplete,  for  a  large  proportion  is 
left  with  some  permanent  thickening  of  the  valves,  which  constitutes 
the  beginning  of  valvular  disease. 

Symptoms. — Endocarditis  may  be  ushered  in  by  a  chill,  with  sud- 
den and  marked  rise  in  temperature.  The  pulse  rapidly  decreases  in 
strength  or  may  become  irregular,  while  the  heart  beats  more  or  less 
tumultuously.  In  the  early  stages  soft-blowing  sounds  may  be  h^ard 
by  placing  the  ear  over  the  heart  on  the  left  side,  which  correspond 
in  number  and  rhythm  to  the  heart's  action.  Excessive  pain,  tliough 
not  so  great  as  in  acute  pleuritis,  is  manifested  when  the  animal  is 
compelled  to  trot;  very  often  difficulty  in  breathing,  or  shortness  y^^ 
breath,  on  the  slightest  exertion  develops  early  in  the  attack,  Wiien 
the  valves  are  involved  in  the  inflammatory  process  the  visibl'.- 
mucous  membranes  become  either  very  pale  or  very  dark  colored, 
and  fainting  may  occur  when  the  head  is  suddenly  elevated.  When 
the  valves  of  the  right  side  are  affected  we  may  find  a  regurgitant 
pulsation  in  the  jugular  vein.  Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  heart 
contracts  more  frequently  than  the  pulse  beats — that  is,  there  may  be 
twice  as  many  contractions  of  the  heart  in  a  minute  as  there  are  pulse 
waves  in  the  arteries.  The  pulse  is  always  very  fast.  In  some  cases 
we  find  marked  lameness  of  the  left  shoulder,  and  when  the  animal 
is  turned  short  to  the  left  side  he  may  groan  with  pain,  and  the  heart's 
action  become  violently  excited,  although  pressure  against  the  chest 
wall  will  not  produce  pain  unless  roughly  applied.  The  animal  is 
not  disposed  to  eat  or  drink  much;  the  surface  of  the  body  and  legs 
is  cold — rarely  excessively  hot — and  frequently  the.  body  of  the  ani- 
mal is  in  a  subdued  tremor.  In  nearly  all  cases  there  is  partial  sup- 
pression of  the  urinary  secretion.  The  svmptoms  may  continue 
with  very  little  modification  for  three  or  four  days,  sometimes  seven 
days,  without  any  marked  changes.  If  large  fibrinous  clots  form 
in  the  heart  the  change  will  be  sudden  and  quickly  prove  fatal  unless 
they  become  loosened  and  are  carried  away  in  the  circulation;  then 
apoplexy  may  result  from  the  plugging  of  arteries  too  small  to  give 


232  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

further  transmission.  If  the  animal  manifests  symptoms  of  im- 
provement, the  changes  usually  are  slow  and-  steady  until  he  feels 
apparently  as  well  as  ever,  eats  well,  and  moves  freely  in  his  stall 
or  yard.  When  he  is  taken  out,  however,  the  seeming  strength  often 
proves  deceptive,  as  he  may  quickly  weaken  if  urged  into  a  fast  gait, 
the  breathing  becomes  quickened  with  a  double  flank  movement  as 
in  heaves,  and  all  the  fonner  symptoms  reappear  in  a  modified  degree. 
An  examination  at  this  stage  may  reveal  valvular  insufficiency,  car- 
diac hypertrophy,  or  pulmonary  engorgement. 

In  fatal  cases  of  endocarditis  death  often  occurs  about  the  fourth 
day,  from  the  formation  of  heart  clot  or  too  great  embarrassment  of 
the  circulation.  Endocarditis  may  be  suspected  in  all  cases  where 
plain  symptoms  of  cardiac  affection  are  manifested  in  animals  af- 
fected with  influenza,  rheumatism,  or  any  disease  in  which  the  blood 
may  convey  septic  matter. 

Acute  endocardial  inflammation  may  be  distinguished  from  pleu- 
ritis  by  the  absence  of  any  friction  murmur,  absence  of  pain  when  the 
chest  wall  is  percussed,  and  the  absence  of  effusion  in  the  cavity  of 
the  chest.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  pericarditis  by  the  absence 
of  the  friction  sounds  and  want  of  an  enlarged  area  of  dullness  on 
percussion. 

Treatment. — The  objects  to  be  attained  by  treatment  will  be  to 
remove  or  mitigate  as  much  as  possible  the  cause  inducing  the  disease; 
to  find  a  medicine  which  will  lessen  the  irritability  of  the  heart  with- 
out weakening  it;  and,  last,  to  maintain  a  free  urinary  secretion  and 
prevent  exudation  and  hypertrophy.  So  long  as  there  is  an  increase 
of  temperature,  with  some  degree  of  scantiness  of  the  urine,  it  may  be 
safe  to  believe  that  there  is  some  degree  of  inflammatory  action  exist- 
ing in  the  cardiac  structures,  and  as  long  as  any  evidence  of  inflam- 
matory action  remains,  however  moderate  in  degree,  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  increase  or  hypertroph}'  of  tlie  connective  tissue  of  tlie  heart 
or  valves,  thereby  rendering  it  almost  certain  that  the  structural 
changes  will  become  j>ermanent  unless  counteracted  by  persistent 
treatment  and  complete  rest. 

The  tincture  of  digitalis,  in  20-drop  doses,  repeated  ever}^  liour,  is 
perhaps  the  most  reliable  agent  we  know  to  control  the  irritability  of 
the  heart,  and  this  also  has  a  decided  influence  upon  the  urinary 
secretion.  After  the  desired  impression  upon  the  heart  is  obtained 
the  dose  may  be  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours,  or  as  the  case  may 
demand.  Tincture  of  strophanthus,  in  2-dram  doses,  will  quiet  the 
tumultuous  action  of  the  heart  in  some  cases  where  the  digitalis  fails. 
Bleeding,  blistering,  and  stimulating  applications  to  the  chest  should 
be  avoided.  They  serve  to  irritate  the  animal  and  can  do  no  possible 
good.  Chlorate  of  j)()tassa,  in  2-dram  doses,  may  be  given  in  the 
drinking  water  every  four  hours  for  the  first  five  or  six  days,  and  then 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HEART.  233 

be  superseded  by  the  nitrate  of  potassa,  in  half-ounce  doses,  for  the 
following  week,  or  until  the  urinary  secretion  becomes  abnormally 
profuse.  Where  the  disease  is  associated  with  rheumatism,  2-dram 
doses  of  salicylate  of  soda  may  be  substituted  for  the  chlorate  of 
potassa.  To  guard  against  chronic  induration  of  the  valves,  the 
iodide  of  potassa,  in  1  to  2  dram  doses,  should  be  given  early  in  the 
disease,  and  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day  for  several 
weeks.  When  chronic  effects  remain  after  the  acute  stage  has  passed 
this  drug  becomes  indispensable. 

When  dropsy  of  the  limbs  develops,  it  is  due  to  weakened  circula- 
tion or  functional  impairment  of  the  kidneys.  When  there  is  much 
weakness  in  the  action  of  the  heart,  or  general  debility  is  marked,  the 
iodide  of  iron,  in  1-dram  doses,  combined  with  hydrastis,  3  drams, 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day.  Arsenic,  in  5-grain  doses  twice  a 
day,  will  give  excellent  results  in  some  cases  of  weak  heart  associated 
with  difficult  breathing.  In  all  cases  absolute  rest  and  warm  stabling, 
with  comfortable  clothing,  become  necessary,  and  freedom  from 
work  should  be  allowed  for  a  long  time  after  all  symptoms  have  dis- 
appeared. 

PEBICAEDITIS,    OB    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    SAC    INCLOSING    THE    HEART. 

Causes. — Pericarditis  may  be  induced  by  cold  and  damp  stabling, 
exposure  and  fatigue,  from  wounds  caused  by  broken  ribs,  etc.  Gen- 
erally, however,  it  is  associated  with  an  attack  of  influenza,  rheuma- 
tism, pleuritis,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Usually  the  disease  manifests  itself  abruptly  by  a 
brief  stage  of  chills  coincident  with  pain  in  moving,  a  short  painful 
cough,  rapid  and  short  breathing,  and  high  temperature,  with  a 
rapid  and  hard  pulse.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  the  pulse  is 
regular  in  beat;  later,  when  there  is  much  exudation  present  in  the 
pericardial  sac,  the  heart-beat  becomes  muffled,  and  may  be  of  a  double 
or  rebounding  character.  By  placing  the  ear  against  the  left  side 
of  the  chest  behind  the  elbow  a  rasping  sound  may  be  heard,  cor- 
responding to  the  frequency  of  the  heart-beat.  This  is  known  as  a 
friction  sound.  Between  the  second  and  fourth  days  this  sound  may 
disappear,  due  to  a  distension  of  the  pericardium  by  an  exudate  or 
serous  effusion.  As  soon  as  this  effusion  partly  fills  the  pericardium, 
percussion  will  reveal  an  abnormally  increased  area  of  dullness  over 
the  region  of  the  heart,  the  heart-beats  become  less  perceptible  than  in 
health,  and  in  some  cases  a  splashing  or  flapping  sound  may  become 
audible. 

If  the  effusion  becomes  absorbed,  the  friction  sound  usually  recurs 
for  a  short  time;  this  friction  may  often  be  felt  by  applying  the 
hand  to  the  side  of  the  chest.  In  a  few  cases  clonic  spasms  of  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  may  be  present.  In  acute  pericarditis,  when  the 
effusion  is  rapid  and  excessive,  the  animal  may  die  in  a  few  days  or 


234  DISEASES    OF   THE   HOBSE. 

recovery  may  begin  equally  as  early.  In  subacute  or  in  chronic  cases 
the  effusion  may  slowly  become  augmented  until  the  pressure  upon 
the  lungs  and  interference  with  the  circulation  becomes  so  great  that 
death  will  result.  TVTiether  the  attack  is  acute,  subacute,  or  chronic, 
the  characteristic  symptoms  which  will  guide  us  to  a  correct  diagnosis 
are  the  friction  sound,  which  is  always  synchronous  with  the  heart's 
action,  the  high  temperature  with  hard,  irritable  pulse,  and,  in  cases 
of  pericardial  effusion,  the  increased  area  of  dullness  over  the  cardiac 
region.  When  the  disease  is  associated  with  influenza  or  rheumatism, 
some  of  the  symptoms  may  be  obscure,  but  a  careful  examination 
will  reveal  sufficient  evidence  upon  which  to  base  a  diagnosis.  When 
pericarditis  develops  as  a  result  of  or  in  connection  with  pleuritis,  the 
distinction  may  not  be  very  tlearly  definable,  neither  will  many 
recover.  Wlien  it  results  from  a  wound  or  broken  rib,  it  almost  in- 
variably proves  fatal. 

Pathology. — Pericarditis  may  at  all  times  be  regarded  as  a  very 
serious  affection.  At  first  we  will  find  an  intense  injection  or  accu- 
mulation of  blood  in  the  vessels  of  the  pericardium,  giving  it  a  red 
and  swollen  appearance,  during  which  we  have  the  friction  sound. 
In  twenty-four  to  forty -eight  hours  this  engorgement  is  followed  by 
an  exudation  of  sero-fibrinous  fluid,  the  fibrinous  portion  of  which 
may  soon  form  a  coating  over  the  internal  surface  of  the  pericardial 
sac,  and  may  ultimately  form  a  union  of  the  opposing  surfaces. 
Generally  this  adhesion  will  only  be  found  to  occupy  a  portion  of  the 
surfaces.  As  the  serous  or  watery  portion  of  this  effusion  is  ab- 
sorbed, the  distinctness  of  the  friction  sound  recurs,  and  may  remain 
perceptible  in  a  varied  degree  for  a  long  time.  When  the  serous 
effusion  is  very  great,  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  heart  weakens  its 
action,  and  may  produce  death  soon ;  when  it  is  not  so  great,  it  may 
cause  dropsies  of  other  portions  of  the  body.  When  the  adhesions 
of  the  pericardial  sac  to  the  body  of  the  heart  are  extensive,  they  gen- 
erally lead  to  increased  growth,  or  hypertrophy,  of  the  heart,  with  or 
without  dilatation  of  its  cavities ;  when  they  are  but  slight,  they  may 
not  cause  any  inconvenience. 

Treatment. — In  acute  or  subacute  pericarditis  the  tincture  of  digi- 
talis may  be  given  in  20  to  30  drop  doses  every  hour  until  the  pulse 
and  temperature  become  reduced.  Whisky  or  carbonate  of  ammonia 
may  be  given  regularly  as  stimulants.  Bandages  should  l3e  applied 
to  the  legs;  if  the  legs  are  very  cold,  tincture  of  capsicum  should  be 
first  applied ;  the  body  should  be  warmly  clothed  in  blankets,  to  pro- 
mote perspiration.  AVhen  the  suffering  from  pain  is  very  severe,  10 
grains  of  morphine  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  once  or  twice  a  day; 
nitrate  of  potassa,  half  an  ounce,  in  drinking  water,  every  six  hours ; 
after  the  third  day,  iodide  of  potassa,  in  2-dram  doses,  may  be  sub- 
stituted.    Cold  packs  to  the  chest  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HEART.  235 

may  give  marked  relief,  or,  late  in  the  disease,  smart  blisters  may  be 
applied  to  the  sides  of  the  chest  with  benefit.  If  the  disease  becomes 
chronic,  iodide  of  iron  and  gentian  to  support  the  strength  will  be 
indicated,  but  the  iodide  of  potassa,  in  1  or  2  dram  doses,  two  or  three 
times  a  day,  must  not  be  abandoned  so  long  as  there  is  an  evidence  of 
effusion  or  plastic  exudate  accumulating  in  the  pericardial  sac. 
Where  the  effusion  is  great  and  threatens  the  life  of  the  patient, 
tapping  by  an  expert  veterinarian  may  save  the  animal. 

VALVULAR  DISEASE  OF  THE  HEART. 

Acute  valvular  disease  can  not  be  distinguished  from  endocarditis, 
and  chronic  valvular  affections  are  generally  the  result  of  endocar- 
dial inflammation.  The  valves  of  the  left  side  are  the  most  subject — 
the  bicuspid  or  mitral  and  the  aortic  or  semilunar.  The  derange- 
ment may  consist  of  mere  inflammation  and  swelling,  or  the  edges  of 
the  valves  may  become  covered  by  the  organization  of  the  exudation, 
thus  narrowing  the  passage.  Valvular  obstruction  and  adhesions 
may  occur  or  the  tendinous  cords  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened, 
thus  obstructing  the  orifices  and  permitting  the  regurgitation  of 
blood.  In  protected  cases  the  fibrous  tissue  of  the  valves  may  be 
transformed  into  fibro-cartilage  or  bone,  or  there  may  be  deposits  of 
salts  of  lime  beneath  the  serous  membrane,  which  may  terminate  in 
ulceration,  rupture,  or  fissures.  Sometimes  the  valves  become  cov- 
ered by  fibrinous,  fleshy,  or  hard  vegetations,  or  excrescences.  In 
cases  of  considerable  dilatation  of  the  heart  there  may  be  atrophy  and 
shrinking  of  the  valves. 

Symptoms. — Valvular  disease  may  be  indicated  by  a  venous  pulse, 
jerking  pulse,  intermittent  pulse,  irregular  pulse;  palpitation;  con- 
stant abnormal  fullness  of  the  jugular  veins;  difficulty  of  breathing 
when  the  animal  becomes  excited  or  is  urged  out  of  a  walk  or  into  a 
fast  trot;  attacks  of  vertigo;  congestion  of  the  brain;  dropsical  swell- 
ing of  the  limbs.  A  blowing,  cooing,  or  bubbling  murmur  may  some- 
times be  heard  by  placing  the  ear  over  the  heart  on  the  left  side  of  the 
chest. 

Hypertrophy,  or  dilatation,  or  both,  usually  follow  valvular  disease. 

Treatment. — "VMien  the  pulse  is  irregular  or  irritable,  tonics,  such 
as  preparations  of  iron,  gentian,  and  ginger,  may  be  given.  When 
the  action  of  the  heart  is  jerking  or  violent,  20  to  30  drop  doses  of 
tincture  of  digitalis  or  of  veratrum  viride  may  be  given  until  these 
symptoms  abate.  As  the  disease  nearly  always  is  the  result  of  endo- 
carditis, the  iodide  of  potassa  and  general  tonics,  sometimes  stimu- 
lants, when  general  debility  supervenes,  may  be  of  temporary  benefit. 
Very  few  animals  recover  or  remain  useful  for  any  length  of  time 
after  once  marked  organic  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  valvular 
structure  of  the  heart. 


236  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

ADVENTITIOUS    GROWTHS   IN   THE    HEART. 

Fibrous,  cartilaginous,  and  bony  formations  have  been  observed  in 
some  rare  instances  in  the  muscular  tissue.  Isolated  calcareous  masses 
have  sometimes  been  embedded  in  the  cardiac  walls.  Fibrinous 
coagula  and  polypous  concretions  may  be  found  in  the  cavities  of  the 
heart.  The  former  consist  of  coagulated  fibrin,  separated  from  the 
mass  of  blood,  of  a  whitish  or  yellowish  white  color,  translucent,  of  a 
jellylike  consistence,  and  having  a  nucleus  in  the  center.  They  may 
slightly  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  cavity,  from  which  they  can 
easily  be  separated  without  altering  the  structure  of  the  endocardium. 
They  probably  result  from  an  excess  of  coagulability  of  fibrin,  which 
is  produced  by  an  organization  of  the  lymph  during  exudation.  They 
are  usually  found  in  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle. 

Polypous  concretions  are  firmer  than  in  the  preceding,  more  opaque, 
of  a  fibrous  texture,  and  may  be  composed  of  successive  layers.  In 
some  instances  they  are  exceedingly  minute,  while  in  others  they 
almost  fill  one  or  more  of  the  cavities.  Their  color  is  usually  white, 
but  occasionally  red  from  the  presence  of  blood.  They  firmly  adhere 
to  the  endocardium,  and  when  detached  from  it  give  it  a  torn  appear- 
ance. Occasionally,  a  vascular  communication  seems  to  exist  between 
them  and  the  substance  of  the  heart.  They  may  be  the  result  of 
fibrinous  exudation  from  inflammation  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 
heart  or  the  coagulation  of  a  portion  of  the  blood  Avhich  afterwards 
contracts  adhasion  with  the  heart.  These  concretions  prove  a  source 
of  great  inconvenience  and  often  danger,  no  matter  how  formed. 
They  cause  a  diminution  in  the  cavity  in  which  they  are  found,  thus 
narrowing  the  orifice  through  which  the  blood  passes,  or  preventing  a 
proper  coaptation  of  the  valves,  which  may  produce  most  serious 
valvular  disease. 

Symptoms. — These  are  frequently  uncertain ;  they  may,  however, 
l)e  suspected  when  the  action  of  the  heart  suddenly  becomes  embar- 
rassed with  irregular  and  confused  pulsations,  great  difficulty  of 
breathing,  and  the  usual  signs  dependent  upon  the  imperfect  arterial- 
ization  of  the  blood. 

Treatment. — Stimulants,  whisky,  or  carbonate  of  ammonia  may  lje 
of  service. 

PALPITATION   OF  THK   IIKART. 

This  is  a  tumultuous  and  usually  irregular  l>eating  of  the  liourt.  It 
may  be  due  to  a  variety  of  causes,  both  functional  and  organic.  It 
may  occur  as  a  result  of  indigestion,  friglit,  increased  nervousness, 
sudden  excitement,  excessive  speeding,  etc.  (See  "  Thumps,"  pp. 
141,20.5.) 

Symptoms. — The  heart  may  act  with  such  violence  that  each  beat 
may  jar  the  whole  body  of  the  animal;  very  commonly  it  may  be 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HEART.  237 

heard  at  a  short  distance  away  from  the  animal.  It  can  usually  be 
traced  very  readily  to  the  exciting  cause,  which  we  may  be  able  to 
avoid  or  overcome  in  the  future  and  thereby  obviate  subsequent 
attacks.  Rest,  a  mild  stimulant,  or  a  dose  or  two  of  tincture  of  digi- 
talis or  opium  will  generally  give  prompt  relief.  When  it  is  due  to 
organic  impairment  of  the  heart  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  symptom, 
not  as  a  matter  of  primary  specific  treatment. 

SYNCOPE,  OR  FAINTING. 

Actual  fainting  rarely  occurs  among  horses.  .  It  may,  however,  be« 
induced  by  a  rapid  and  great  loss  of  blood,  pain  of  great  intensity,  a 
mechanical  interference  with  the  circulation  of  the  brain,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Syncope  is  characterized  by  a  decrease  or  temporary 
suspension  of  the  action  of  the  heart  and  respiration,  with  partial  or 
total  loss  of  consciousness.  It  generally  occurs  suddenly,  though 
there  may  be  premonitory  symptoms,  as  giddiness,  or  vertigo,  dilated 
pupil,  staggering,  blanching  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  a  rap- 
idly sinking  pulse,  and  dropping  to  the  ground.  The  pulse  is  feeble 
or  ceases  to  beat;  the  surface  of  the  body  turns  cold;  breathing  is 
scarcely  to  be  perceived,  and  the  animal  may  be  entirely  unconscious. 
This  state  is  uncertain  in  duration — generally  it  lasts  only  a  few 
minutes;  the  circulation  becomes  restored,  breathing  becomes  more 
distinct,  and  consciousness  and  muscular  strength  return.  In  cases 
attended  with  much  hemorrhage  or  organic  disease  of  the  heart,  the 
fainting  fit  may  be  fatal;  otherwise  it  will  prove  but  a  transient 
occurrence.  In  paralysis  of  the  heart  the  symptoms  may  be  exactly 
similar  to  syncope.  Syncope  may  be  distinguished  from  apoplexy  by 
the  absence  of  stertorous  breathing  and  lividity  of  the  visible  mucous 
membranes. 

Treatment. — Dash  cold  water  on  the  head;  administer  a  stimu- 
lant— 4  ounces  of  whisky  or  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia. 
Prevent  the  animal  from  getting  up  too  soon,  or  the  attack  may 
immediately  recur.  Afterwards,  if  the  attack  was  due  to  weakness 
from  loss  of  blood,  impoverished  blood,  or  associated  with  debility, 
general  tonics,  rest,  and  nourishing  food  are  indicated. 


HYPERTROPHY    OF    THE    HEART,  OR    CARDIAC    ENLARGEMENT. 

Hypertrophy  of  the  heart  implies  augmentation  of  bulk  in  its 
muscular  substance,  with  or  without  dilatation  or  contraction  of  its 
cavities.  It  may  exist  with  or  without  other  cardiac  affections.  In 
valvular  disease  or  valvular  insufficiency  hypertrophy  frequently  re- 
sults as  a  consequence  of  increased  demand  for  propelling  power. 
The  difficulties  with  which  it  is  most  frequently  connected  are  dilata- 
tion and  ossification  of  the  valves.  It  may  also  occur  in  connection 
with  atrophied  kidneys,  weak  heart,  etc.  It  may  be  caused  by  an 
increased  determination  of  blood  to  the  orfjan  or  from  a  latent  form 


238  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

of  myocarditis,  and  it  may  arise  from  a  long-continued  increase  of 
acliou  dependent  upon  nervous  disease.  All  the  cavities  of  the  heart 
may  have  their  walls  hypertrophied  or  the  thickening  may  involve 
one  or  more.  While  the  wall  of  a  ventricle  is  thickened,  its  cavity 
may  retain  its  normal  size  {simple  hypertrophy)  or  be  dilated  {eccen- 
tric hypertrophy),  or  it  may  be  contracted  {concentric  hypertrophy). 
Hypertrophy  of  both  ventricles  increases  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  heart.  Hypertrophy  of  the  left  ventricle  alone  increases  its 
length ;  of  the  right  ventricle  alone  increases  its  breadth  toward  the 
right  side.  Hypertrophy  with  dilatation  may  affect  the  chambers 
of  the  heart  conjointly  or  separately.  This  form  is  by  far  the  most 
frequent  variety  of  cardiac  enlargement.  When  the  entire  heart  is 
affected,  it  assumes  a  globular  appearance,  the  apex  being  almost 
obliterated  and  situated  transversely  in  the  chest.  The  bulk  may 
become  three  or  four  times  greater  than  the  average  heart. 

Symptoms. — In  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  in  addition  to  the  usual 
symptoms  manifested  in  organic  diseases  of  the  heart,  there  is  a  pow- 
erful and  heaving  impulse  at  each  beat,  which  may  be  felt  on  the  left 
side,  often  also  on  the  right.  These  pulsations  are  regular,  and  when 
full  and  strong  at  the  jaw  there  is  a  tendency  to  active  congestion  of 
the  capillary  vessels,  which  frequently  gives  rise  to  local  inflamma- 
tion, active  hemorrhage,  etc.  If  the  pulse  is  small  and  feeble  at  the 
jaw,  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  some  obstacle  to  the  escape  of  the 
blood  from  the  left  ventricle  into  the  aorta,  which  has  given  rise  to 
the  hypertrophy.  In  case  of  hypertrophy  with  dilatation,  the  im- 
pulse is  not  only  powerful  and  heaving,  but  it  is  diffused  over  the 
whole  region  of  the  heart,  and  the  normal  sounds  of  the  heart  are 
greatly  increased  in  intensity.  Percussion  reveals  an  enlarged  area 
of  dullness,  while  the  impulse  is  usually  much  stronger  than  normal. 

Dropsy  of  the  pericardium  will  give  the  same  wide  space  of  dull- 
ness, but  the  impulse  and  sound  are  lessened.  An  animal  with  a 
moderate  degree  of  enlargement  may  possibly  live  a  number  of  years 
and  be  capable  of  ordinary  work;  it  depends  largely  upon  con- 
comitant disease.  As  a  rule,  an  animal  affected  with  hypertrophy 
of  the  heart  will  soon  be  incapacitated  for  work,  and  it  becomes 
useless  and  incurable. 

Treatment. — If  the  cause  can  be  discovered  and  is  removable,  it 
should  be  done.  The  iodide  of  potassa,  in  cases  of  valvular  thicken- 
ing, may  be  of  some  benefit  if  continued  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time;  it  may  be  given  in  2-dram  doses,  twice  a  day,  for  a  month  or 
more.  The  tincture  of  digitalis  may  l)e  given,  in  cases  where  the 
pulse  is  weak,  in  doses  of  2  teaspoonfuls  three  times  daily.  This 
remedy  should  not  be  continued  if  the  pulse  l^ecomes  irregular. 
General  tonics,  freedom  from  excitement  or  fatigue,  avoidance  of 
bulky  food,  good  ventilation,  etc.,  are  indicated.  ' 


DISEASES   OF   THE   HEAET.  239 

DILATATION   OF   THE    HEART. 

This  is  an  enlargement,  or  stretching,  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart, 
and  may  be  confined  to  one  or  extend  to  all.  Two  forms  of  dilata- 
tion may  be  mentioned — simple  dilatation,  where  there  is  normal 
thickness  of  the  walls,  and  passive,  or  attenuated,  dilatation,  where 
the  walls  are  simply  distended  or  stretched  out  without  any  addition 
of  substance. 

Causes. — ^Any  cause  producing  constant  and  excessive  exertion  of 
the  heart  may  lead  to  dilatation.  Valvular  disease  is  the  most  fre- 
quent cause.  General  anemia  predisposes  to  it  by  producing  relaxa- 
tion of  muscular  fiber.  Changes  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  heart 
walls,  serous  infiltration  from  pericarditis,  myocarditis,  fatty  degen- 
eration and  infiltration,  and  atrophy  of  the  muscular  fibers  may  all 
lead  to  dilatation. 

Symptoms. — The  movements  of  the  heart  are  feeble  and  prolonged, 
a  disposition  to  staggering  or  vertigo,  dropsy  of  the  limbs,  very  pale 
or  very  dark-colored  membranes,  and  difficult  breathing  on  the  slight- 
est excitement. 

Treatment. — General  tonics,  rich  food,  and  rest. 

FATTY  DEGEKERATION   OF   THE   HEART. 

Fatty  degeneration  may  involve  the  whole  organ,  or  may  be  limited 
to  its  walls,  or  even  to  circumscribed  patches.  The  latter  is  situated 
at  the  exterior,  and  gives  it  a  mottled  appearance.  When  generally 
involved  it  is  flabby  or  flaccid,  and  in  extreme  cases  collapses  when 
emptied  or  cut.  Upon  dissection  the  interior  of  the  ventricles  is 
observed  to  be  covered  with  buff-colored  spots  of  a  singular  zigzag 
form.  This  appearance  may  be  noticed  beneath  the  pericardium,  and 
pervading  the  whole  thickness  of  the  ventricular  walls,  and  in  ex- 
treme cases  those  of  the  fleshy  columns  in  the  interior  of  the  heart. 
These  spots  are  found  to  be  degenerated  muscular  fibers  and  colonies 
of  oil  globules.  Fatty  degeneration  is  often  associated  with  other 
morbid  conditions  of  the  heart,  such  as  obesit3\  dilatation,  rupture, 
aneurism,  etc.  It  may  be  connected  with  fatty  diseases  of  other 
organs,  such  as  the  liver,  kidneys,  etc.  When  it  exists  alone  its  pres- 
ence is  seldom  suspected  previous  to  death.  It  may  be  secondar}^  to 
hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  to  myocarditis,  or  to  pericarditis.  It  may 
be  due  to  deteriorated  conditions  of  the  blood  in  wasting  diseases, 
excessive  hemorrhages,  etc.,  or  to  poisoning  with  arsenic  and 
phosphorus. 

Symptoms. — The  most  prominent  symptoms  of  fatty  degeneration 
are  a  feeble  action  of  the  heart,  a  remarkably  slow  pulse,  general 
debility,  and  attacks  of  vertigo.  It  may  exist  for  a  long  time,  but  is 
apt  to  terminate  suddenly  in  death  upon  the  occurrence  of  other  dis- 
eases, surgical  operations,  etc.  It  may  involve  a  liability  t:  sudden 
death  from  rupture  of  the  ventricular  walls. 


240  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

Treatment. — Confinement  in  feed  to  oats,  wheat  or  rye  bran,  and 
timothy  hay.  Twenty  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be  given  in  drink- 
ing water  three  times  a  day,  and  hypophosphite  of  iron  in  2-dram 
doses,  mixed  with  the  feed,  twice  a  day.  Other  tonics  and  stimulants 
as  they  may  be  indicated. 

RUPTURE    OF   THE   HEART. 

This  may  occur  as  the  result  of  some  previous  disease,  such  as 
fatty  degeneration,  dilatation  with  weakness  of  the  muscular  walls, 
etc.  It  may  be  caused  by  external  violence,  a  crushing  fall,  pres- 
sure of  some  great  weight,  etc.  Usually  death  follows  a  rupture 
very  quickly,  though  an  animal  may  live  for  some  time  when  the 
rent  is  not  very  large. 

WEAKNESS   OF   THE    HEART. 

This  may  arise  from  general  debility,  the  result  of  exhausting  dis- 
ease, overwork,  or  heart  strain,  or  loss  of  blood.  It  is  indicated  by 
a  small,  feeble,  but  generally  regular  pulse,  coldness  of  the  body,  etc. 

Treatment. — This  should  be  directed  to  support  and  increase  the 
strength  of  the  animal  by  tonics,  rest,  and  nutritious  food.  Car- 
bonate of  ammonia  may  be  given  to  stimulate  the  heart's  action  and 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  heart  clot. 

CONGESTION    OF   THE    HEART. 

Congestion,  or  an  accumulation  of  the  blood  in  the  cavities  of  the 
heart,  may  occur  in  consequence  of  fibrinous  deposits  interfering  with 
the  free  movements  of  the  valves,  usually  the  product  of  endocar- 
ditis or  as  a  result  of  excessive  muscular  exertion. 

8ymptom,8. — Great  difficulty  of  breathing,  paleness  of  the  visible 
mucous  membranes,  great  anxiety,  frequently  accompanied  by  a  gen- 
eral tremor  and  cold  perspiration,  followed  by  death.  It  usually 
results  in  death  very  quickly. 

CYANOSIS    OF    NEWBORN    FOALS. 

This  is  a  condition  sometimes  found  in  foals  immediately  after 
birth,  and  is  due  to  nonclosure  of  the  foramen  ovale,  which  allows  a 
mixture  of  the  venous  with  the  arterial  blood  in  the  left  cavities  of  the 
heart.  It  is  characterized  by  a  dark  purple  or  bluish  color  of  the 
visible  mucous  membranes,  shortness  of  breath,  and  general  feeble- 
ness.    Foals  thus  aflFected  generally  live  only  a  few  hours  after  birth. 

DISEASES   OF   ARTERIES,   OR    ARTERITIS    AND    ENDARTKRITIS. 

Inflammation  of  arteries  is  rarely  observed  in  the  horse  as  a  pri- 
mary affection.  Direct  injuries,  such  as  blows,  may  produce  a  con- 
tusion and  subsequent  inflammation  of  the  wall  of  an  artery;  severe 
muscular  strain  may  involve  an  arterial  trunk;  hyp<;rtrophy  of  the 
heart,  by  J  icreasing  arterial  tension,  may  result  in  the  production  of 
a  general  endarteritis.     Septic  infection  may  affect  the  inner  coat 


DISEASES   OF    THE    ARTERIES.  241 

and  ultimately  involve  all  three,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  an  inflam- 
mation in  the  vicinity  of  the  vessels,  etc.  Inflammation  of  arteries, 
whatever  the  cause  may  be,  often  leads  to  very  serious  results  in  the 
development  of  secondary  changes  in  their  walls.  Arteritis  may  be 
acute,  subacute,  or  chronic ;  when  the  inner  coat  alone  is  affected  it  is 
known  as  endarteritis. 

Si/mptoms. — Arteritis  is  characterized  by  a  painful  swelling  along 
the  inflamed  vessel,  throbbing  pulse,  coldness  of  the  parts  supplied  by 
the  inflamed  vessel,  sometimes  the  formation  of  gangrenous  sloughs, 
suppuration,  abscess,  etc.  In  an  inflammation  of  the  iliac  arteries  we 
find  coldness  and  excessive  lameness  or  paralysis  of  one  or  both  hind 
limbs. 

Pathology. — In  acute  arteritis  we  find  swelling  along  the  vessel, 
loss  of  elasticity,  friability,  and  thickening  of  the  walls ;  a  roughness 
and  loss  of  gloss  of  the  inner  coat,  with  the  formation  of  coagula  or 
pus  in  the  vessel.  Subacute  or  chronic  arteritis  may  affect  only  the 
outer  coat  (periarteritis),  both  the  outer  and  middle  coat,  or  the 
inner  coat  alone  {endai'teritis) ;  and  by  weakening  the  respective 
coats  leads  to  rupture,  aneurism,  or  to  degenerations,  such  as  bony, 
calcareous,  fatty,  atheromatous,  etc.  It  may  also  lead  to  sclerosis  or 
increase  of  fibrous  tissue,  especially  in  the  kidneys,  when  it  may  result 
in  the  condition  known  as  arterio-capillary  fibrosis.  Chronic  endar- 
teritis is  fruitful  in  the  production  of  thrombus  and  atheroma. 
Arteritis  may  be  limited  to  single  trunks,  or  it  may  affect,  more  or 
less,  all  the  arteries  of  the  body.  Arteries  which  are  at  the  seat  of 
chronic  endarteritis  are  liable  to  suffer  degenerative  changes,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  fatty  degeneration,  calcification,  or  the  breaking  down 
of  the  degenerated  tissue,  and  the  formation  of  erosions  or  ulcerlike 
openings  in  the  inner  coat.  These  erosions  are  frequently  called 
atheromatous  ulcers,  and  fragments  of  tissue  from  these  ulcers  may 
be  carried  into  the  circulation,  forming  emboli.  Fibrinous  thrombi 
are  apt  to  form  upon  the  roughened  surface  of  the  inner  coat  or  upon 
the  surface  of  the  erosions. 

Fatty  degeneration  and  calcification  of  the  middle  and  outer  coats 
may  occur,  and  large,  hard,  calcareous  plates  project  inward,  upon 
which  thrombi  may  form  or  may  exist  in  connection  with  atheroma 
of  the  inner  coat.  When  there  is  much  thickening  and  increase  of 
new  tissue  in  the  wall  of  the  affected  artery,  it  may  encroach  upon  the 
capacity  of  the  vessel,  and  even  lead  to  obliteration.  This  is  often 
associated  with  interstitial  inflammation  of  glandular  organs. 

Treatment. — Carbonate  of  potassa  in  1-dram  doses,  to  be  given  in 
4  ounces  liquor  acetate  of  ammonia  every  six  hours;  scalded  bran 
sufficient  to  produce  loosening  of  the  bowels,  and  complete  rest; 
externally,  applications  of  hot  water  or  hot  hop  infusion. 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 16 


242  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

ATHEROMA. 

Atheroma  is  a  direct  result  of  an  existing  chronic  endarteritis,  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  vessels  being  invariably  involved  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  It  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  arteries,  although 
the  veins  may  develop  an  atheromatous  condition  when  exposed  to  any 
source  of  prolonged  irritation.  Atheroma  may  affect  arteries  in  any 
part  of  the  body;  in  some  instances  almost  every  vessel  is  diseased, 
in  others  only  a  few,  or  even  parts  of  one  vessel.  It  is  a  very  common 
result  of  endocarditis  extending  into  the  aorta,  which  we  find  perhaps 
the  most  frequent  seat  of  atheroma.  As  a  result  of  this  condition  the 
affected  vessel  becomes  impaired  in  its  contractile  power,  loses  its 
natural  strength,  and,  in  consequence  of  its  inability  to  sustain  its 
accustomed  internal  pressure,  undergoes  in  many  cases  dilatation  at 
the  seat  of  disease,  constituting  aneurism.  In  an  atheromatous  vessel, 
calcareous  deposits  soon  occur,  which  render  it  rigid,  brittle,  and  sub- 
ject to  ulceration  or  rupture.  In  such  vessels  the  contractility  is  de- 
stroyed, the  middle  coat  atrophied  and  beyond  repair.  Atheroma  in 
the  vessels  of  the  brain  is  a  frequent  cause  of  cerebral  apoplexy.  No 
symptoms  are  manifested  by  which  we  can  recognize  this  condition 
during  life. 

CONSTRICTION    OF   AN    ARTERY. 

This  is  usually  the  result  of  arteritis,  and  may  partly  or  wholly  be 
impervious  to  the  flow  of  blood.  When  this  occurs  in  a  large  vessel 
it  may  be  followed  by  gangrene  of  the  parts;  usually,  however,  col- 
lateral circulation  will  be  established  to  nourish  the  parts  previously 
supplied  by  the  obliterated  vessel.  In  a  few  instances  constriction  of 
the  aorta  has  produced  death. 

ANEURISM. 

Aneurism  is  usually  described  as  true  or  false.  True  aneurism  is  a 
dilatation  of  the  coats  of  an  artery  over  a  larger  or  smaller  part  of  its 
course.  Such  dilatations  are  usually  due  to  chronic  endarteritis  and 
atheroma.  False  aneurism  is  formed  after  a  puncture  of  an  artery  by 
a  dilatation  of  the  adhesive  lymph  by  which  the  puncture  was  united. 

Symptoms. — If  the  aneurism  is  seated  along  the  neck  or  a  limb  it 
appears  as  a  tumor  in  the  course  of  an  artery  and  pulsating  with  it. 
The  tumor  is  round,  soft,  and  compressible,  and  yields  a  peculiar 
fluctuation  upon  pressure.  By  applying  the  ear  over  it  a  peculiar 
purring  or  hissing  sound  may  sometimes  be  heard.  Pulsation,  syn- 
chronous with  the  action  of  the  heart,  is  the  diagnostic  symptom.  It 
is  of  a  slow,  expansive,  and  heavy  character,  as  if  the  whole  tumor 
were  enlarging  under  the  hand.  Aneurisms  seated  internally  may 
occupy  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  chest,  or  abdomen.     As  regards  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE   ARTERIES.  243 

first,  little  is  known  during  life,  for  all  the  symptoms  which  they  pro- 
duce may  arise  from  other  causes.  Aneurism  of  the  anterior  aorta 
may  be  situated  very  closely  to  the  heart  or  in  the  arch,  and  it  is  very 
seldom  that  we  can  distinguish  it  from  disease  of  the  heart.  The 
tumor  may  encroach  upon  the  windpipe  and  produce  difficulty  in 
breathing,  or  it  may  produce  pressure  upon  the  venae  cavse  or  the 
thoracic  duct,  obstructing  the  flow  of  blood  and  lymph.  In  fact, 
whatever  parts  the  aneurism  may  reach  or  subject  to  its  pressure,  may 
have  their  functions  suspended  or  disturbed.  When  the  tumor  in  the 
chest  is  large,  we  generally  find  much  irregularity  in  the  action  of  the 
heart;  the  superficial  veins  of  the  neck  are  distended,  and  there  is 
usually  dropsical  swelling  under  the  breast  and  of  the  limbs.  There 
may  be  a  very  troublesome  cough  without  any  evidence  of  lung  affec- 
tion. Sometimes  pulsation  of  the  tumor  may  be  felt  at. the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  where  it  joins  the  chest.  When  the  aneurism  occurs 
in  the  posterior  aorta  no  diagnostic  symptoms  are  appreciable;  when 
it  occurs  in  the  internal  iliac  arteries  an  examination  per  rectum  will 
reveal  it. 

There  is  one  form  of  aneurism  which  is  not  unfrequently  over- 
looked, affecting  the  anterior  mesenteric  artery,  primarily  induced  by 
a  worm — Strongylus  vulgaris.  This  worm  produces  an  arteritis,  with 
atheroma,  degeneration,  and  dilatation  of  the  mesenteric  arteries,  asso- 
ciated with  thrombus  and  aneurism.  The  aneurism  gives  rise  to  colic, 
which  appears  periodically  in  a  very  violent  and  often  persistent 
type.  Ordinary  colic  remedies  have  no  effect,  and  after  a  time  the 
animal  succumbs  to  the  disease.  In  all  cases  of  animals  which  are 
habitually  subject  to  colicky  attacks,  parasitic  aneurism  of  the  an- 
terior mesenteric  artery  may  be  suspected. 

Pathology. — Aneurisms  may  be  diffuse  or  sacculated.  The  diffuse 
consists  in  a  uniform  dilatation  of  all  the  coats  of  an  artery,  so  that  it 
assumes  the  shape  of  a  cylindrical  swelling.  The  wall  of  the  aneu- 
rism is  atheromatous,  or  calcified ;  the  middle  coat  may  be  atrophied. 
The  sacculated,  or  circumscribed,  aneurism  consists  either  in  a  dila- 
tation of  the  entire  circumference  of  an  artery  over  a  short  portion  of 
its  length,  or  in  a  dilatation  of  only  a  small  portion  of  one  side  of  the 
wall.  Aneurism  may  become  very  large;  as  it  increases  in  size  it 
presses  upon  and  causes  the  destruction  of  neighboring  tissues.  The 
cavity  of  the  aneurismal  sac  is  filled  with  fluid  or  clotted  blood  or 
with  layers  of  fibrin  which  adhere  closely  to  its  wall.  Death  is  pro- 
duced usually  by  the  pressure  and  interference  of  the  aneurism  with 
adjoining  organs  or  by  rupture.  In  worm  aneurism  we  usuall}^  find 
large  thrombi  within  the  aneurismal  dilatation  of  the  artery,  which 
sometimes  plug  the  whole  vessel  or  extend  into  the  aorta.  Portions  of 
this  thrombus,  or  clot,  may  be  washed  away  and  produce  embolism  of 
a  smaller  artery.    The  effect  in  either  case  is  to  produce  anemia  of  the 


244  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

intestinal  canal,  serous  or  bloody  exudation  in  its  walls,  which  leads 
to  paralysis  of  the  intestine  and  resultant  colicky  symptoms. 

Treatment. — The  only  treatment  advisable  is  to  extirpate  or  ligate 
the  tumor  above  and  below. 

RUPTURE  OF  AN  ARTERY. 

Endarteritis,  with  its  subsequent  change?  in  the  walls  of  arteries,  is 
the  primary  cause  of  rupture  in  the  majority  of  instances.  The  rup- 
ture may  be  partial,  involving  only  one  or  two  coats,  and  will  then 
form  an  aneurism.  If  complete,  it  may  produce  death  when  it  in- 
volves a  large  vessel,  especially  if  it  is  situated  in  one  of  the  large 
cavities  permitting  an  excessive  escape  of  blood.  Rupture  may  be 
produced  by  mechanical  violence  or  accident. 

Symptoms. — In  fatal  rupture  associated  with  profuse  bleeding,  the 
animal  becomes  weak,  the  visible  mucous  membranes  become  blanched, 
the  breathing  hurried  or  gasping,  pupils  dilated,  staggering  in  gait, 
sjncope,  death.  When  the  hemorrhage  is  limited,  the  symptoms  may 
not  become  noticeable ;  if  it  is  near  the  surface  of  the  body  a  round  or 
diffuse  swelling  or  tumor  may  form,  constituting  a  hygroma.  If  the 
rupture  is  associated  with  an  external  wound  the  bleeding  artery 
should  1)6  ligated,  or  where  a  bandage  is  applicable,  pressure  may  be 
applied  by  tight  bandaging.  As  a  secondary  result  of  rupture  of  an 
artery  we  may  have  formation  of  abscess,  gangrene  of  a  part,  etc. 

Treatment. — When  rupture  of  a  deep-seated  artery  is  suspected, 
large  doses  of  fluid  extract  of  ergot  may  be  given  to  produce  contrac- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels.  Tannin  and  iron  are  also  useful.  The 
animal  should  be  allowed  to  have  as  much  water  as  he  desires.  After- 
wards stimulants  and  nourishing  food  are  indicated. 

THROMBUS   AND   EMBOLISM. 

By  thromhosis  is  generally  understood  the  partial  or  complete  clo- 
sure of  a  vessel  by  a  morbid  product  devoloj)ed  at  the  site  of  the 
obstruction.  The  coagulum,  which  is  usually  fibrinous,  is  known  as 
a  thrombuff.  The  term  embolism,  designates  an  obstruction  caused  by 
any  body  detached  and  transported  from  the  interior  of  the  heart  or 
of  some  vessel.  Thrombi  occur  as  the  result  of  an  injury  to  the  wall 
of  the  vessel  or  may  follow  its  compression  or  dilatation;  they  may 
result  from  some  alteration  of  the  wall  of  the  vessel  by  disease  or 
by  the  retardation  of  the  circulation.  These  formations  may  occur 
during  life,  in  the  heart,  arteries,  veins,  or  in  the  portal  system. 
When  a  portion  of  fibrin  coagulates  in  one  of  the  arteries  and  is  car- 
ried along  by  the  circulation,  it  will  be  arrested,  of  course,  in  the 
capillaries,  if  not  before;  when  in  the  veins,  it  may  not  be  stopped 
until  it  reaches  the  lungs;  and  when  in  the  portal  system,  the  capil- 
laries of  the  liver  will  prevent  its  further  progress.     The  formation  of 


DISEASES   OP   THE   ARTERIES.  245 

thrombi  may  act  primarily  by  causing  partial  or  complete  obstruc- 
tion, and,  secondarily,  either  by  larger  or  smaller  fragments  becoming 
detached  from  their  end,  and  by  being  carried  along  by  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  to  remote  vessels,  embolism;  or  by  the  coagulum 
becoming  softened  and  converted  into  pus,  constituting  suppurative 
phlebitis.  These  substances  occur  most  frequently  in  those  affections 
characterized  by  great  exhaustion  or  debility,  such  as  pneumonia, 
purpura  hemorrhagica,  endocarditis,  phlebitis,  puerperal  fever, 
hemorrhages,  etc.  These  concretions  may  form  suddenly  and  pro- 
duce instantaneous  death  by  retarding  the  blood  current,  or  they  may 
arise  gradually,  in  which  case  the  thrombi  may  be  organized  and 
attached  to  the  walls  of  the  heart,  or  they  may  soften,  and  frag- 
ments of  them  (emboli)  may  be  carried  away.  The  small,  wartlike 
excrescences  occurring  sometimes  in  endocarditis  may  occasionally 
form  a  foundation  on  which  a  thrombi  may  develop. 

Symptoms. — When  heart  clot,  or  thrombus,  exists  in  the  right  side, 
the  return  of  blood  from  the  body  and  the  aeration  in  the  lungs  is 
impeded,  and  if  death  occurs,  it  is  owing  to  syncope  rather  than  to 
strangulation  in  pulmonary  respiration.  There  will  be  hurried  and 
gasping  breathing,  paleness  and  coldness  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  a 
feeble  and  intermittent  or  fluttering  pulse,  and  fainting.  When  a 
fibrinous  coagulum  is  carried  into  the  pulmonary  artery  from  the 
right  side  of  the  heart,  the  indications  are  a  swelling  and  infiltration 
of  the  lungs  and  pulmonary  apoplexy.  When  the  clot  is  situated  in 
the  left  cavities  of  the  heart  or  in  the  aorta,  death,  if  it  occurs,  takes 
place  either  suddenly  or  at  the  end  of  a  few  hours  from  coma. 

Pathology. — When  a  coagulum  is  observed  in  the  heart  it  may  be- 
come a  question  whether  it  was  formed  during  life  or  after  death. 
The  loose,  dark  coagula  so  often  found  after  death  are  polypi.  If 
the  deposition  has  taken  place  during  the  last  moments  of  life,  the 
fibrin  will  be  isolated  and  soft,  but  not  adherent  to  the  walls;  if  it 
be  isolated,  dense,  and  adherent  or  closely  intertwined  with  the 
muscles  of  the  papillas  and  tendinous  cords,  the  deposition  has  oc- 
curred more  or  less  remote  from  the  act  of  dying.  Occasionally  the 
fibrin  may  be  seen  lining  one  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart,  like  a  false 
endocardium,  or  else  forming  an  additional  coat  to  the  aorta  or  other 
large  vessels  without  producing  much  obstruction.  Thrombi,  in 
some  instances,  soften,  in  their  centers,  and  are  then  observed  to  con- 
tain a  puslike  substance.  If  this  softening  has  extended  considerably 
an  outer  shell,  or  cyst,  only  may  remain.  The  sources  of  danger  exist 
not  only  in  the  interruption  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  but  also  in 
a  morbid  state  of  the  system,  produced  by  the  disturbed  nutrition  of  a 
limb  or  organ,  as  well  as  the  mingling  of  purulent  and  gangrenous 
elements  with  the  blood. 

Treatment. — The   urgent   symptoms   should   be   relieved   by   rest. 


246  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

stimulants,  and  the  use  of  agents  which  will  act  as  solvents^  to  the 
fibrinous  clots.  Alkalis  are  specially  useful  for  this  purpose.  Car- 
bonate of  ammonia  may  be  administered  in  all  cases  of  thrombus, 
and  should  be  continued  for  a  long  time  in  small  doses  several  times  a 
day.  In  cases  of  great  debility  associated  with  a  low  grade  of  fever, 
stimulants  and  tonics,  and  nitro-muriatic  acid  as  an  antiseptic,  may 
be  beneficial. 

DISEASES   OF   VEINS,    OR    PHLEBITIS. 

Inflammation  of  veins  may  be  simple  or  diffuse.  In  simple  phleb- 
itis the  disease  of  the  vein  is  confined  to  a  circumscribed  or  limited 
portion  of  a  vein ;  in  diffuse  it  involves  the  vein  for  a  long  distance ; 
it  may  even  extend  from  a  limb  or  foot  to  the  heart. 

Causes. — Phlebitis  may  be  induced  by  contusions  or  direct  injuries, 
an  extension  of  inflammation  from  surrounding  tissue,  such  as  in 
abscess,  formation  of  tumor,  or  malignant  growth.  It  is  often  due 
to  embolism  of  infective  material,  gangrenous  matter,  etc.  Blood- 
letting from  the  jugular  vein  is  occasionally  followed  by  dangerous 
phlebitis. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  vary  according  to  the  extent  and  sever- 
ity of  the  inflammation.  In  most  cases  the  vein  is  swollen,  thick- 
ened, and  indurated  to  such  a  degree  as  to  resemble  an  artery.  A 
diffused  swelling,  with  great  tenderness,  may  extend  along  the  af- 
fected vessel  and  the  animal  manifest  all  the  symptoms  connected 
with  acute  fever  and  general  functional  disturbance. 

Pathology. — The  disease  is  only  serious  when  large  veins  are 
affected.  The  coats  undergo  the  same  changes  as  in  arteritis;  clots 
of  blood  and  lymph  plug  the  inflamed  vessel,  and,  if  the  inflammatory 
process  continues,  these  are  converted  into  pus,  which  ruptures  the 
vessel  and  produces  a  deep  abscess ;  or  it  may  be  carried  away  in  the 
circulation  and  produce  metastatic  abscess  in  the  lungs  or  other  remote 
organs.  In  mild  cases  the  clots  may  become  absorbed  and  the  vessel 
restored  to  health.  Phlebitis  in  the  course  of  the  veins  of  the  limbs 
frequently  leads  to  numerous  abscesses,  which  may  be  mistaken  for 
farcy  ulcerations.  A  very  common  result  of  phlebitis  is  an  oblitera- 
tion of  the  affected  portion  of  the  vein,  but  as  collateral  circulation 
is  readily  established  this  is  seldom  of  any  material  inconvenience. 

Treatment. — Phlebitis  should  be  treated  by  the  application  of  a 
smart  blister  along  the  course  of  the  inflamed  vessel;  early  opening 
of  any  abscesses  which  may  form;  the  animal  should  have  complete 
rest,  and  the  bowels  be  kept  loose  with  bran  mashes.  "WTien  the  fever 
runs  high,  half-ounce  doses  of  nitrate  of  potassa  may  be  given  in  the 
drinking  water,  which  may  be  changed  in  two  or  three  days  for 
1-dram  doses  of  the  iodide  of  potassa.  If  the  animal  becomes  de- 
bilitated, carbonate  of  ammonia,  1  dram,  and  powdered  gentian,  3 
drams,  may  be  given  every  six  hours. 


DISEASES   OF   THE   VEINS.  247 

VARICOSE  VEINS,   VARIX,   OR  DILATATION  OF  VEINS. 

This  may  be  a  result  of  weakening  of  the  coats  from  inflammatory 
disease  and  degeneration.  It  may  also  be  due  to  mechanical  obstruc- 
tion from  internal  or  external  sources.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
vein  which  lies  superficial  over  the  inside  of  the  hock  joint,  and  may 
be  due  to  the  pressure  of  a  spavin.  Occasionally  it  may  be  observed 
in  stallions,  which  are  more  or  less  subject  to  varicocele,  or  dilatation 
of  the  veins  of  the  testicular  cord.  Hemorrhoidal  veins,  or  piles,  are 
occasionally  met  with,  generally  in  horses  which  run  at  pasture. 
Varicose  veins  may  ulcerate  and  form  an  abscess  in  the  surrounding 
tissues,  or  they  may  rupture  from  internal  blood  pressure  and  the 
blood  form  large  tumors  where  the  tissues  are  soft. 

Treatment. — Stallions  which  manifest  a  tendency  to  varicocele 
should  wear  suspensory  bags  when  they  are  exercised.  Piles  may 
often  be  reduced  by  astringent  washes — tea  made  from  white-oak 
bark  or  a  saturated  solution  of  alum.  The  bowels  should  be  kept 
loose  with  bran  mashes  and  the  animal  kept  quiet  in  the  stable. 
When  varicose  veins  exist  superficially  and  threaten  to  produce  incon- 
venience, they  may  be  ligated  above  and  below  and  thus  obliterated. 
Sometimes  absorption  may  be  induced  by  constant  bandages. 

AIR  IN  VEINS,  OR  AIR  EMBOLISM. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  entrance  of  air  into  a  vein  at  the 
time  of  the  infliction  of  a  wound  or  in  blood-letting  was  extremely 
dangerous  and  very  often  produced  sudden  death  by  interfering  with 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  heart  and  lungs.  Danger 
from  air  embolism  is  exceedingly  doubtful,  unless  great  quantities 
were  forced  into  a  large  vein  by  artificial  means. 

PURPURA    HEMORRHAGICA. 

Purpura  hemorrhagica  usually  occurs  as  a  sequel  to  debilitating 
diseases,  such  as  strangles,  influenza,  etc.  It  may,  however,  arise  in 
the  absence  of  any  previous  disease  in  badly  ventilated  stables,  among 
poorly  fed  horses,  and  in  animals  subject  to  exhausting  work  and 
extreme  temperatures.  The  disease  is  probably  due  to  some  as  yet 
undiscovered  infectious  principle.  Its  gravity  does  not  depend  so 
much  upon  the  amount  of  blood  extra vasated  as  it  does  upon  the  dis- 
turbance or  diminished  action  of  the  vaso-motor  centers. 

Symptoms. — This  disease  becomes  manifested  by  the  occurrence  of 
sudden  swellings  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  on  the  head  or  lips, 
limbs,  abdomen,  etc.  These  swellings  may  be  diffused  or  very  mark- 
edly circumscribed,  though  in  the  advanced  stages  they  cover  large 
areas.  They  pit  on  pressure  and  are  but  slightly  painful  to  the  touch. 
The  limbs  may  swell  to  a  very  large  size,  the  nostrils  may  become 
almost  closed,  and  the  head  and  throat  may  swell  to  the  point  of  suf- 


248  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

focation.  The  swellings  not  infrequently  disappear  from  one  portion 
of  the  body  and  develop  on  another,  or  may  recede  from  the  surface 
and  invade  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane.  The  mucous  lining  of 
the  nostrils  and  mouth  show  more  or  less  dark-red  or  purple  spots. 
There  may  be  a  discharge  of  blood-colored  serum  from  the  nostrils ; 
the  tongue  may  be  swollen  so  as  to  prevent  eating  or  closing  of  the 
jaws.  In  the  most  intense  cases,  within  from  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours  bloody  serum  may  exude  through  the  skin  over  the 
swollen  parts,  and  finally  large  gangrenous  sloughs  may  form.  The 
temperature  is  never  very  high,  the  pulse  is  frequent  and  com- 
pressible, and  becomes  feebler  as  the  animal  loses  strength.  A  cough 
is  usually  present.  The  urine  is  scanty  and  high  colored,  and  when 
the  intestines  are  much  affected  a  bloody  diarrhea  may  set  in,  with 
colicky  pains.  Some  of  the  internal  organs  become  implicated  in  the 
disease,  the  lungs  may  become  edematous,  extravasation  may  occur 
in  the  intestinal  canal,  or  effusion  of  serum  into  the  cavity  of  the 
chest  or  abdomen;  occasionally  the  brain  becomes  affected.  A  few 
cases  run  a  mild  course  and  recovery  may  commence  in  three  or 
four  days ;  generally,  however,  the  outlook  is  unfavorable.  In  severe 
cases  septic  poisoning  is  liable  to  occur,  which  soon  brings  the  case 
to  a  fatal  issue. 

Pathology. — On  section  we  find  the  capillaries  dilated,  the  connec- 
tive tissue  filled  with  a  coagulable  or  coagulated  lymph,  and  frequently 
we  may  discover  gangrenous  spots  beneath  the  skin  or  involving 
the  skin.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  swollen  and  inflamed.  Exten- 
sive extravasations  of  blood  may  be  found  embedded  between  the 
coats  of  the  intestines,  or  excessive  effusion  into  the  substance  of 
the  lungs. 

Treatnvent. — Diffusible  stimulants  and  tonics  should  be  given  from 
the  start.  Carbonate  of  ammonia,  1  dram,  fluid  extract  of  red  cin- 
chona bark,  2  drams,  and  tincture  of  ginger  half  an  ounce,  Avith  half 
a  pint  of  water;  thin  gruel  or  milk  should  be  given  every  four  or  six 
hours.  But  especial  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  injury  by 
drencliing.  If  the  horse  has  difficulty  in  getting  the  head  up  and 
swallowing,  smaller  doses  must  be  given  with  a  small  hard-rubber 
syringe.  Sulphate  of  iron  in  1-dram  doses  may  be  dissolved  in  water 
and  given  every  six  hours.  Chlorate  of  potassa,  in  2-ounce  doses, 
may  be  given  every  eight  or  twelve  hours.  Colloidal  silver  may  be 
administered  intravenously  in  doses  of  from  5  to  12  gi*ains.  Wash- 
ings with  lead  and  alum  water  are  useful  and  may  be  repeated  several 
times  each  day.  If  the  swellings  are  very  great,  they  may  be  incised 
freely  and  the  resulting  wounds  should  be  washed  at  least  twice  daily 
with  a  warm  3  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  or  other  good  antiseptic. 
Tracheotomy  may  be  necessary.  Complications,  when  they  arise, 
must  Ixi  treated  with  proper  circumspection. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    LYMPHATIC    SYSTEM.  249 

DISEASES   OF   THE   LYMPHATIC   SYSTEM. 

The  lymphatic,  or  absorbent,  system  is  connected  with  the  blood- 
vascular  system,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  tubes  which  absorb  and 
convey  to  the  blood  certain  fluids.  These  tubes  lead  to  lymphatic 
glands,  through  which  the  fluids  pass  to  reach  the  right  lymphatic 
vein  and  thoracic  duct,  both  of  which  enter  the  venous  system  near 
the  heart.  Through  the  excessively  thin  walls  of  the  capillaries  the 
fluid  part  of  the  blood  transudes  to  nourish  the  tissues  outside 
the  capillaries ;  at  the  same  time  fluid  passes  from  the  tissues  into  the 
blood.  The  fluid,  after  it  passes  into  the  tissues,  constitutes  the 
lymph,  and  acts  like  a  stream  irrigating  the  tissue  elements.  Much  of 
the  surplus  of  this  lymph  passes  into  the  lymph  vessels,  which  in  their 
commencement  can  hardly  be  treated  as  independent  structures,  since 
their  walls  are  so  closely  joined  with  the  tissues  through  which  they 
pass,  being  nothing  more  than  spaces  in  the  connective  tissue  until 
they  reach  the  larger  lymph  vessels,  which  finally  empty  into  lymph 
glands.  These  lymph  glands  are  structures  so  placed  that  the  lymph 
flowing  toward  the  larger  trunks  passes  through  them,  undergoing  a 
sort  of  filtration.  From  the  fact  of  this  arrangement  lymph  glands 
are  subject  to  inflammatory  diseases  in  the  vicinity  of  diseased  struc- 
tures, because  infective  material  being  conveyed  in  the  lymph  stream 
lodges  in  the  glands  and  produces  irritation. 

LOCAL  INFLAMMATION  AND  ABSCESS  OF  LYMPHATIC  GLANDS. 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  lymph  glands  usually  occurs  in  connec- 
tion with  some  inflammatory  process  in  the  region  from  which  its 
lymph  is  gathered.  Several  or  all  of  the  glands  in  a  cluster  may 
become  affected,  as  in  strangles,  nasal  catarrh,  or  nasal  gleet,  diseased 
or  ulcerated  teeth,  the  lymph  glands  between  the  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw  almost  invariably  become  affected,  which  may  lead  to  sup- 
puration or  induration.  Similar  results  obtain  in  other  portions  of 
the  body;  in  pneumonia  the  bronchial  glands  become  affected;  in 
pharyngitis,  the  postpharyngeal  glands  lying  above  the  trachea  be- 
come affected,  etc. 

Sym/ptoms. — The  glands  swell  and  become  painful  to  the  touch,  the 
connective  tissue  surrounding  them  becomes  involved,  suppuration 
usually  takes  place,  and  one  or  more  abscesses  form.  If  the  inflam- 
mation is  of  a  milder  type,  resolution  may  take  place  and  the  swelling 
recede,  the  exudative  material  being  absorbed,  and  the  gland  restored 
without  the  occurrence  of  suppuration.  In  the  limbs  a  whole  chain 
of  the  glands  along  the  lymphatic  vessels  may  become  affected,  as  in 
farcy,  phlebitis,  or  septic  poisoning. 

Treatment. — Fomentation  with  hot  water  and  the  application  of 
camphorated  soap  liniment  or  camphorated  oil  may  produce  a  revul- 


250  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

sive  action  and  prevent  suppuration.  If  there  is  any  indication  of 
abscess  forming,  poultices  of  linseed  meal  and  bran  made  into  a  paste 
with  hot  water  should  be  applied,  or  a  mild  blistering  ointment 
rubbed  in  over  the  swollen  gland.  As  soon  as  fluctuation  can  be  felt 
a  free  opening  must  be  made  for  the  escape  of  the  contained  pus. 
The  wound  may  subsequently  be  washed  out  with  a  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  zinc,  5  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  three  times  a  day, 

liYMPHANGITIS.  • 

Specific  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  structures  usually  affects 
the  hind  legs ;  very  seldom  a  fore  leg.  This  disease  is  very  sudden  in 
its  attack,  exceedingly  painful,  accompanied  by  a  high  temperature 
and  great  general  disturbance. 

Causes. — Horses  of  lymphatic,  or  sluggish,  temperament  are  pre- 
disposed to  this  affection.  It  usually  attacks  well-fed  animals,  and  in 
such  cases  may  be  due  to  an  excess  of  nutritive  elements  in  the  blood. 
Sudden  changes  in  work  or  in  the  habits  of  the  animal  may  induce  an 
attack. 

Symptoms. — It  is  usually  ushered  in  by  a  chill,  rise  in  temperature, 
and  some  uneasiness;  in  a  very  short  time  this  is  followed  by  lame- 
ness in  one  leg  and  swelling  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh.  The  swelling 
gradually  surrounds  the  whole  limb  and  continues  on  downward  until 
it  reaches  the  foot.  The  limb  is  excessively  tender  to  the  touch,  the 
animal  perspires,  the  breathing  is  accelerated,  pulse  hard  and  quick, 
and  the  temperature  may  reach  106°  F.  The  bowels  early  become 
constipated  and  the  urine  scanty.  The  symptoms  usually  are  on  the 
increase  for  about  two  days,  then  they  remain  stationary  for  the  same 
length  of  time;  the  fever  then  abates;  the  swelling  recedes  and  be- 
comes less  painful.  It  is  very  seldom,  though,  that  all  the  swelling 
leaves  the  leg;  generally  it  leaves  some  permanent  enlargement,  and 
the  animal  l)ecomes  subject  to  recurrent  attacks.  Occasionally,  the 
inguinal  lymphatic  glands  (in  the  groin)  undergo  suppuration,  and 
pyemia  may  supervene  and  prove  fatal.  In  severe  cases  the  limb  be- 
comes denuded  of  hair  in  patches,  and  the  skin  remains  indurated 
with  a  fibrous  growth,  wliirh  is  known  by  the  name  of  elephnntinsis. 

TreatTnent. — The  parts  should  be  bathed  freely  and  frequently  with 
water  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear  and  then  fomented  with  vinegar 
and  water,  equal  parts,  to  which  add  2  oimces  of  nitrate  of  potassa 
for  each  gallon.  TTiis  should  be  applied  frequently,  after  the  hot 
water  for  the  first  day.  Afterwards,  the  leg  may  be  dried  with  a 
woolen  rloth  and  bathed  with  camphorated  soap  liniment.  Inter- 
nally, administer  artificial  Carlsbad  salts  in  2  to  4  ounce  doses  three 
times  daily.  Feed  lightly  and  give  complete  rest.  This  treatment, 
if  instituted  early  in  the  attack,  very  frequently  brings  about  a  re- 
markable change  within  twenty-four  hours. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  Cornell  University. 

[Revised  In  1903  by  the  author.] 

We  can  scarcely  overestimate  the  value  of  sound  eyes  in  the  horse, 
and  hence  all  diseases  and  injuries  which  seriously  interfere  with 
vision  are  matters  of  extreme  gravity  and  apprehension,  for  should 
they  prove  permanent  they  invariably  depreciate  the  selling  price  to 
a  considerable  extent.  A  blind  horse  is  always  dangerous  in  the  sad- 
dle or  in  single  harness,  and  he  is  scarcely  less  so  when,  with  partially 
impaired  vision,  he  sees  things  imperfectly,  in  a  distorted  form  or  in 
a  wrong  place,  and  when  he  shies  or  avoids  objects  which  are  com- 
monplace or  familiar.  When  we  add  to  this  that  certain  diseases  of 
the  eyes,  like  recurring  inflammation  (moon  blindness),  are  habitu- 
ally transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring,  we  can  realize  still  more 
fully  the  importance  of  these  maladies.  Again,  as  a  mere  matter  of 
beauty,  a  sound,  full,  clear,  intelligent  eye  is  something  which  must 
always  add  a  high  value  to  our  equine  friends  and  servants. 

THE    EYEBALL,. 

A  full  description  of  the  structure  of  the  eye  is  incompatible  with 
our  prescribed  limits,  and  yet  a  short  description  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  clear  understanding  of  what  is  to  follow. 

The  horse's  eye  is  a  spheroidal  body,  flattened  behind,  and  with  its 
posterior  four-fifths  inclosed  by  an  opaque,  white,  strong  fibrous 
membrane  (the  sclerotic),  on  the  inner  side  of  which  is  laid  a  more 
delicate  friable  membrane,  consisting  mainly  of  blood  vessels  and 
pigment  cells  (the  choroid),  and  that  in  its  turn  is  lined  by  the  ex- 
tremely delicate  and  sensitive  expansion  of  the  nerve  of  sight  (the 
retina).  The  anterior  fifth  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  bulges  forward 
from  what  would  have  been  the  direct  line  of  the  sclerotic,  and  thus 
forms  a  segment  of  a  much  smaller  sphere  than  is  inclosed  by  the 
sclerotic.  Its  walls,  too,  have  in  health  a  perfect  translucency  from 
which  it  has  derived  the  name  of  transparent  coimca.  This  trans- 
parent coat  is  composed,  in  the  main,  of  fibers  with  lymph  interspaces, 
and  it  is  to  the  condition  of  these  and  their  condensation  and  com- 
pression that  the  translucency  is  largely  due.  This  may  be  shown 
by  compressing  with  the  fingers  the  eye  of  an  ox  which  has  just  been 
killed,   when   the  clear  transparent   cornea  will   suddenly   become 

251 


252  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

clouded  over  with  a  whitish  blue  opacity,  and  this  will  remain  until 
the  compression  is  interrupted.  The  interior  of  the  eye  contains 
three  transparent  media  for  the  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light  on 
their  way  from  the  cornea  to  the  visual  nerve.  Of  these  media  tho 
anterior  one  (aqueous  hirnior)  is  liquid,  the  posterior  (vitreous 
humor)  is  semisolid,  and  the  intermediate  one  (crystalline  lens)  is 
solid.  The  space  occupied  by  the  aqueous  humor  corresponds  nearly 
to  the  portion  of  the  eye  covered  by  the  transparent  cornea.  It  is, 
however,  divided  into  two  chambers,  anterior  and  posterior,  by  the 
iris,  a  contractile  curtain  with  a  hole  in  the  center  (the  pupil),  and 
which  may  be  looked  on  as  in  some  sense  a  projection  inward  of  the 
vascular  and  pigmentary  coat  from  its  anterior  margin  at  the  point 
where  the  sclerotic  or  opaque  outer  coat  becomes  continuous  with  tho 
cornea  or  transparent  one.  This  iris,  or  curtain,  besides  its  abun- 
dance of  blood  vessels  and  pigment,  possesses  two  sets  of  muscular 
fibers,  one  set  radiating  from  the  margin  of  the  pupil  to  the  outer 
border  of  the  curtain  at  its  attachment  to  the  sclerotic  and  choroid, 
and  the  other  encircling  the  pupil  in  the  manner  of  a  ring.  The 
action  of  the  two  sets  is  necessarily  antagonistic,  the  radiating  fibers 
dilating  the  pupil  and  exposing  the  interior  of  the  eye  to  view, 
while  the  circular  fibers  contract  this  opening  and  shut  out  the  rays 
of  light.  The  form  of  the  pupil  in  the  horse  is  ovoid,  with  its  longest 
diameter  from  side  to  side,  and  its  upper  border  is  fringed  by  several 
minute  black  bodies  (corpora  nigra)  projecting  forward  and  serving 
to  some  extent  the  purpose  of  eyebrows  in  arresting  and  absorbing 
the  excess  of  rays  of  light  which  fall  upon  the  eye  from  above.  These 
pigmentary  projections  in  front  of  the  upper  border  of  the  pupil  are 
often  mistaken  for  the  products  of  disease  or  injury,  in  place  of  the 
normal  and  beneficent  protectors  of  the  nerve  of  sight  which  they  are. 
They  may,  like  all  other  parts,  become  the  seat  of  disease,  but  so  long 
as  they  and  the  iris  retain  their  clear,  dark  aspect,  without  any  tints 
of  brown  or  yellow,  they  may  be  held  to  be  healthy. 

The  vitreous  or  semisolid  refracting  medium  occupies  the  posterior 
part  of  the  eye — the  part  corresponding  to  the  sclerotic,  choroid,  and 
retina — and  has  a  consistency  corresponding  to  that  of  the  white  of 
an  egg,  and  a  power  of  refraction  of  the  light  rays  correspondingly 
greater  than  the  aqueous  humor. 

The  third  or  solid  refracting  medium  is  a  biconvex  lens,  with  its 
convexity  greatest  on  its  posterior  surface,  which  is  lodged  in  a  depres- 
sion in  the  vitreous  humor,  while  its  anterior  surface  corresponds 
to  the  opening  of  the  pupil.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  membranous  covering 
(capsule)  and  is  maintained  in  position  by  a  membrane  (suspensory 
ligament)  which  extends  from  the  margin  of  the  lens  outward  to  the 
sclerotic  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the  choroid  and  iris.  This  liga- 
ment is,  in  its  turn,  furnished  with  radiating  muscular  fibers,  which 


DISEASES    OF    THE   EYE.  253 

change  the  form  or  position  of  the  lens  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  see  with 
equal  clearness  objects  at  a  distance  or  close  by. 

Another  point  which  strikes  the  observer  of  the  horse's  eye  is  that 
in  the  darkness  a  bright  bluish  tinge  is  reflected  from  the  widely 
dilated  pupil.  This  is  owing  to  a  comparative  absence  of  pigment 
in  the  choroid  coat  inside  the  upper  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  enables 
the  animal  to  see  and  advance  with  security  in  darkness  where  the 
human  eye  would  be  of  little  use.  The  lower  part  of  the  cavity 
of  the  horse's  eye,  into  which  the  dazzling  rays  fall  from  the  sky, 
is  furnished  with  an  intensely  black  lining,  by  which  the  rays 
penetrating  the  inner  nervous  layer  are  instantly  absorbed. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  EYE. 

These  consist  of  four  straight  muscles,  two  oblique  and  one  re- 
tractor. The  straight  muscles  pass  from  the  depth  of  the  crbit 
forward  on  the  inner,  outer,  upper,  and  lower  sides  of  the  eyeball, 
and  are  fixed  to  the  anterior  portion  of  the  fibrous  (sclerotic)  coat, 
so  that  in  contracting  singly  they  respectively  turn  the  eye  inward, 
outward,  upward,  and  downward.  When  all  act  together  they  draw 
the  eyeball  deeply  into  its  socket.  The  retractor  muscle  also  consists 
of  four  muscular  slips,  repeating  the  straight  muscles  on  a  smaller 
scale,  but  as  they  are  only  attached  on  the  back  part  of  the  eyeball 
they  are  less  adapted  to  roll  the  eye  than  to  draw  it  down  into  its 
socket.  The  two  oblique  muscles  rotate  the  eye  on  its  own  axis,  the 
upper  one  turning  its  outer  surface  upward  and  inward,  and  the 
lower  one  turning  it  downward  and  inward. 

THE   HAW    (the   WINKING   CARTILAGE,  OR  CARTILAGO   NICTITANS). 

This  is  a  structure,  which,  like  the  retractor  muscle,  is  not  found  in 
the  eye  of  man,  but  it  serves  in  the  lower  animals  to  assist  in  remov- 
ing foreign  bodies  from  the  front  of  the  eyeball.  It  consists,  in  the 
horse,  of  a  cartilage  of  irregular  form,  thickened  inferiorly  and  pos- 
teriorly where  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  muscles  of  the  eye- 
ball and  the  fatty  material  around  them,  and  expanded  and  flattened 
anteriorly  where  its  upper  surface  is  concave,  and,  as  it  were,  molded 
on  the  lower  and  inner  surface  of  the  eyeball.  Externally  it  is  cov- 
ered by  the  mucous  membrane  which  lines  the  eyelids  and  extends 
over  the  front  of  the  eye.  In  the  ordinary  restful  state  of  the  eye  the 
edge  of  this  cartilage  should  just  appear  as  a  thin  fold  of  membrane 
at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye,  but  when  the  eyeball  is  drawn  deeply  into 
the  orbit  the  cartilage  is  pushed  forward,  outward,  and  upward  over 
it  until  the  entire  globe  may  be  hidden  from  sight.  This  protrusion 
of  the  cartilage,  so  as  to  cover  the  eye,  may  be  induced  in  the  healthy 
eye  by  pressing  the  finger  and  thumb  on  the  upper  and  lower  lids,  so 
as  to  cause  retraction  of  the  eyeball  into  the  socket.     ^Vhen  foreign 


254  DISEASES    OP   THE   HOBSE. 

bodies,  such  as  sand,  dust,  and  chaflf,  or  other  irritants  have  fallen  on 
the  eyeball  or  eyelids,  it  is  similarly  projected  to  push  them  off,  their 
expulsion  being  further  favored  by  a  profuse  flow  of  tears. 

This  is  seen,  to  a  lesser  extent,  in  all  painful  inflammations  of  the 
eye,  and  to  a  very  marked  degree  in  lockjaw,  when  the  spasm  of  the 
muscles  of  the  eyeball  draws  the  latter  deeply  into  the  orbit  and  pro- 
jects forward  the  masses  of  fat  and  the  cartilage.  The  brutal  practice 
of  cutting  off  this  apparatus,  whenever  it  is  projected,  necessitates 
this  explanation  which,  it  is  hoped,  may  save  to  many  a  faithful  serv- 
ant a  most  valuable  appendage.  That  the  cartilage  and  membrane 
may  become  the  seat  of  disease  is  undeniable,  but  so  long  as  its  edge 
is  thin  and  even,  and  its  surface  smooth  and  regular,  the  mere  fact  of 
its  projection  over  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  eyeball  is  no  evidence 
of  disease  in  its  substance,  nor  any  warrant  for  its  removal.  It  is 
usually  but  the  evidence  of  the  presence  of  some  pain  in  another  part 
of  the  eye,  which  the  suffering  animal  endeavors  to  assuage  by  the  use 
of  this  beneficent  provision.  For  the  diseases  of  the  cartilage  itself, 
see  "  Encephaloid  cancer." 

LACHRYMAL   APPARATUS. 

This  consists,  first,  of  a  gland  for  the  secretion  of  the  tears,  and, 
second,  of  a  series  of  canals  for  the  conveyance  of  the  superfluous 
tears  into  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 

The  gland  is  situated  above  the  outer  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  the 
tears  which  have  flowed  over  the  eye  and  reached  the  inner  angle  are 
there  directed  by  a  small  conical  papilla  (lachrymal  caruncle)  into 
two  minute  orifices,  and  thence  by  two  ducts  (lachrymal)  to  a  small 
pouch  (lachrymal  sac)  from  which  a  canal  leads  through  the  bones 
of  the  face  into  the  nose.  This  opens  in  the  lower  part  of  the  nose  on 
the  floor  of  the  passage  and  a  little  outside  the  line  of  union  of  the 
skin  which  lines  the  false  nostril  with  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose.  In  the  ass  and  mule  this  opening  is  situated  on  the  roof  instead 
of  the  floor  of  the  nose,  but  still  close  to  the  external  oi>ening. 

EXAMINATION   OF  THE   EYE. 

To  avoid  unnecessary  repetition  the  following  general  directions  are 
given  for  the  examination  of  the  eye :  The  eye,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  eyelids,  may  be  exposed  to  view 
by  gently  parting  the  eyelids  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  pressed 
on  the  middle  of  the  respective  lids.  The  pressure,  it  is  true,  causes 
the  protrusion  of  the  haw  over  a  portion  of  the  lower  and  inner  part 
of  the  eye,  but  by  gentleness  and  careful  graduation  of  the  pressure 
this  may  be  kept  within  bounds,  and  oftentimes  even  the  interior  of 
the  eye  can  be  seen.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  use  the  right  hand  for  the 
left  eye,  and  the  left  hand  for  the  right,  the  finger  in  each  case  being 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYE.  255 

pressed  on  the  upper  lid  while  the  thumb  depresses  the  lower  one.  In 
cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  examine  the  inner  side  of  the  eyelid 
further  than  is  possible  by  the  above  means,  the  upper  lid  may  bo 
drawn  down  by  the  eyelashes  with  the  one  hand  and  then  everted 
over  the  tip  of  the  forefinger  of  the  other  hand,  or  over  a  probe  laid 
flat  against  the  middle  of  the  lid.  Where  the  interior  of  the  eye  must 
be  examined  it  is  useless  to  make  the  attempt  in  the  open  sunshine  or 
under  a  clear  sky.  The  worst  cases,  it  is  true,  can  be  seen  under  such 
circumstances,  but  for  the  slighter  forms  the  horse  should  be  taken 
indoors,  ^here  all  light  from  above  will  be  shut  off,  and  should  be 
placed  so  that  the  light  shall  fall  on  the  eye  from  the  front  and  side. 
Then  the  observer,  placing  himself  in  front  of  the  animal,  will  receive 
the  reflected  rays  from  the  cornea,  the  front  of  the  lens  and  the  back, 
and  can  much  more  easily  detect  any  cloudiness,  opacity  or  lack  of 
transparency.  The  examination  can  be  made  much  more  satisfactory 
by  placing  the  horse  in  a  dark  chamber  and  illuminating  the  eye  by 
a  lamp  placed  forward  and  outward  from  the  eye  which  is  to  be  exam- 
ined. Any  cloudiness  is  thus  easily  detected,  and  any  doubt  may  be 
resolved  by  moving  the  lamp  so  that  the  image  of  the  flame  may  be 
passed  in  succession  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  transparent  cornea 
and  of  the  crystalline  lens.  Three  images  of  the  flame  will  be  seen, 
the  larger  one  upright,  reflected  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  eye ; 
a  smaller  one  upright,  reflected  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens ; 
and  a  second  small  one  inverted  from  the  back  surface  of  the  lens. 

So  long  as  these  images  are  reflected  from  healthy  surfaces  they 
will  be  clear  and  perfect  in  outline,  but  as  soon  as  one  strikes  on  an 
area  of  opacity  it  will  become  diffused,  cloudy,  and  indefinite.  Thus, 
if  the  large  upright  image  becomes  hazy  and  imperfect  over  a  partic- 
ular spot  of  the  cornea,  that  will  be  found  to  be  the  seat  of  disease 
and  opacity.  Should  the  large  image  remain  clear,  but  the  small 
upright  one  become  diffuse  and  indefinite  over  a  given  point,  it  indi- 
cates opacity  on  the  front  of  the  caj^ule  of  the  lens.  If  both  upright 
images  remain  clear  while  the  inverted  one  becomes  indistinct  at  a 
given  point,  then  the  opacity  is  in  the  substance  of  the  lens  itself  or  in 
the  posterior  part  of  its  capsule. 

If  in  a  given  case  the  pupil  remains  so  closely  contracted  that  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  eye  can  not  be  seen,  the  eyelids  may  be  rubbed 
with  extract  of  belladonna,  and  in  a  short  time  the  pupil  will  be  found 
widely  dilated. 

DISEASES   OF  ffHE   EYELIDS. 

Congenital  disorders. — Some  faulty  conditions  of  the  eyelids  are 
congenital,  as  division  of  an  eyelid  in  two^  after  the  manner  of  hare- 
lip, ahnormally  small  opening  between  the  lids.,  often  connected  with 
imperfect  development  of  the  eye,  and  closure  of  the  lids  hy  adhesion. 


256  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

The  first  is  to  be  remedied  by  paring  the  edges  of  the  division  and 
then  bringing  them  together,  as  in  torn  lids.  The  last  two,  if  reme- 
diable at  all,  require  separation  by  the  knife,  and  subsequent  treat- 
ment with  a  cooling  astringent  eyewash. 

Neriious  disorders. — Spasm  of  eyelids  may  be  owing  to  consti- 
tutional susceptibility,  or  to  the  presence  of  local  irritants  (insects, 
chemical  irritants,  sand,  etc.)  in  the  eye,  to  wounds  or  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  to  disease  of  the  brain.  When  due  to 
local  irritation,  it  may  be  temporarily  overcome  by  instilling  a  few 
drops  of  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  cocaine  into  the  eye,  when  the  true 
cause  may  be  ascertained  and  removed.  The  nervous  or  constitu- 
tional disease  must  be  treated  according  to  its  nature. 

Drooping  eyelids^  or  ptosis. — This  is  usually  present  in  the  upper 
lid,  or  is  at  least  little  noticed  in  the  lower.  It  is  sometimes  but  a 
symptom  of  paralysis  of  one-half  of  the  face,  in  which  case  the  ear. 
lips,  and  nostrils  on  the  same  side  will  be  found  soft,  drooping,  and 
inactive,  and  even  the  half  of  the  tongue  may  partake  of  the  palsy. 
If  the  same  condition  exists  on' both  sides,  there  is  difficult  snuffling 
breathing,  from  the  air  drawing  in  the  flaps  of  the  nostrils  in  inspira- 
tion, and  all  food  is  taken  in  by  the  teeth,  as  the  lips  are  useless.  In 
both  there  is  a  free  discharge  of  saliva  from  the  mouth  during  masti- 
cation. This  paralysis  is  a  frequent  result  of  injury,  by  a  poke,  to 
the  seventh  nerve,  as  it  passes  over  the  back  of  the  lower  jaw.  In 
some  cases  the  paralysis  is  confined  to  the  lid,  the  injury  having  been 
sustained  by  the  muscles  which  raise  it,  or  by  the  supraorbital  nerve 
which  emerges  from  the  bone  just  above  the  eye.  Such  injury  to  the 
nerve  may  have  resulted  from  fracture  of  the  orbital  process  of  the 
frontal  bone  above  the  eyeball. 

Tlie  condition  may,  however,  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  sphincter 
muscle,  which  closes  the  lids,  or  to  inflammation  of  the  upper  lid, 
usually  a  result  of  blows  on  the  orbit.  In  the  latter  case  it  may  run 
a  slow  course  with  chronic  thickening  of  the  lid. 

The  paralysis  due  to  the  poke  may  be  often  remedied,  first,  by  the 
removal  of  any  remaining  inflammation  by  a  wet  sponge  worn  be- 
neath the  ear  and  kept  in  phice  by  a  bandage;  second,  when  all  in- 
flammation has  passed,  by  a  blister  on  the  same  region,  or  by  rubbing 
it  daily  with  a  mixture  in  equal  proportions  of  olive  oil  and  strong 
aqua  ammonia.  Improvement  is  usually  slow,  and  it  may  be  months 
before  complete  recovery  ensues. 

In  paralysis  from  blows  above  the  eyes  the  same  treatment  may  be 
applied  to  that  part. 

Thickening  of  the  lid  may  be  treated  by  painting  with  tincture  of 
iodine,  and  that  failing,  by  cutting  out  an  elliptical  strip  of  the  skin 
from  the  middle  of  the  upper  lid  and  stitching  the  edges  together. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYELIDS.  257 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  suffer  more  or  less  in  all  severe  inflammations  of  the 
eye,  whether  external  or  internal,  but  inasmuch  as  the  disease  some- 
times starts  in  the  lids  and  at  other  times  is  exclusively  confined  to 
them,  it  deserves  independent  mention. 

Among  the  causes  may  be  named :  Exposure  to  drafts  of  cold  air, 
or  to  cold  rain  or  snow  storms ;  the  bites  or  stings  of  mosquitoes,  flies, 
and  other  insects;  snake  bites,  pricks  with  thorns,  blows  of  whip  or 
club ;  accidental  bruises  against  the  stall  or  ground,  especially  during 
the  violent  struggles  of  colic,  enteritis,  phrenitis  (staggers),  and  when 
thrown  for  operations.  It  is  also  a  result  of  infecting  inoculations,  as 
of  erysipelas,  antlirax,  boil,  etc.,  and  is  noted  by  Leblanc  as  espe- 
cially prevalent  among  horses  kept  on  low  marshy  pastures.  Finally, 
the  introduction  of  sand,  dust,  chaff,  beards  of  barley  and  seeds  of 
the  finest  grasses,  and  the  contact  with  irritant  chemical  powders, 
liquids,  and  gases  (ammonia  from  manure  or  factory,  chlorine, 
strong  sulphur  fumes,  smoke,  and  other  products  of  combustion,  etc.) 
may  start  the  inflammation.  The  eyelids  often  undergo  extreme 
inflammatory  and  dropsical  swelling  in  urticaria  (nettlerash,  sur- 
feit) and  in  the  general  inflammatory  dropsy  known  as  purpura 
hemorrhagica. 

The  affection  will,  therefore,  readily  divide  itself  into  (1)  inflam- 
mations due  to  constitutional  causes;  (2)  those  due  to  direct  injury, 
mechanical  or  chemical;  and  (3)  such  as  are  due  to  inoculation  with 
infecting  material. 

(1)  Inflammations  due  to  constitutional  causes  are  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  any  local  wound,  and  the  history  of  a  low,  damp 
pasture,  exposure,  indigestion  from  unwholesome  food,  or  the  pres- 
ence elsewhere  on  the  limbs  or  body  of  the  general  doughy  swellings 
of  purpura  hemorrhagica.  The  lids  are  swollen  and  thickened;  it 
may  be  slightly  or  it  may  be  so  extremely  that  the  e3'eball  can  not  be 
seen.  If  the  lid  can  be  everted  to  show  its  mucous  membrane,  that 
is  seen  to  be  of  a  deep-red  color,  especially  along  the  branching  lines 
of  the  blood  vessels.  The  part  is  hot  and  painful,  and  a  profuse  flow 
of  tears  and  mucus  escapes  on  the  side  of  the  face,  causing  irritation 
and  loss  of  the  hair.  If  improvement  follows,  this  discharge  becomes 
more  tenacious,  and  tends  to  cause  adhesion  to  the  edges  of  the  upper 
and  lower  lids  and  to  mat  together  the  eyelashes  in  bundles.  This 
gradually  decreases  to  the  natural  amount,  and  the  redness  and  con- 
gested appearance  of  the  eye  disappears,  but  swelling,  thickening, 
and  stiffness  of  the  lids  may  continue  for  a  length  of  time.  There 
may  be  more  or  less  fever  according  to  the  violence  of  the  inflamma- 
tion, but  so  long  as  there  is  no  serious  disease  of  the  interior  of  the 
eye  or  of  other  vital  organ  this  is  usually  moderate. 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 17 


258  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

The  local  treatment  consists  in  astringent,  soothing  lotions  (sugar 
of  lead  30  grains,  laudanum  2  teaspoonfuls,  rain  water — boiled  and 
cooled — 1  pint),  applied  with  a  soft  cloth  kept  wet  with  the  lotion, 
and  hung  over  the  eye  by  tying  it  to  the  headstall  of  the  bridle  on  the 
two  sides.  If  the  mucous  membrane  lining  of  the  lids  is  the  seat  of 
little  red  granular  elevations,  a  drop  of  solution  of  2  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  in  an  ounce  of  distilled  water  should  be  applied  with  the  soft 
end  of  a  clean  feather  to  the  inside  of  the  lid  twice  a  day.  The 
patient  should  be  removed  from  all  such  conditions  (pasture,  faulty 
food,  exposure,  etc.)  as  may  have  caused  or  aggravated  the  disease, 
and  from  dust  and  irritant  fumes  and  gases.  He  should  be  fed  from 
a  manger  high  enough  to  favor  the  return  of  blood  from  the  head, 
and  should  be  kept  from  work,  especially  in  a  tight  collar  which 
would  prevent  the  descent  of  blood  by  the  jugular  veins.  His  diet 
should  be  laxative  and  nonstimulating  (grass,  bran  mashes,  carrots, 
turnips,  beets,  potatoes,  or  steamed  hay),  and  any  costiveness  should 
be  corrected  by  a  mild  dose  of  raw  linseed  oil  (1  to  1\  pints).  In 
cold  weather  warm  blanketing  may  be  needful,  and  even  loose  flannel 
bandages  to  the  limbs,  but  heat  should  never  be  sought  at  the  expense 
of  pure  air. 

(2)  In  inflammations  due  to  local  irritants  of  a  noninfective  kind 
a  careful  examination  will  usually  reveal  their  presence,  and  the  first 
step  must  be  their  removal  with  a  pair  of  blunt  forceps  or  the  point 
of  a  lead  pencil.  Subsequent  treatment  will  be  in  the  main  the  local 
treatment  advised  above. 

(3)  In  case  of  infective  inflammation  there  will  often  be  found  a 
prick  or  tear  by  which  the  septic  matter  has  entered,  and  in  such  case 
the  inflammation  will  for  a  time  be  concentrated  at  that  point.  A 
round  or  conical  swelling  around  an  insect  bite  is  especially  'character- 
istic. A  snake  bite  is  marked  by  the  double  prick  made  by  the  two 
teeth  and  by  the  violent  and  rapidly  spreading  inflammation.  Ery- 
sipelas is  attended  with  much  swelling,  extending  beyond  the  lids 
and  causing  the  mucous  membrane  to  protrude  beyond  the  edge  of 
the  eyelid  (chemosis).  This  is  characterized  by  a  bright,  uniform, 
rosy  red,  disappearing  on  pressure,  or  later  by  a  dark,  livid  hue,  but 
with  less  branching  redness  than  in  noninfecting  inflammation  and 
le^  of  the  dark,  dusky,  brownish  or  yellowish  tint  of  anthrax.  Lit- 
tle vesicles  may  appear  on  the  skin,  and  pus  may  be  found  without 
any  distinct  limiting  membrane,  as  in  abscess.  It  is  early  attanded 
by  high  fever  and  marked  general  weakness  and  inappetence.  An- 
thrax of  the  lids  is  marked  by  a  firm  swelling,  surmounted  by  a  blis- 
ter, with  bloody  serous  contents,  which  tends  to  burst  and  dry  up 
into  a  slough,  while  the  surrounding  parts  become  involved  in  the 
same  way.  Or  it  may  show  as  a  diffuse  dropsical  swelling,  with  less 
of  the  hard  central  sloughing  nodule,  but,  like  that,  tending  to  spread 


DISEASES   OP   THE   EYELIDS.  259 

quickly.  In  both  cases  alike  the  mucous  membrane  and  the  skin,  if 
white,  assume  a  dusky  brown  or  yellowish  brown  hue,  which  is 
largely  characteristic.  This  may  pass  into  a  black  color  by  reason 
of  extravasation  of  blood.  There  appears  early  great  constitutional 
disturbance,  with  much  prostration  and  weakness  and  generalized 
anthrax  symptoms. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  these  will  vary  according  to  the 
severity.  Insect  bites  may  be  touched  with  a  solution  of  equal  parts 
of  glycerin  and  aqua  ammonia,  or  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  water.  Snake  bites  may  be  bathed  with  aqua  ammonia,  and 
the  same  agent  given  in  doses  of  2  teaspoonf uls  in  a  quart  of  water. 
Or  alcohol  may  be  given  in  pint  or  quart  dose.s,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  animal.  In  erysipelas  the  skin  may  be  painted  with  tincture 
of  muriate  of  iron,  or  with  a  solution  of  20  grains  of  iodine  in  an 
ounce  of  carbolic  acid,  and  o?;ie-half  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  muriate  of 
iron  may  be  given  thrice  daily  in  a  bottle  of  water.  In  anthrax  the 
swelling  should  be  painted  with  tincture  of  iodine,  or  of  the  mixture 
of  iodine  and  carbolic  acid,  and  if  very  threatening  it  may  have  the 
tincture  of  iodine  injected  into  the  swelling  with  a  hypodermic 
syringe,  or  the  hard  mass  may  be  freely  incised  to  its  depth  with  a 
sharp  lancet  and  the  lotion  applied  to  the  exposed  tissues.  Internally, 
iodide  of  potassium  may  be  given  in  doses  of  2  drams  thrice  a  day,  or 
tincture  of  the  muriate  of  iron  every  four  hours. 

STY,  OR  FURUNCLE    (bOIl)    OF  THE  EYELID. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  limited  extent,  advancing  to  the  forma- 
tion of  matter  and  the  sloughing  out  of  a  small  mass  of  the  natural 
tissue  of  the  eyelid.  It  forms  a  firm,  rounded  swelling,  usually  near 
the  margin  of  the  lid,which  suppurates  and  bursts  in  four  or  five  days. 
Its  course  may  be  hastened  by  a  poultice  of  camomile  flowers,  to 
which  have  been  added  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid,  the  whole 
applied  in  a  very  thin  muslin  bag.  If  the  swelling  is  slow  to  open 
after  having  become  yellowish  white,  it  may  be  opened  by  a  lancet, 
the  incision  being  made  at  right  angles  to  the  margin  of  the  lid. 

ENTROPION  AND  ECTROPION,  OR  INVERSION  AND  EVERSION  OF  THE  EYELID. 

These  are  respectively  caused  by  wounds,  sloughs,  ulcers,  or  other 
causes  of  loss  of  substance  of  the  mucous  membrane  on  the  inside  of 
the  lid  and  of  the  skin  on  the  outside;  also  of  tumors,  skin  diseases, 
or  paralysis  which  leads  to  displacement  of  the  margin  of  the  eyelid. 
As  a  rule,  they  require  a  surgical  operation,  with  removal  of  an  ellip- 
tical portion  of  the  mucous  membrane  or  skin,  as  the  case  may  be,  but 
which  requires  the  skilled  and  delicate  hand  of  the  surgeon. 


260  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

TRICHIASIS. 

This  consists  in  the  turning  in  of  the  eyelashes  so  as  to  irritate  the 
front  of  the  eye.  If  a  single  eyelash,  it  may  be  snipped  oflf  with  scis- 
sors close  to  the  margin  of  the  eyelid  or  pulled  out  by  the  root  with  a 
pair  of  flat-bladed  forceps.  If  the  divergent  lashes  are  more  numer- 
ous, the  treatment  may  be  as  for  entropion,  by  excising  an  elliptical 
portion  of.  skin  opposite  the  offending  lashes  and  stitching  the  edges 
together,  so  as  to  draw  outward  the  margin  of  the  lid  at  that  point. 

WARTS  AND  OTHER  TUMORS  OF  THE  EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  form  a  favorite  site  for  tumors,  and  above  all,  warts, 
which  consist  in  a  simple  diseased  overgrowth  (hypertrophy)  of  the 
surface  layers  of  the  skin.  If  small,  these  may  be  snipped  off  with 
scissors  or  tied  around  the  neck  with  a  stout  waxed  thread  and  left  to 
drop  off,  the  destruction  being  completed,  if  necessary,  by  the  daily 
application  of  a  piece  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  until  any 
unhealthy  material  has  Ijeen  removed.  If  more  widely  spread,  the 
wart  may  still  be  clipped  off  with  curved  scissors  or  knife,  and  the 
caustic  thoroughly  applied  day  by  day. 

A  bleeding  wart,  or  erectile  tumor,  is  more  liable  to  bleed,  and  is 
best  removed  by  constricting  its  neck  with  the  waxed  cord  or  rubber 
band,  or  if  too  broad  for  this  it  ma^v  be  transfixed  through  its  base  by 
a  needle  armed  with  a  double  thread,  which  is  then  to  be  cut  in  two 
and  tied  around  the  two  portions  of  the  neck  of  the  tumor.  If  still 
broader,  the  armed  needle  may  be  carried  through  the  base  of  the 
tumor  at  regular  intervals,  so  that  the  whole  may  be  tied  in  moder- 
ately sized  sections. 

In  gray  and  in  white  horses  black  pigmentary  tumors  (melanotic) 
are  common  on  the  black  portions  of  skin,  such  as  the  eyelids,  and  are 
to  be  removed  by  scissors  or  knife,  according  to  their  size.  In  the 
horse  these  do  not  usually  tend  to  recur  when  thoroughly  removed, 
but  at  times  they  prove  cancerous  (as  is  the  rule  in  man),  and  then 
they  tend  to  reappear  in  the  same  site  or  in  internal  organs  with,  it 
may  be,  fatal  effect. 

Encysted,  honeylike  (melicerous),  s<'baceons,  and  fibrous  tumors  of 
the  lids  all  require  removal  with  the  knife. 

TORN   KYElAUa  OR  WOUNDS  OF  EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  are  torn  by  attacks  with  horns  of  cattle,  or  with  the 
teeth,  or  by  getting  caught  on  nails  in  stall,  rack,  or  manger,  on  the 
point  of  stumps,  fences,  or  fence  rails,  on  the  barbs  of  wire  fencCvS,  and 
on  other  pointed  bodies.  The  edges  should  Ixj  brought  together  as 
promptly  as  possible,  so  as  to  secure  union  without  the  formation  of 
matter,  puckering  of  the  skin,  and  unsightly  distortions.  Great  care 
is  necessary  to  bring  the  two  edges  together  evenly  without  twisting 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYELIDS.  261 

or  puckering.  The  simplest  mode  of  holding  them  together  is  by  a 
series  of  sharp  pins  passed  through  the  lips  of  the  wound  at  intervals 
of  not  over  a  third  of  an  inch,  and  held  together  by  a  thread  twisted 
around  each  pin  in  the  form  of  the  figure  8,  and  carried  obliquely 
from  pin  to  pin  in  two  directions,  so  as  to  prevent  gaping  of  the 
wound  in  the  intervals.  The  points  of  the  pins  may  then  be  cut  off 
with  scissors,  and  the  wound  may  be  wet  twice  a  day  with  a  weak 
solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

TUMOR  OF   THE   HAW,  OR  CARIES  OF  THE   CARTILAGE 

Though  cruelly  excised  for  alleged  "  hooks,"  when  itself  perfectly 
healthy  in  the  various  diseases  which  lead  to  retraction  of  the  eye  into 
its  socket,  the  haw  may,  like  other  bodily  structures,  be  itself  the  seat 
of  actual  disease.  The  pigmentary  black  tumors  of  white  horses  and 
soft  (encephaloid)  cancer  may  attack  this  part  primarily  or  extend  to 
it  from  the  eyeball  or  eyelids ;  hairs  have  been  found  growing  from  its 
surface;  and  the  mucous  membrane  covering  it  becomes  inflamed  in 
common  with  that  covering  the  front  of  the  eye.  These  inflamma- 
tions are  but  a  phase  of  the  inflammation  of  the  external  structures 
of  the  eye,  and  demand  no  particular  notice  nor  special  treatment. 
The  tumors  lead  to  such  irregular  enlargement  and  distortion  of  the 
haw  that  the  condition  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  simple  pro- 
jection of  the  healthy  structure  over  the  eye  when  the  lids  are  pushed 
apart  with  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the 
ulceration,  or  caries,  of  the  cartilage.  In  the  latter  case,  besides  the 
swelling  and  distortion  of  the  haw,  there  is  this  peculiarity,  that  in 
the  midst  of  the  red  inflamed  mass  there  appears  a  white  line  or  mass 
formed  by  the  exposed  edge  of  the  ulcerating  cartilage.  The  animal 
having  been  thrown  and  properly  fixed,  an  assistant  holds  the  eyelids 
apart  while  the  operator  seizes  the  haw  with  forceps  or  hook  and  care- 
fully dissects  it  out  with  blunt-pointed  scissors.  The  eye  is  then 
covered  with  a  cloth,  kept  wet  with  an  eyewash,  as  for  external 
ophthalmia. 

OBSTRUCTION   OF  THE  LACHRYMAL  APPARATUS,  OR   WATERING   EYE. 

The  escape  of  tears  on  the  side  of  the  cheek  is  a  symptom  of  exter- 
nal inflammation  of  the  eye,  but  it  may  also  occur  from  any  disease 
of  the  lachrymal  apparatus  which  interferes  with  the  normal  prog- 
ress of  the  tears  to  the  nose.  Hence,  in  all  cases  when  this  symptom 
is  not  attended  by  special  redness  or  swelling  of  the  eyelids,  it  is  well 
to  examine  the  lachrymal  apparatus.  In  some  instances  the  orifice  of 
the  lachrymal  duct  on  the  floor  of  the  nasal  chamber  and  close  to  its 
anterior  outlet  will  be  found  blocked  by  a  portion  of  dry  muco-puru- 
lent  matter,  on  the  removal  of  which  tears  may  begin  to  escape.  This 
implies  an  inflammation  of  the  canal,  which  may  be  helped  by  occa- 


262  DISEASES   OP   THE   H0B8E. 

sional  sponging  out  of  the  nose  with  warm  water,  and  the  application 
of  the  same  on  the  face.  Another  remedy  is  to  feed  warm  mashes  of 
wheat  bran  from  a  nosebag,  so  that  the  relaxing  effects  of  the  water 
vapor  may  be  secured. 

The  two  lachrymal  openings,  situated  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye, 
may  fail  to  admit  the  tears  by  reason  of  their  deviation  outward  in 
connection  with  eversion  of  the  lower  lid,  or  by  reason  of  their  con- 
striction in  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane.  The  laclirymal 
sac,  into  which  the  lachrymal  ducts  open,  may  fail  to  discharge  its 
contents  by  reason  of  constriction  or  closure  of  the  duct  leading  to  the 
nose,  and  it  then  forms  a  rounded  swelling  beneath  the  inner  angle 
of  the  eye.  The  duct  leading  from  the  sac  to  the  nose  may  be  com- 
pressed or  obliterated  by  fractures  of  the  bones  of  the  face,  and  in 
disease  of  these  bones  (osteosarcoma,  so-called  osteoporosis,  diseased 
teeth,  glanders  of  the  nasal  sinuses,  abscess  of  the  same  cavities) . 

The  narrowed  or  obstructed  ducts  may  be  made  pervious  by  a  fine 
silver  probe  passed  down  to  the  lachrymal  sac,  and  any  existing 
inflammation  of  the  passages  may  be  counteracted  by  the  use  of  steam- 
ing mashes  of  wheat  bran,  by  fomentations  or  wet  cloths  over  the  face, 
and  even  by  the  use  of  astringent  eyewashes  and  the  injection  of 
similar  liquids  into  the  ladirymal  canal  from  its  nasal  opening.  The 
ordinary  eyewash  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  it  may  be  injected 
after  dilution  to  half  its  strength.  The  fractures  and  diseases  of  the 
bones  and  teeth  must  be  treated  according  to  their  special  demands 
when,  if  the  canal  is  still  left  pervious,  it  may  be  again  rendered 
useful. 

EXTERNAL   OPHTHALMIA,    OR    CONJUNCTIVITIS. 

In  inflammation  of  the  outer  parts  of  the  eyeball  the  exposed  vas- 
cular and  sensitive  mucous  membrane  (conjunctiva)  which  covers  the 
ball,  the  eyelids,  the  haw,  and  the  lachrymal  apparatus,  is  usually  the 
most  deeply  involved,  yet  adjacent  parts  are  more  or  less  implicated, 
and  when  disease  is  concentrated  on  these  contiguous  parts  it  consti- 
tutes a  phase  of  external  ophthalmia  which  demands  a  special  notice. 
These  have  accordingly  lx»on  already  treated  of. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  external  ophthalmia  are  mainly  those  that 
act  locally — blows  with  whips,  chibs,  and  twigs,  the  presence  of  for- 
eign bodies  like  hay  seed,  chaff,  dust,  lime,  sand,  snuff,  pollen  of 
plants,  flies  attracted  by  the  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  wounds  of  the 
bridle,  the  migration  of  the  scabies  (mange)  insect  into  the  eye, 
smoke,  ammonia  rising  from  the  excretions,  irritant  emanations  from 
drying  marshes,  etc.  Road  dust  containing  infecting  microbes  is  a 
common  factor.  A  very  dry  air  is  alleged  to  act  injuriously  by  drying 
the  eye  as  well  as  by  favoring  the  production  of  irritant  dust;  and  the 
undue  exposure  to  bright  sunshine  through  a  window  in  front  of  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYE.  263 

stall,  or  to  the  reflection  from  snow  or  water,  is  undoubtedly  injurious. 
The  unprotected  exposure  of  the  eyes  to  sunshine  through  the  use  of 
a  very  short  overdraw  check  is  to  be  condemned,  and  the  keeping  of 
the  horse  in  a  very  dark  stall  from  which  it  is  habitually  led  into  the 
glare  of  full  sunlight,  intensified  by  reflection  from  snow  or  white 
limestone  dust,  must  be  set  down  among  the  locally  acting  causes. 
But  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  to  wet  and  snow  storms,  to  cold  drafts 
and  wet  lairs  must  also  be  accepted  as  causes  of  conjunctivitis,  the 
general  disorder  which  they  produce  affecting  the  eye,  if  that  happens 
to  be  the  weakest  and  most  susceptible  organ  of  the  body,  or  if  it  has 
been  subjected  to  any  special  local  injury,  like  dust,  irritant  gases, 
or  excess  of  light.  Again,  external  ophthalmia  is  a  constant  con- 
comitant of  inflammation  of  the  contiguous  and  continuous  mucous 
membranes,  as  those  of  the  nose  and  throat.  Hence  the  red,  watery 
eyes  that  attend  on  nasal  catarrh,  sore  throat,  influenza,  strangles, 
nasal  glanders,  and  the  like.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  affection 
of  the  eye  is  subsidiary  and  is  manifestly  overshadowed  by  the  pri- 
mary and  predominating  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  watering  of  the  eye,  swollen  lids, 
redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  exposed  by  the  separation  of  the 
lids — it  may  be  a  mere  pink  blush  with  more  or  less  branching  red- 
ness, or  it  may  be  a  deep,  dark  red,  as  from  effusion  of  blood — and  a 
bluish  opacity  of  the  cornea,  which  is  normally  clear  and  translucent. 
But  except  when  resulting  from  wounds  and  actual  extravasation  of 
blood,  the  redness  is  seen  to  be  superficial,  and  if  the  opacity  is  con- 
fined to  the  edges,  and  does  not  involve  the  entire  cornea,  the  aque- 
ous humor  behind  is  seen  to  be  still  clear  and  limpid.  The  fever  is 
always  less  severe  than  in  internal  ophthalmia,  and  only  runs  high  in 
the  worst  cases.  The  eyelids  may  be  kept  closed,  the  eyeball  retracted, 
and  the  haw  protruded  over  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  ball,  but  this 
is  due  to  the  pain  only  and  not  to  any  excessive  sensibility  to  light,  as 
shown  by  the  comparatively  widely  dilated  pupil.  In  internal  oph- 
thalmia, on  the  contrary,  the  narrow  contracted  pupil  is  the  measure 
of  the  pain  caused  by  the  falling  of  light  on  the  inflamed  and  sensitive 
optic  nerve  (retina)  and  choroid. 

If  the  affection  has  resulted  from  a  wound  of  the  cornea,  not  only 
is  that  the  point  of  greatest  opacity,  forming  a  white  speck  or  fleecy 
cloud,  but  too  often  blood  vessels  begin  to  extend  from  the  adjacent 
vascular  covering  of  the  eye  (sclerotic)  to  the  white  spot,  and  that 
portion  of  the  cornea  is  rendered  permanently  opaque.  Again,  if  the 
wound  has  been  severe,  though  still  short  of  cutting  into  the  anterior 
layers  of  the  cornea,  the  injury  may  lead  to  ulceration  that  may  pene- 
trate more  or  less  deeply  and  leave  a  breach  in  the  tissue  which,  if 
filled  up  at  all,  is  repaired  by  opaque  fibrous  tissue  in  place  of  the 
transparent  cellular  structure.    Pus  may  form,  and  the  cornea  assumes 


264  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

a  yellowish  tinge  and  bursts,  giving  rise  to  a  deep  sore  which  is  liable 
to  extend  as  an  ulcer,  and  may  be  in  its  turn  followed  by  bulging  of 
the  cornea  at  that  point  (staphyloma) .  This  inflammation  of  the  con- 
junctiva may  be  simply  catarrhal,  with  profuse  muco-purulent  dis- 
charge; it  may  be  granular,  the  surface  being  covered  with  minute 
reddish  elevations,  or  it  may  become  the  seat  of  a  false  membrane 
(diphtheria). 

Treatment. — In  treating  external  ophthalmia  the  first  object  is  the 
removal  of  the  cause.  Remove  any  dust,  chaflf,  thorn,  or  other  for- 
eign body  from  the  conjunctiva,  purify  the  stable  from  all  sources  of 
ammoniacal  or  other  irritant  gas;  keep  the  horse  from  dusty  roads, 
and,  above  all,  from  the  proximity  of  a  leading  wagon  and  its  attend- 
ant cloud  of  dust ;  remove  from  pasture  and  feed  from  a  rack  w^hich 
is  neither  so  high  as  to  drop  seeds,  etc.,  into  the  eyes  nor  so  low  as  to 
favor  the  accumulation  of  blood  in  the  head;  avoid  equally  excess  of 
light  from  a  sunny  window  in  front  of  the  stall  and  excess  of  darkness 
from  the  absence  of  windows;  preserve  from  cold  drafts  and  rains 
and  wet  bedding,  and  apply  curative  measures  for  inflammation  of 
the  adjacent  mucous  membranes  or  skin.'  If  the  irritant  has  been  of  a 
caustic  nature,  remove  any  remnant  of  it  by  persistent  bathing  with 
tepid  water  and  a  soft  sponge,  or  with  water  mixed  with  white  of  Q^g^ 
or  a  glass  filled  with  the  liquid  may  be  inverted  over  the  eye  so  that 
its  contents  may  dilute  and  remove  the  irritant.  If  the  suffering  is 
very  severe,  a  lotion  with  a  few  grains  of  extract  of  belladonna  or  of 
morphia  in  an  ounce  of  water  may  be  applied,  or  if  it  is  available, 
a  few  drops  of  4  per  cent  solution  of  cocaine  may  be  instilled  into 
the  eye. 

In  strong,  vigorous  patients  benefit  will  usually  be  obtained  from  a 
laxative,  such  as  2  tablespoon fuls  of  Glauber's  salts  daily,  and  if  the 
fever  runs  high  from  a  daily  dose  of  half  an  ounce  of  saltpeter.  As 
local  applications  astringent  solutions  are  usually  the  best,  as  30 
grains  of  borax  or  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  a  quart  of  water,  to  be  ap- 
plied constantly  on  a  cloth,  as  advised  under  "  Inflammation  of  the 
eyelids."  In  the  absence  of  anything  better,  cold  water  may  serve 
every  purpose.  Above  all,  adhesive  and  oily  agents  (molasses,  sugar, 
fats)  are  to  be  avoided,  as  only  adding  to  the  irritation.  By  way  of 
suggesting  agents  that  may  be  used  with  good  effect,  salt  and  sulphate 
of  so<la  may  be  named,  in  solutions  double  the  strength  of  sulphate  of 
zinc,  or  7  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  added  to  a  quart  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  will  be  found  especially  applicable  in  granular  con- 
junctivitis, diphtheria,  or  commencing  ulceration.  A  cantharides 
blister  (1  part  of  Spanish  fly  to  4  parts  lard)  may  be  rubbed  on  the 
side  of  the  face  3  inches  below  the  eye,  and  washed  off  next  morning 
with  soapsuds  and  oiled  daily  till  the  scabs  are  dropped. 


DISEASES   OP   THE   EYE.  265 

WHITE  SPECKS   AND   CLOUDINESS  OF  THE   CORNEA. 

As  a  result  of  external  ophthalmia,  opaque  specks,  clouds,  or  hazi- 
ness are  too  often  left  on  the  cornea  and  require  for  their  removal 
that  they  be  daily  touched  with  a  soft  feather  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
3  grains  nitrate  of  silver  in  1  ounce  distilled  water.  This  should  be 
applied  until  all  inflammation  has  subsided,  and  until  its  contact  is 
comparatively  painless.  It  is  rarely  successful  with  an  old  thick  scar 
following  an  ulcer,  nor  with  an  opacity  having  red  blood  vessels 
running  across  it. 

ULCERS  OF  THE  CORNEA. 

These  may  be  treated  with  nitrate  of  silver  lotion  of  twice  the 
strength  used  for  opacities.  Powdered  gentian,  one-half  ounce,  and 
sulphate  of  iron,  one-fourth  ounce  daily,  may  improve  the  general 
health  and  increase  the  reparatory  power. 

INTERNAL   OPHTHALMIA     (iRITIS,    CHOROIDITIS,    AND   RETINITIS). 

Although  inflammations  of  the  iris,  choroid,  and  retina — the  inner, 
vascular,  and  nervous  coats  of  the  eye — occur  to  a  certain  extent  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  yet  one  usually  supervenes  upon  the  other, 
and,  as  the  symptoms  are  thus  made  to  coincide,  it  will  be  best  for 
our  present  purposes  to  treat  the  three  as  one  disease. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  internal  ophthalmia  are  largely  those  of  the 
external  form  only,  acting  with  greater  intensity  or  on  a  more  suscep- 
tible eye.  Severe  blows,  bruises,  punctures,  etc.,  of  the  eye,  the 
penetration  of  foreign  bodies  into  the  eye  (thorns,  splinters  of  iron, 
etc.),  sudden  transition  from  a  dark  stall  to  bright  sunshine,  to  the 
glare  of  snow  or  water,  constant  glare  from  a  sunny  window,  abuse 
of  the  overdraw  checkrein,  vivid  lightning  flashes,  drafts  of  cold, 
damp  air;  above  all,  when  the  animal  is  perspiring,  exposure  in  cold 
rain  and  snow  storms,  swimming  cold  rivers;  also  certain  general 
diseases  like  rheumatism,  arthritis,  influenza,  and  disorders  of  the 
digestive  organs,  may  become  complicated  by  this  affection.  From 
the  close  relation  between  the  brain  and  eye — alike  in  the  blood  ves- 
sels and  nerves — disorders  of  the  first  lead  to  affections  of  the  second, 
and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  persistent  irritation  to  which  the 
jaws  are  subjected  in  the  course  of  dentition.  So  potent  is  the  last 
agency  that  we  dread  a  recurretice  of  ophthalmia  so  long  as  dentition 
is  incomplete,  and  hope  for  immunity  if  the  animal  completes  its 
dentition  without  any  permanent  structural  change  in  the  eye. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  will  vary  according  to  the  cause.  If 
the  attack  is  due  to  direct  physical  injury,  the  inflammation  of  the 
eyelids  and  superficial  structures  may  be  quite  as  marked  as  that  of  the 
interior  of  the  eye.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  from  general  causes,  or  as 
a  complication  of  some  distant  disease,  the  affection  may  be  largely 


266  DISEASES   OP  THE    HORSE. 

confined  to  the  deeper  structures,  and  the  swelling,  redness,  and  ten- 
derness of  the  superficial  structures  will  be  less  marked.  When  the 
external  coats  thus  comparatively  escape  the  extreme  anterior  edge  of 
the  white,  or  sclerotic,  coat  where  it  overlaps  the  border  of  the  trans- 
parent cornea  is  in  a  measure  free  from  congestion,  and,  in  the  absence 
of  the  obscuring  dark  pigment,  forms  a  whitish  ring  around  the 
cornea.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  a  series  of.  arteries  (cili- 
ary) passing  to  the  inflamed  iris  penetrate  the  sclerotic  coat  a  short 
distance  behind  its  anterior  border,  and  there  is  therefore  a  marked 
difference  in  color  between  the  general  sclerotic  occupied  between 
these  congested  vessels  and  the  anterior  rim  from  which  they  are 
absent.  Unfortunately,  the  pigment  is  often  so  abundant  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  sclerotic  as  to  hide  this  symptom.  In  internal 
ophthalmia  the  opacity  of  the  cornea  may  be  confined  to  a  zone  around 
the  outer  margin  of  the  cornea,  and  even  this  may  be  a  bluish  haze 
rather  than  a  deep  fleecy  white.  In  consequence  it  becomes  possible 
to  see  the  interior  of  the  chamber  for  the  aqueous  humor  and  the 
condition  of  the  iris  and  pupil.  The  aqueous  humor  is  usually  turbid, 
and  has  numerous  yellowish  white  flakes  floating  on  its  substance 
or  deposited  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber,  so  as  to  cut  off  the 
view  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  iris.  The  still  visible  portion  of 
the  iris  has  lost  its  natural,  clear,  dark  luster,  which  is  replaced  by 
a  brownish  or  yellowish  sere-leaf  color.  This  is  more  marked  in 
proportion  as  the  iris  is  inflamed,  and  less  so  as  the  inflammation  is 
confined  to  the  choroid.  The  amount  of  flocculent  deposit  in  the 
chamber  of  the  aqueous  humor  is  also  in  direct  ratio  to  the  inflamma- 
tion of  the  iris.  Perhaps  the  most  marked  feature  of  internal  ophthal- 
mia is  the  extreme  and  painful  sensitiveness  to  light.  On  this 
account  the  lids  are  usually  closed,  but  when  opened  the  pupil  is 
seen  to  be  narrowly  closed,  even  if  the  animal  has  been  kept  in  an 
obscured  stall.  Eixceptions  to  this  are  seen  when  inflammatory  effu- 
sion has  overfilled  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and  by  pressure  on  the  retina 
has  paralyzed  it,  or  when  the  exudation  into  the  substance  of  the 
retina  itself  has  similarly  led  to  its  paralysis.  Then  the  pupil  may 
be  dilated,  and  frequently  its  margin  loses  its  regular  ovoid  outline 
and  becomes  uneven  by  reason  of  the  adhesions  which  it  has  con- 
tracted with  the  capsule  of  the  lens,  through  its  inflammatory  exu- 
dations. In  the  case  of  excessive  effusion  into  the  globe  of  the  eye 
that  is  found  to  have  become  tense  and  hard  so  that  it  can  not  be 
indented  with  the  tip  of  the  finger,  paralysis  of  the  retina  is  apt  to 
result.  With  such  paralysis  of  the  retina,  vision  is  heavily  clouded 
or  entirely  lost;  hence,  in  spite  of  the  open  pupil,  the  finger  may  be 
approached  to  the  eye  without  the  animal  becoming  conscious  of  it 
until  it  touches  the  surface,  and  if  the  nose  on  the  affected  side  is 
gently  struck  and  a  feint  made  to  repeat  the  blow  the  patient  makes 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYE.  .  267 

no  effort  to  evade  it.  Sometimes  the  edges  of  the  contracted  pupil 
become  adherent  to  each  other  by  an  intervening  plastic  exudation, 
and  the  opening  becomes  virtually  abolished.  In  severe  inflamma- 
tions pus  may  form  in  the  choroid  or  iris,  and  escaping  into  the 
cavity  of  the  aqueous  humor  show  as  a  yellowish  white  stratum 
below.  In  nearly  all  cases  there  is  resulting  exudation  into  the  lens 
or  its  capsule,  constituting  a  cloudiness  or  opacity  (cataract),  which 
in  severe  and  old-standing  cases  appears  as  a  white  fleecy  mass  behind 
a  widely  dilated  pupil.  In  the  slighter  cases  cataract  is  to  be  recog- 
nized by  examination  of  the  eye  in  a  dark  chamber,  with  an  oblique 
side  light,  as  described  in  the  introduction  to  this  article.  Cataracts 
that  appear  as  a  simple  haze  or  indefinite  fleecy  cloud  are  usually  on 
the  capsule  (capsular) ,  while  those  that  show  a  radiating  arrangement 
are  in  the  lens  (lenticular),  the  radiating  fibers  of  which  the  exudate 
follows.  Black  cataracts  are  formed  by  the  adhesion  of  the  pigment 
on  the  back  of  the  iris  to  the  front  of  the  lens,  and  by  the  subsequent 
tearing  loose  of  the  iris,  leaving  a  portion  of  its  pigment  adherent 
to  the  capsule  of  the  lens.  If  the  pupil  is  so  contracted  that  it  is 
impossible  to  see  the  lens,  it  may  be  dilated  by  applying  to  the  front 
of  the  eye  with  a  feather  some  drops  of  a  solution  of  4  grains  of 
atropia  in  an  ounce  of  water. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  internal  ophthalmia  should  embrace, 
first,  the  removal  of  all  existing  causes  or  sources  of  aggravation  of 
the  disease,  which  need  not  be  here  repeated.  Special  care  to  protect 
the  patient  against  cold,  wet,  strong  light,  and  active  exertion  must, 
however,  be  insisted  on.  A  dark  stall  and  a  cloth  hung  over  the  eye 
are  important,  while  cleanliness,  warmth,  dryness,  and  rest  are 
equally  demanded.  If  the  patient  is  strong  and  vigorous,  a  dose  of 
4  drams  of  Barbados  aloes  may  be  given,  and,  if  there  is  any  reason 
to  suspect  a  rheumatic  origin,  one-half  a  dram  powdered  colchicum 
and  one-half  ounce  salicylate  of  soda  may  be  given  dailj^  Locally, 
the  astringent  lotions  advised  for  external  ophthalmia  may  be  resorted 
to,  especially  when  the  superficial  inflammation  is  well  marked.  More 
important,  however,  is  to  instill  into  the  eye,  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  a 
solution  of  4  grains  of  atropia  in  1  ounce  of  distilled  water.  This  may 
be  effected  with  the  aid  of  a  soft  feather,  and  may  be  repeated  at  inter- 
vals of  ten  minutes  until  the  pupil  is  widely  dilated.  As  the  horse 
is  to  be  kept  in  a  dark  stall,  the  consequent  admission  of  light  will  be 
harmless,  and  the  dilation  of  the  pupil  prevents  adhesion  between  the 
iris  and  lens,  relieves  the  constant  tension  of  the  eye  in  the  effort  to 
adapt  the  pupil  to  the  light,  and  solicits  the  contraction  of  .the  blood 
vessels  of  the  eye  and  the  lessening  of  congestion,  exudation,  and  in- 
traocular pressure.  Should  atropia  not  agree  with  the  case,  it  may  be 
replaced  by  morphia  (same  strength)  or  cocaine  in  4  per  cent  solution. 
Another  local  measure  is  a  blister,  which  can  usually  be  applied  to 


268  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

advantage  on  the  side  of  the  nose  or  beneath  the  ear.  Spanish  flies 
may  be  used  as  for  external  ophthalmia.  In  very  severe  cases  the 
parts  beneath  the  eye  may  be  shaved  and  three  or  four  leeclies  applied. 
Setons  are  sometimes  beneficial,  and  even  puncture  of  the  eyeball,  but 
these  should  be  reserved  for  professional  hands. 

The  diet  throughout  should  be  easily  digestible  and  moderate  in 
quantity — ^bran  mash,  middlings,  grass,  steamed  hay,  etc. 

Even  after  the  active  inflammation  has  subsided  the  atropia  lotion 
should  be  continued  for  some  weeks  to  keep  the  eye  in  a  state  of  rest 
in  its  still  weak  and  irritable  condition,  and  during  this  period  the 
patient  should  be  kept  in  semidarkness,  or  taken  out  only  with  a  dark 
shade  over  the  eye.  For  the  same  reason  heavy  drafts  and  rapid 
paces,  which  would  cause  congestion  of  the  head,  should  be  carefully 
avoided. 

RECURRENT  OPHTHALMIA    (PERIODIC  OPHTHALMIA,  OR  MOONBLINDNESS). 

This  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the  interior  of  the  eye,  inti- 
mately related  to  certain  soils,  climates,  and  systems,  showing  a  strong 
tendency  to  recur  again  and  again,  and  usually  ending  in  blindness 
from  cataract  or  other  serious  injurj. 

Causes. — Its  causes  may  be  fundamentally  attributed  to  soil.  On 
damp  clays  and  marshy  grounds,  on  the  frequently  overflowed  river 
bottoms  and  deltas,  on  the  coasts  of  seas  and  lakes  alternately  sub- 
merged and  exposed,  this  disease  prevails  extensively,  and  in  many 
instances  in  France  (Reynal),  Belgium,  Alsace  (Zundel,  Milten- 
berger),  Germany,  and  England  it  has  very  largely  decreased  under 
land  drainage  and  improved  methods  of  culture.  Other  influences, 
more  or  less  associated  with  such  soil,  are  potent  causative  factors. 
Thus  damp  air  and  a  cloudy,  wet  climate,  so  constantly  associated  with 
wet  lands,  are  universally  charged  with  causing  the  disease.  These 
act  on  the  animal  body  to  produce  a  lymphatic  constitution  with  an 
excess  of  connective  tissue,  bones,  and  muscles  of  coarse  open  texture, 
•thick  skins  and  gummy  legs  covered  with  a  profusion  of  long  hair. 
Hence  the  heavy  horses  of  Belgium  and  southwestern  France  have  suf- 
fered severely  from  the  affection,  while  high  dry  lands  adjacent,  like 
Catalonia,  in  Spain,  and  Dauphiny,  Provence,  and  Languedoc,  in 
France,  have  in  the  main  escaped. 

The  rank  aqueous  fodders  grown  on  such  soils  are  other  causes,  but 
these  again  are  calculated  to  undermine  the  character  of  the  nervous 
and  sanguineous  temperament,  and  to  superinduce  the  lymphatic. 
Other  foods  act  by  leading  to  constipation  and  other  disorders  of  the 
digestive  organs,  thus  impairing  the  general  health;  hence  in  any  ani- 
mal predisposed  to  this  disease,  heating,  starchy  foods,  such  as  maize, 
wheat,  and  buckwheat,  are  to  be  carefully  avoided.  It  has  been  widely 
charged  that  beans,  pease,  vetches,  and  other  Leguminosse  are  danger- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    EYE.  269 

ous,  but  a  fuller  inquiry  contradicts  this.  If  these  are  well  grown 
they  invigorate  and  fortify  the  system,  while,  like  any  other  fodder, 
if  grown  rank,  aqueous,  and  deficient  in  assimilable  principles,  they 
tend  to  lower  the  health  and  open  the  way  for  the  disease. 

The  period  of  dentition  and  training  is  a  fertile  exciting  cause,  for 
though  the  malady  may  appear  at  any  time  from  birth  to  old  age,  yet 
the  great  majority  of  victims  are  from  two  to  six  years  old,  and  if  a 
horse  escapes  the  affection  till  after  six  there  is  a  reasonable  hope  that 
he  will  continue  to  resist  it.  The  irritation  about  the  head  during  the 
eruption  of  the  teeth,  and  while  fretting  in  the  unwonted  bridle  and 
collar,  the  stimulating  grain  diet  and  the  close  air  of  the  stable  all 
combine  to  rouse  the  latent  tendency  to  disease  in  the  eye,  while  direct 
injuries  by  bridle,  whip,  or  hay  seeds  are  not  without  their  influence. 
In  the  same  way  local  irritants,  like  dust,  severe  rain  and  snow 
storms,  smoke,  and  acrid  vapors  are  contributing  causes. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  no  one  of  these  is  sufficient  of  itself  to 
produce  the  disease,  and  it  has  been  alleged  that  the  true  cause  is  a 
microbe,  or  the  irritant  products  of  a  microbe,  which  is  harbored  in 
the  marshy  soil.  The  prevalence  of  the  disease  on  the  same  damp 
soils  which  produce  ague  in  man  and  anthrax  in  cattle  has  been 
quoted  in  support  of  this  doctrine,  as  also  the  fact  that  the  malady  is 
always  more  prevalent,  other  things  being  equal,  in  basins  surrounded 
by  hills  where  the  air  is  still  and  such  products  are  concentrated,  and 
that  a  forest  or  simple  belt  of  trees  will,  as  in  ague,  at  times  limit  the 
area  of  its  prevalence.  Another  argument  for  the  same  view  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  on  certain  farms  irrigated  by  town  sewage  this  malady 
has  become  extremely  prevalent,  the  sewage  being  assumed  to  form  a 
suitable  nidus  for  the  growth  of  the  germ.  But  on  these  sewage 
farms  a  fresh  crop  may  be  cut  every  fortnight,  and  the  product  is 
precisely  that  aqueous  material  which  contributes  to  a  lymphatic 
structure  and  a  low  tone  of  health.  The  presence  in  the  system  of  a 
definite  germ  has  not  yet  been  proven,  and  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  we  are  only  warranted  in  charging  the  disease  to  the 
deleterious  emanations  from  the  marshy  soil  in  which  bacterial  fer- 
ments are  constantly  producing  them. 

Heredity  is  one  of  the  most  potent  causes.  The  lymphatic  constitu- 
tion is  of  course  transmitted  and  with  it  the  proclivity  to  recurring 
ophthalmia.  This  is  notorious  in  the  case  of  both  parents,  male  and 
female.  The  tendency  appears  to  be  stronger,  however,  if  either 
parent  has  already  suffered.  Thus  a  mare  may  have  borne  a  number 
of  sound  foals,  and  then  fallen  a  victim  to  this  malady,  and  all  foals 
subsequently  borne  have  likewise  suffered.  So  with  the  stallion. 
Reynal  even  quotes  the  appearance  of  the  disease  in  alternate  gen- 
erations, the  stallion  offspring  of  blind  parents  remaining  sound 
through  life  and  yet  producing  foals  which  furnish  numerous  victims 


270  DISEASES   OP   THE    HOBSE. 

of  recurrent  ophthalmia.  On  the  contrary,  the  offspring  of  diseased 
parents  removed  to  high,  dry  regions  and  furnished  with  wholesome, 
nourishing  rations  will  nearly  all  escape.  Hence  the  dealers  take 
colts  that  are  still  sound  or  have  had  but  one  attack  from  the  affected 
low  Pyrenees  (France)  to  the  unaffected  Catalonia  (Spain),  with 
confidence  that  they  will  escape,  and  from  the  Jura  Valley  to  Dau- 
phiny  with  the  same  result. 

Yet  the  hereditary  taint  is  so  strong  and  pernicious  that  intelligent 
horsemen  everywhere  refuse  to  breed  from  either  horse  or  mare  that 
has  once  suffered  from  recurrent  ophthalmia,  and  the  French  Govern- 
ment studs  not  only  reject  all  unsound  stallions,  but  refuse  service  to 
any  mare  which  has  suffered  with  her  eyes.  It  is  this  avoidance  of 
the  hereditary  predisposition  more  than  anything  else  that  has 
reduced  the  formerly  wide  prevalence  of  this  disease  in  the  European 
countries  generally.  A  consideration  for  the  future  of  our  horses 
would  demand  the  disuse  of  all  sires  that  are  unlicensed,  and  the 
refusal  of  a  license  to  any  sire  which  has  suffered  from  this  or  any 
other  communicable  constitutional  disease. 

Other  contributing  causes  deserve  passing  mention.  Unwholesome 
food  and  a  faulty  method  of  feeding  undoubtedly  predisposes  to  the 
disease,  and  in  the  same  district  the  carefully  fed  will  escape  in  far 
larger  proportion  than  the  badly  fed.  But  it  is  so  with  every  other 
condition  which  undermines  the  general  health.  The  presence  of 
worms  in  the  intestines,  overwork,  and  debilitating  diseases  and 
causes  of  every  kind  weaken  the  vitality  and  lay  the  system  more 
open  to  attack.  Thierry  long  ago  showed  that  the  improvement  of 
close,  low,  dark,  damp  stables,  where  the  disease  had  previously  pre- 
vailed, practically  banished  this  affection.  "WTiatever  contributes  to 
strength  and  vigor  is  protective;  whatever  contributes  to  weakness 
and  poor  health  is  provocative  of  the  disease  in  the  predisposed 
subject. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  vary  according  to  the  severity  of  the 
attack.  In  some  cases  there  is  marked  fever,  and  in  some  slighter 
eases  this  may  be  almost  altogether  wanting,  but  there  is  always  a 
lack  of  vigor  and  energy,  bespeaking  general  disorder.  The  local 
sjonptoms  are  in  the  main  those  of  internal  ophthalmia,  with,  in  many 
cases,  an  increased  hardness  of  the  eyeball  from  effusion  into  its 
cavity.  The  contracted  pupil  does  not  expand  much  in  darkness,  nor 
even  under  the  action  of  l)elladonna.  Opacity  advances  from  the 
margin,  over  a  part  or  whole  of  the  cornea,  but  so  long  as  it  is  trans- 
parent there  may  be  seen  the  turbid,  aqueous  humor  with  or  without 
flocculi,  the  dingy  iris  robbed  of  its  clear  black  aspect,  the  slightly 
clouded  lens  and  a  greenish  yellow  reflection  from  the  depth  of  the 
eye.  From  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  day  the  flocculi  precipitate  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  chamber,  exposing  more  clearly  the  iris  and  lens, 


DISEASES    OP    THE   EYE.  271 

and  absorption  commences,  so  that  the  eye  may  be  cleared  up  in  ten  or 
fifteen  days. 

The  characteristic  of  the  disease  is,  however,  its  recurrence  again 
and  again  in  the  same  eye  until  blindness  results.  The  attacks  may 
follow  each  other  at  intervals  of  a  month,  more  or  less,  but  they  show 
no  relation  to  any  particular  phase  of  the  moon  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  familiar  name,  but  are  determined  rather  by  the  weather, 
the  health,  the  food,  or  bj'^  some  periodicity  of  the  system.  From  five 
to  seven  attacks  usually  result  in  blindness,  and  then  the  second  eye  is 
liable  to  be  attacked  until  it  also  is  ruined. 

In  the  intervals  between  the  attacks  some  remaining  symptoms 
betray  the  condition,  and  these  become  more  marked  after  each  suc- 
cessive access  of  disease.  Even  after  the  first  attack  there  is  a  bluish 
ring  round  the  margin  of  the  transparent  cornea.  The  eye  seems 
smaller  than  the  other,  at  first  because  it  is  retracted  in  its  socket,  and 
often  after  several  attacks  because  of  actual  shrinkage  (atrophy). 
The  upper  eyelid,  in  place  of  presenting  a  uniform,  continuous  arch, 
has  about  one-third  from  its  inner  angle  an  abrupt  bend,  caused  by 
the  contraction  of  the  levator  muscle.  The  front  of  the  iris  has 
exchanged  some  of  its  dark,  clear  brilliancy  for  a  lusterless  yellow, 
and  the  depth  of  the  eye  presents  more  or  less  of  the  greenish  yellow 
shade.  The  pupil  remains  a  little  contracted,  except  in  advanced  and 
aggravated  cases,  when,  with  opaque  lens,  it  is  widely  dilated.  If  one 
eye  only  has  suffered,  as  is  common,  the  contrast  in  these  respects  with 
the  sound  eye  is  all  the  more  characteristic.  Another  feature  is  the 
erect,  attentive  carriage  of  the  ear,  to  compensate  to  some  extent  for 
the  waning  vision. 

The  attacks  vary  greatly  in  severity  in  different  cases,  but  the  recur- 
rence is  characteristic,  and  all  alike  lead  to  cataract  and  intraocular 
effusion,  with  pressure  on  the  retina  and  abolition  of  sight. 

Prevention. — The  prevention  of  this  disease  is  the  great  object  to 
be  aimed  at,  and  this  demands  the  most  careful  breeding,  feeding, 
housing,  and  general  management,  as  indicated  under  "  Causes."  Much 
can  also  be  done  by  migration  to  a  high,  dry  location,  but  for  this  and 
malarious  affections  the  improvement  of  the  land  by  drainage  and 
good  cultivation  should  be  the  final  aim. 

Treatment  is  not  satisfactory,  but  is  largely  the  same  as  for  com- 
mon internal  ophthalmia.  Some  cases,  like  rheumatism,  are  benefited 
by  scruple  doses  of  powdered  colchicum  and  2-dram  doses  of  salicylate 
of  soda  twice  a  day.  In  other  cases,  with  marked  hardness  of  the 
globe  of  the  eye  from  intraocular  effusion,  aseptic  puncture  of  the 
eye,  or  even  the  excision  of  a  portion  of  the  iris,  has  helped.  During 
recovery  a  course  of  tonics  (2  drams  oxide  of  iron,  10  grains  nux 
vomica,  and  1  ounce  sulphate  of  soda  daily)  is  desirable  to  invigorate 
the  system  and  help  to  ward  off  another  attack.    The  vulgar  resort  to 


272  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

knocking  out  the  wolf  teeth  and  cutting  out  the  haw  can  only  be  con- 
demned. The  temporary  recovery  would  take  place  in  one  or  two 
weeks,  though  no  such  thing  had  been  done,  and  the  breaking  of  a 
small  tooth,  leaving  its  fang  in  the  jaw,  only  increases  the  irritation. 

CATARACT. 

The  common  result  of  internal  ophthalmia,  as  of  the  recurrent 
type,  may  be  recognized  as  described  under  the  first  of  these  diseases. 
Its  oflfensive  appearance  may  be  obviated  by  extraction  or  depression 
of  the  lens,  but  as  the  rays  of  light  would  no  longer  be  properly 
refracted,  perfect  vision  would  not  be  restored,  and  the  animal  would 
be  liable  to  prove  an  inveterate  shyer.  If  perfect  blindness  continued 
by  reason  of  pressure  on  the  nerve  of  sight,  no  shying  would  result. 

PALSY   OF   THE   NERVE   OF   SIGHT,   OR    AMAUROSIS. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  this  affection  are  tumors  or  other  disease 
of  the  brain  implicating  the  roots  of  the  optic  nerve,  injury  to  the 
nerve  between  the  brain  and  eye,  and  inflammation  of  the  optic  nerve 
within  the  eye  (retina),  or  undue  pressure  on  the  same  from  dropsical 
or  inflammatory  effusion.  It  may  also  occur  from  overloaded  stom- 
ach, from  a  profuse  bleeding,  and  even  from  the  pressure  of  the 
gravid  womb  in  gestation. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  wide  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  so  as 
to  expose  fully  the  interior  of  the  globe,  the  expansion  remaining  the 
same  in  light  and  darkness.  Ordinary  eyes  when  brought  to  the 
light  have  the  pupils  suddenly  contract,  and  then  dilate  and  contract 
alternately  until  they  adapt  themselves  to  the  amount  of  light.  The 
horse  does  not  swerve  when  a  feint  to  strike  is  made  unless  the  hand 
causes  a  current  of  air.  The  ears  are  held  erect  and  turn  quickly 
toward  any  noise,  and  the  horse  steps  high  to  avoid  stumbling  over 
objects  which  it  can  not  see. 

Treatment  is  only  useful  when  the  disease  is  symptomatic  of  some 
removable  cause,  like  congested  brain,  loaded  stomach,  or  gravid 
womb.  When  recovery  does  not  follow  the  termination  of  these  con- 
ditions, apply  a  blister  behind  the  ear  and  give  one-half  dram  doses  of 
nux  vomica  daily. 

TUMORS   OF   THE   EYEBALI>. 

A  variety  of  tumors  attack  the  eyeball — dermoid,  papillary,  fatty, 
cystic,  and  melanotic — but  perhaps  the  most  frequent  in  the  horse  is 
encephaloid  cancer.  This  may  grow  in  or  on  the  globe,  the  haw,  the 
eyelid,  or  the  bones  of  the  orbit,  and  is  only  to  be  remedied,  if  at  all, 
by  early  and  thorough  excision.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
less  dangerous  tumors  by  its  softness,  friability,  and  great  vascularity, 
bleeding  on  the  slightest  touch,  as  well  as  by  its  anatomical  structure. 


DISEASES   OF   THE   EYE.  273 

STAPHYLOMA. 

This  consists  in  a  bulging  forward  of  the  cornea  at  a  given  point 
by  the  saccular  yielding  and  distention  of  its  coats,  and  it  may  be 
either  transparent  or  opaque  and  vascular.  In  the  last  form  the  iris 
has  become  adherent  to  the  back  of  the  cornea,  and  the  whole  struc- 
ture has  become  filled  with  blood  vessels.  In  the  first  form  the  bulg- 
ing cornea  is  attenuated;  in  the  last  it  may  be  thickened.  The  best 
treatment  is  by  excision  of  a  portion  of  the  rise  so  as  to  relieve  the 
intraocular  pressure. 

PARASITES    IN    THE    EYE. 

Acari  in  the  eye  have  been  incidentally  alluded  to  under  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lids. 

Filaria  palpehralis  is  a  white  worm,  one-half  to  1  inch  long,  which 
inhabits  the  lachrymal  duct  and  the  underside  of  the  eyelids  and  haw 
in  the  horse,  producing  a  verminous  conjunctivitis.  The  first  step  in 
treatment  in  such  cases  is  to  remove  the  worm  with  forceps,  then  treat 
as  for  external  inflammation. 

Filai^a  equina  is  a  delicate,  white,  silvery-looking  worm,  which  I 
have  repeatedly  found  2  inches  in  length  (a  length  as  great  as  5  inches 
has  been  reported).  It  invades  the  aqueous  humor,  where  its  constant 
active  movements  make  it  an  object  of  great  interest,  and  it  is  fre- 
quently exhibited  as  a  "  snake  in  the  eye."  It  is  found  also  in  other 
internal  cavities  of  the  horse,  to  which  it  undoubtedly  makes  its  way 
from  the  food,  and  especially  the  water  swallowed,  and  its  prevention 
is  therefore  to  be  sought  mainly  in  the  supply  of  pure  water  from 
closed,  deep  wells.  ^\Tien  present  in  the  eye  it  causes  inflammation 
and  has  to  be  removed  through  an  incision  made  with  the  lancet  in 
the  upper  border  of  the  cornea  close  to  the  sclerotic,  the  point  of  the 
instrument  being  directed  slightly  forward  to  avoid  injury  to  the  iris. 
Then  apply  cold  water  or  astringent  antiseptic  lotions. 

Filaria  conjunctiva'^  resembling  Filaria  equina  very  much  in  size 
and  general  appearance,  is  another  roundworm  which  has  been  found 
in  the  eye  of  the  horse. 

The  echinococcus^  the  cystic,  or  larval,  stage  of  the  echinococcus 
tapeworm  of  the  dog,  has  been  found  in  the  eye  of  the  horse,  and  a 
cysticercus  {Cysticercus  fistulansf)  is  also  reported. 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 18 


LAMENESS:  ITS  CAUSES  AND  TREATMENT. 

By  A.  LiAUTABD,  M.  D..  V.  M„ 
Principal  of  the  American  Veterinary  College,  New  York. 

[Revised  In  1903  by  John  R.  Mobler,  A.  M.,  V.  M.  D.] 

It  is  as  living,  organized,  locomotive  machines  that  the  horse, 
camel,  ox,  and  their  burden-bearing  companions  are  of  practical 
value  to  man.  Hence  the  consideration  of  their  usefulness  and  con- 
sequent value  to  their  human  masters  ultimately  and  naturally  re- 
solves itself  into  an  inquiry  concerning  the  condition  of  that  special 
portion  of  their  organism  which  controls  their  function  of  locomo- 
tion. This  is  especially  true  in  regard  to  the  members  of  the  equine 
family,  the  most  numerous  and  valuable  of  all  the  beasts  of  burden, 
and  it  naturally  follows  that  with  the  horse  for  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion the  special  topic  and  leading  theme  of  inquiry  will,  by  an 
easy  lapse,  become  an  inquest  into  the  condition  and  efficiency  of  his 
power  for  usefulness  as  a  carrier  or  traveler.  There  is  a  large 
amount  of  abstract  interest  in  the  study  of  that  endowment  of  the 
animal  economy  which  enables  its  j)ossessor  to  change  his  place  at 
will  and  convey  himself  whithersoever  his  needs  or  his  moods  may 
incline  him;  but  how  much  greater  the  interest  that  attaches  to  the 
subject  when  it  becomes  a  practical  and  economic  question  and  in- 
cludes within  its  purview  the  various  related  topics  which  belong  to 
the  domains  of  physiology,  pathology,  therapeutics,  and  the  entire 
round  of  scientific  investigation  into  which  it  is  finally  merged  as  a 
subject  for  medical  and  surgical  consideration — in  a  word,  of  actual 
disease  and  its  treatment!  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  intricate 
and  complicated  apparatus  of  locomotion,  with  its  symmetry  and 
harmony  of  movement  and  the  perfection  and  beauty  of  its  details 
and  adjuncts,  should,  by  students  of  creative  design  and  attentive 
observers  of  nature  and  her  marvelous  contrivances  and  adaptations, 
be  admiringly  denominated  a  U/'inff  machine'. 

The  horse  in  a  state  of  domesticity  is  of  all  the  animal  tribe  the 
largest  sharer  with  his  master  in  his  liability  to  the  accidents  and  dan- 
gers which  are  among  the  incidents  of  civilized  life.  From  his  expo- 
sure to  the  missiles  of  war  on  the  l)attlefield  to  his  chance  of  picking 
up  a  nail  from  the  city  pavement  there  is  no  hour  wlion  he  is  not  in 
danger  of  incurring  injuries  which  for  their  repair  may  demand  the 
l>est  skill  of  the  veterinary  practitioner.  And  tliis  is  true  not  alone  of 
casualties  which  l^elong  to  the  class  of  external  and  traumatic  cases, 
but  includes  as  well  those  of  a  kind  perhaps  more  numerous,  which 
274 


LAMENESS.  275 

may  result  in  lesions  of  internal  parts,  frequently  the  most  serious  and 
obscure  of  all  in  their  nature  and  effects. 

The  horse  is  too  important  a  factor  in  the  practical  details  of  human 
life  and  fills  too  large  a  place  in  the  business  and  pleasure  of  the 
world  to  justify  any  indifference  to  his  needs  and  physical  comfort 
or  neglect  in  respect  to  the  preservation  of  his  peculiar  powers  for 
usefulness.  In  entering  somewhat  largely,  therefore,  upon  a  review 
of  the  subject,  and  treating  in  detail  of  thecauses,  the  symptoms,  the 
progress,  the  treatment,  the  results,  and  the  consequences  of  lameness 
in  the  horse,  we  are  performing  a  duty  which  needs  no  word  of 
apology  or  justification.  The  subject  explains  and  justifies  itself, 
and  of  its  own  vindication  and  illustration,  if  any  are  needed. 

The  function  of  locomotion  is  performed  by  the  action  of  two  prin- 
cipal systems  of  organs,  known  in  anatomical  and  physiological 
terminology  as  passive  and  active^  the  muscles  performing  the  active 
and  the  hones  the  passive  portion  of  the  movement.  The  necessary 
connection  between  the  cooperating  parts  of  the  organism  is  effected 
by  means  of  a  vital  contact  by  which  the  muscle  is  attached  to  the 
bone  at  certain  determinate  points  on  the  surface  of  the  latter. 
These  points  of  attachment  appear  sometimes  as  an  eminence,  some- 
times a  depression,  sometimes  a  border  or  an  angle,  or  again  as  a 
mere  roughness,  but  each  perfectly  fulfilling  its  purpose;  while  the 
necessary  motion  is  provided  for  by  the  formation  of  the  ends  of  the 
long  bones  into  the  requisite  articulations,  joints,  or  hinges.  Every 
motion  is  the  product  of  the  contraction  of  one  or  more  of  the 
muscles,  which,  as  it  acts  upon  the  bony  levers,  gives  rise  to  a  move- 
ment of  extension  or  flexion,  abduction  or  adduction,  rotation  or  cir- 
cumduction. The  movement  of  abduction  is  that  which  passes  from 
and  that  of  adduction  that  which  passes  toward  the  median  line,  or 
the  center  of  the  body.  The  movement  of  flexion  and  extension  are 
too  well  understood  to  need  defining.  It  is  the  combination  and 
rapid  alternations  of  these  movements  which  produce  the  different 
postures  and  various  gaits  of  the  living  animal,  and  it  is  their  inter- 
ruption and  derangement,  from  whatsoever  cause,  which  constitute 
the  pathological  condition  of  lameness. 

A  concise  examination  of  the  general  anatomy  of  these  organs,  how- 
ever, must  precede  the  consideration  of  the  pathological  questions 
pertaining  to  the  subject.  A  statement,  such  as  we  have  just  given, 
containing  only  the  briefest  hint  of  matters  which,  though  not  neces- 
sarily in  their  ultimate  scientific  minutiae,  must  be  clearly  compre- 
hended in  order  to  acquire  a  symmetrical  and  satisfactory  view  of  the 
theme  as  a  practical  collation  of  facts  to  be  remembered,  analyzed, 
applied,  and  utilized. 

It  was  the  great  Bacon  who  wrote :  ''  The  human  body  may  be 
compared,  from  its  complex  and  delicate  organization,  to  a  musical 


276  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

instrument  of  the  most  perfect  construction,  but  exceedingly  liable 
to  derangement."  In  its  degree  the  remark  is  equally  applicable  to 
the  equine  body,  and  if  we  would  keep  it  in  tune  and  profit  by  its 
harmonious  action  we  must  at  least  acquaint  ourselves  with  the 
relations  of  its  parts  and  the  mode  of  their  cooperation. 

ANATOMY. 

The  bones,  then,  are  the  hard  organs  which  in  their  connection  and 
totality  constitute  the  skeleton  of  an  animal.  They  are  of  various 
forms,  three  of  which — the  long,  the  flat,  and  the  small — are  recog- 
nized in  the  extremities.  These  are  more  or  less  regular  in  their  form, 
but  present  upon  their  surfaces  a  variety  of  aspects,  exhibiting  in 
turn,  according  to  the  requirement  of  each  case,  a  roughened  or  smooth 
surface,  variously  marked  with  grooves,  crests,  eminences,  and  depres- 
sions, for  the  necessary  muscular  attachments,  and,  as  before  men- 
tioned, are  connected  by  articulations  and  joints,  of  w^hich  some  are 
immovable  and  others  of  a  movable  kind. 

The  substance  of  the  bones  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  combined 
earthy  and  animal  matter,  surrounded  by  a  fine,  fibrous  enveloping 
membrane  (the  periosteum)  which  is  intimately  adherent  to  the  ex- 
ternal surface  of  the  bone,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  secreting  membrane  of 
the  bony  structure.  The  bony  tissue  proper  is  of  two  consistencies, 
the  external  portion  being  hard  and  "  compact,"  and  called  by  the 
latter  term,  while  the  internal,  known  as  the  "  spongy,"  or  "  areolar 
tissue,"  corresponds  with  the  descriptive  terms.  Those  of  the  bones 
which  possess  this  latterconsistencycontainalso,  in  their  spongy  por- 
tion, the  medullary  substance  known  as  marrow,  which  is  deposited  in 
large  quantities  in  the  interior  of  the  long  bones,  and  especially  where 
a  central  cavity  exists,  called,  for  that  reason,  the  medullary  cavity. 
The  nourishment  of  the  bones  is  effected  by  means  of  what  is  known 
as  the  nutrient  foramen,  an  opening  established  for  the  passage  of  the 
blood  vessels  which  convey  the  necessary  nourishment  to  the  interior 
of  the  organ.  There  are  other  minutia?  concerning  the  nourishment  of 
the  skeleton,  such  as  the  venous  arrangement  and  the  classification 
of  their  arterial  vessels  into  several  orders,  which,  though  of  interest 
as  an  abstract  study,  are  not  of  sufficient  practical  value  to  refer  to 
here. 

The  active  organs  of  locomotion,  the  muscles,  speaking  generally, 
form  the  fleshy  covering  of  the  external  part  of  the  skeleton  and 
surround  the  bones  of  the  extremities.  They  vary  greatly  in  shape 
and  size,  being  flat,  triangular,  long,  short,  or  broad,  and  are 
variously  and  capriciously  named,  some  from  their  shape,  some  from 
their  situation,  and  others  from  their  use,  and  thus  we  have  abductors 
and  adductors,  the  pyramidal  and  orbicular,  the  digastricus,  the 
vastus,  and  so  on.     Those  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  will, 


ANATOMY   OP   THE   HOESE.  277 

known  as-  the  voluntary  muscles,  appear  in  the  form  of  fleshy 
structures,  red  in  color,  and  with  fibers  of  various  degrees  of  fineness, 
and  are  composed  of  fasciculi,  or  bundles  of  fibers,  united  by  con- 
nective or  cellular  tissue,  each  fasciculus  being  composed  of  smaller 
ones,  less  in  size,  but  united  in  a  similar  manner  to  compose  the 
larger  formations,  each  of  which  is  enveloped  by  a  structure  of  similar 
nature  known  as  the  sarcolemma.  Many  of  the  muscles  are  united  to 
the  bones  by  the  direct  contact  of  their  fleshy  fibers,  but,  in  other 
instances,  the  body  of  the  muscle  is  more  or  less  gradually  trans- 
formed into  a  cordy  or  membranous  structure  known  as  the  tendon 
or  sinew,  and  the  attachment  is  made  by  very  short  fibrous  threads 
through  the  medium  of  a  long  tendinous  band,  which,  passing  from 
a  single  one  to  several  other  of  the  bones,  effects  its  object  at  a  point 
far  distant  from  its  original  attachment.  In  thus  carrying  its  action 
from  one  bone  to  another,  or  from  one  region  of  a  limb  to  another, 
these  tendons  must  necessarily  have  smooth  surfaces  over  which  to 
glide,  either  upon  the  bones  themselves  or  formed  at  their  articula- 
tions, and  this  need  is  supplied  by  the  secretion  of  the  synovial  fluid, 
a  yellowish,  unctuous  substance,  furnished  by  a  peculiar  tendinous 
synovial  sac  designed  for.  the  purpose. 

Illustrations  in  point  of  the  agency  of  the  synovial  fluid  in  assisting 
the  sliding  movements  of  the  tendons  may  be  found  under  their  vari- 
ous forms  at  the  shoulder  joint,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  bone  of  the 
arm,  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  knee  joint,  and  also  at  the  fetlocks, 
on  their  posterior  part. 

As  the  tendons,  whether  singly  or  in  company  with  others,  pass 
over  these  natural  pulleys  they  are  retained  in  place  by  strong  fibrous 
bands  or  sheaths,  which  are  b}'^  no  means  exempt  from  danger  of 
injury,  as  will  be  readily  inferred  from  a  consideration  of  their  im- 
portant special  use  as  supports  and  reenforcements  of  the  tendons 
themselves,  with  which  they  must  necessarily  share  the  stress  of  what- 
ever force  or  strain  is  brought  to  bear  upon  both  or  either. 

We  have  referred  to  that  special  formation  of  the  external  surface 
of  a  bone  by  which  it  is  adapted  to  form  a  joint  or  articulation, 
either  movable  or  fixed,  and  a  concise  examination  of  the  formation 
and  structure  of  the  movable  articulations  will  here  be  in  place. 
These  are  formed  generally  by  the  extremities  of  the  long  bones,  or 
maj'  exist  on  the  surfaces  of  the  short  ones.  The  points  or  regions 
Avhere  the  contact  occurs  is  denominated  the  articular  surface,  which 
assumes  from  this  circumstance  a  considerable  variety  of  aspect  and 
form,  being  in  one  case  comparatively  flat  and  another  elevated;  or 
as  forming  a  protruding  head  or  knob,  with  a  distinct  convexity ;  and 
again  presenting  a  corresponding  depression  or  cavity,  accurately 
adapted  to  complete,  by  their  coaptation,  the  ball  and  socket  joint. 
The  articulation  of  the  arm  and  shoulder  is  an  example  of  the  first 


278  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

kind,  while  that  of  the  hip  with  the  thigh  bone  is  a  perfect  exhibition 
of  the  latter. 

The  structure  whose  office  is  to  retain  the  articulating  surfaces  in 
place  is  the  ligament.  This  is  usually  a  white,  fibrous,  inelastic 
tissue;  sometimes,  however,  it  is  elastic  in  character  and  yellowish. 
In  some  instances  it  is  funicular  shaped  or  corded,  serving  to  bind 
more  firmly  together  the  bones  to  which  its  extremities  are  attached ; 
in  others  it  consists  of  a  broad  membrane,  wholly  or  partially  sur- 
rounding the  broad  articulations,  and  calculated  rather  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  cavity  from  intrusion  by  the  air  than  for  other  security. 
This  latter  form,  known  as  capsular^  is  usually  found  in  connection 
with  joints  which  p)Ossess  a  free  and  extended  movement.  The 
capsular  and  funicular  ligaments  are  sometimes  associated,  the  cap- 
sular appearing  as  a  membranous  sac  wholly  or  partially  inclosing 
the  joint;  the  funicular,  here  known  as  an  interartieular  ligament, 
occupying  the  interior,  and  thus  securing  the  union  of  the  several 
bones  more  firmly  and  effectively  than  would  be  possible  for  the  cap- 
sular ligament  unassisted. 

The  universal  need  which  pertains  to  all  mechanical  contrivances 
of  motion  has  not  been  forgotten  while  providing  for  the  perfect 
working  of  the  interesting  piece  of  living  machinery  which  performs 
the  function  of  locomotion,  as  we  are  contemplating  it,  and  nature 
has  consequently  provided  for  obviating  the  evils  of  attrition  and 
friction,  and  insuring  the  easy  play  and  smooth  movement  of  its 
parts,  by  the  establishment  of  the  secretion  of  the  synovia^  the  vital 
lubricant  of  which  we  have  before  spoken,  as  a  yellow,  oily,  or 
rather  glairy  secretion,  which  performs  the  indispensable  office  of 
facilitating  the  play  of  the  tendons  over  the  joints  and  certain  given 
points  of  the  bones.  This  fluid,  which  is  deposited  in  a  containing 
sac,  the  lining  (serous)  membrane  of  which  forms  the  secreting 
organ,  is  of  an  excessively  sensitive  nature,  and  while  it  lines  the 
inner  face  of  the  ligaments,  both  capsular  and  fascicular,  is  attached 
only  upon  the  edges  of  the  bones  without  extending  upon  their 
length,  or  between  the  layers  of  cartilage  which  lie  between  the  bones 
and  their  articular  surfaces. 

Our  object  in  thus  partially  and  concisely  reviewing  the  structure 
and  condition  of  the  essential  organs  of  locomotion  has  been  rather 
to  outline  a  sketch  which  may  serve  as  a  reference  chart  of  the  gen- 
eral features  of  the  subject  than  to  offer  a  minute  description  of  the 
parts  referred  to.  Other  points  of  interast  will  receive  due  attention 
as  we  proceed  with  the  illustration  of  our  subject  and  examine  the 
matters  which  it  most  concerns  us  to  bring  under  consideration.  The 
foundation  of  facts  which  we  have  thus  far  prepared  will  be  found 
sufficiently  broad,  we  trust,  to  include  whatever  may  be  necessary  to 
insure  a  ready  comprehension  of  the  essential  matters  which  are  to 


DEFINITION    or   LAMENESS.  279 

follow  as  our  review  is  carried  forward  to  completion.  What  we 
have  said  touching  these  elementary  truths  will  probably  be  sufficient 
to  facilitate  a  clear  understanding  of  the  requirements  essential  to 
the  perfection  and  regularity  which  characterize  the  normal  perform- 
ance of  the  various  movements  which  result  in  the  accomplishment  of 
the  action  of  locomotion.  So  long  as  the  bones,  the  muscles  and  their 
tendons,  the  joints  with  their  cartilages,  their  ligaments  and  their 
synovial  structure,  the  nerves  and  the  controlling  influences  which 
they  exercise  over  all,  with  the  blood  vessels  which  distribute  to  every 
part,  however  minute,  the  vitalizing  fluid  which  sustains  the  whole 
fabric  in  being  and  activity — so  long  as  these  various  constituents  and 
adjuncts  of  animal  life  preserve  their  normal  exemption  from  disease, 
traumatism,  and  pathological  change,  the  function  of  locomotion  will 
continue  to  be  performed  with  perfection  and  efficiency. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  let  any  element  of  disease  become  implanted 
in  one  or  several  of  the  parts  destined  for  combined  action,  any  change 
or  irregularity  of  form,  dimensions,  location,  or  action  occur  in  any 
portion  of  the  apparatus — any  obstruction  or  misdirection  of  vital 
power  take  place,  any  interference  with  the  order  of  the  phenomena 
of  normal  nature,  any  loss  of  harmony  and  lack  of  balance  be  be- 
trayed— and  we  have  in  the  result  the  condition  of  lameness. 

DEFINITION    or   LAMENESS. 

Physiology. — Comprehensively  and  universally  considered,  then, 
the  term  lameness  signifies  any  irregularity  or  derangement  of  the 
function  of  locomotion,  irrespective  of  the  cause  which  produced  it  or 
the  degree  of  its  manifestation.  However  slightly  or  severely  it  may 
be  exhibited,  it  is  all  the  same.  The  nicest  observation  may  be 
demanded  for  its  detection,  and  it  may  need  the  most  thoroughly 
trained  powers  of  discernment  to  identify  and  locate  it,  as  in  cases 
where  the  animal  is  said  to  be  fainting^  tender^  or  to  go  sore.  On  the 
contrary,  the  p^-tient  may  be  so  far  affected  as  to  refuse  utterly  to  use 
an  injured  leg,  and  under  compulsory  motion  keep  it  raised  from  the 
ground,  and  prefer  to  travel  on  three  legs  rather  than  to  bear  any  por- 
tion of  his  weight  upon  the  afflicted  member.  In  these  two  extremes, 
and  in  all  the  intermediate  degrees,  the  patient  is  simply  lame — 
pathognomonic  minutiae  being  considered  and  settled  in  a  place  of 
their  own. 

This  last  condition  of  disabled  function — lameness  on  three  legs — 
and  many  of  the  lower  degrees  of  simple  lameness  are  very  easy  of 
detection,  but  the  first,  or  mere  tenderness  or  soreness,  may  be  very 
difficult  to  identify,  and  at  times  very  serious  results  have  followed 
from  the  obscurity  which  has  enveloped  the  early  stages  of  the  malady. 
For  it  may  easily  occur  that  in  the  absence  of  the  treatment  which  an 
early  correct  diagnosis  would  have  indicated,  an  insidious  ailment 


280  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

may  so  take  advantage  of  the  lapse  of  time  as  to  root  itself  too  deeply 
into  the  economy  to  be  subverted,  and  become  transformed  into  a 
disabling  chronic  case,  or  possibly  one  that  is  incurable  and  fatal. 
Hence  the  impolicy  of  depreciating  early  symptoms  because  they  are 
unaccompanied  by  distinct  and  pronounced  characteristics,  and  from 
a  lack  of  threatening  appearances  inferring  the  absence  of  danger. 
The  possibilities  of  an  ambush  can  never  be  safely  ignored.  An  extra 
caution  costs  nothing,  even  if  wasted.  The  fulfillment  of  the  first 
duty  of  a  practitioner,  when  introduced  to  a  case,  is  not  always  an 
easy  task,  though  it  is  too  frequently  expected  that  the  diagnosis,  or 
"  what  is  the  matter  "  verdict,  will  be  reached  by  the  quickest  and 
surest  kind  of  an  "instantaneous  process"  and  a  sure  prognosis,  or 
"  how  will  it  end,"  guessed  at  instanter. 

Usually  the  discovery  that  the  animal  is  becoming  lame  is  compar- 
atively an  easy  matter  to  a  careful  observer.  Such  a  person  will 
readily  note  the  changes  of  movements  which  will  have  taken  place 
in  the  animal  he  has  been  accustomed  to  drive  or  ride,  unless  they 
are  indeed  slight  and  limited  to  the  last  degree.  But  what  is  not 
always  easy  is  the  detection,  after  discovering  the  fact  of  an  existing 
irregularity,  of  the  locality  of  its  point  of  origin,  and  whether  its 
seat  be  in  the  near  or  oflf  leg,  or  in  the  fore  or  the  hind  part  of  the 
body.  These  are  questions  too  often  wrongly  answered,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  with  a  little  careful  scrutiny  the  point  may  be 
easily  settled.  The  error,  which  is  too  often  committed,  of  pronounc- 
ing the  leg  upon  which  the  animal  travels  soundly  as  the  seat  of  the 
lameness,  is  the  result  of  a  misinterpretation  of  the  physiology  of 
locomotion  in  the  crippled  animal.  Much  depends  upon  the  gait  with 
which  the  animal  moves  while  under  examination.  The  act  of  walkr 
ing  is  unfavorable  for  accurate  observation,  though,  if  the  animal 
walks  on  three  legs,  the  decision  is  easy  to  reach.  The  action  of  gal- 
loping will  often,  by  the  rapidity  of  the  muscular  movements  and 
their  quick  succession,  interfere  with  a  nice  study  of  their  rhythm,  and 
it  is  only  under  some  peculiar  circumstances  that  the  examination  can 
be  safely  conducted  while  the  animal  is  moving  with  that  gait.  It  is 
while  the  animal  is  trotting  that  the  investigation  is  made  with  the 
best  chances  of  an  intelligent  decision,  and  it  is  while  moving  with 
that  gait,  therefore,  that  the  points  should  be  looked  for  which  must 
form  the  elements  of  the  diagnosis. 

Our  first  consideration  .should  be  the  physiology  of  normal  or 
healthy  locomotion,  that  from  thence  we  may  the  more  easily  reach 
our  conclu.sions  touching  lameness,  or  that  which  is  abnormal,  and 
by  this  process  we  ought  to  succeed  in  obtaining  a  clew  to  the  .solution 
of  the  first  problem,  to  wit,  in  which  leg  is  the  seat  of  the  lameness? 

A  word  of  definition  is  here  neces.sary,  in  order  to  render  that  which 
follows  more  easily  intelligible.     In  veterinary  nomenclature  each 


DEFINITION    OF   LAMENESS.  281 

two  of  the  legs,  as  referred  to  in  pairs,  is  denominated  a  biped.  Of 
the  four  points  occupied  by  the  feet  of  the  animal  while  standing 
at  rest,  forming  a  square,  the  two  fore  legs  are  known  as  the  anterior 
biped ;  the  two  hinder,  the  posterior;  the  two  on  one  side,  the  lateral; 
and  one  of  either  the  front  or  hind  biped  with  the  opposite  leg  of 
the  hind  or  front  biped  will  form  the  diagoiial  hiped. 

Considering,  as  it  is  proper  to  do,  that  in  a  condition  of  health  each 
separate  biped  and  each  individual  leg  is  required  to  perform  an 
equal  and  uniform  function  and  to  carry  an  even  or  equal  portion  of 
the  weight  of  the  body,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  the  result 
of  this  distribution  will  be  a  regular,  evenly  balanced,  and  smooth 
displacement  of  the  body  thus  supported  by  the  four  legs,  and  that 
therefore,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  the  motion  in  different  gaits, 
each  single  leg  will  be  required  at  certain  successive  moments  to  bear 
the  weight  which  had  rested  upon  its  congener  while  it  was  itself  in 
the  air,  in  the  act  of  moving;  or,  again,  two  different  legs  of  a  biped 
may  be  called  upon  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  two  legs  of  the  opposite 
biped  while  also  .in  the  air  in  the  act  of  moving. 

To  simplify  the  matter  by  an  illustration,  the  weight  of  an  animal 
may  be  placed  at  1,000  pounds,  of  which  each  leg,  in  a  normal  and 
healthy  condition,  supports  while  at  rest  250  pounds.  When  one  of 
the  fore  legs  is  in  action,  or  in  the  air,  and  carrying  no  weight,  its  250 
pounds  share  of  the  weight  will  be  thrown  upon  its  congener,  or  part- 
ner, to  sustain.  If  the  two  legs  of  a  biped  are  both  in  action  and 
raised  from  the  ground,  their  congeners  still  resting  in  inaction,  will 
carry  the  total  weight  of  the  other  two,  or  500  pounds.  And  as  the 
succession  of  movements  continues,  and  the  change  from  one  leg  to 
another  or  from  one  biped  to  another,  as  may  be  required  by  the  gait, 
proceeds,  there  will  result  a  smooth,  even,  and  equal  balancing  of 
active  movements,  shifting  the  weight  from  one  leg  or  one  biped  to 
another,  with  symmetrical  precision,  and  we  shall  be  presented  with 
an  interesting  example  of  the  play  of  vital  mechanics  in  a  healthy 
organization. 

Much  may  be  learned  from  the  accurate  study  of  the  action  of  a 
single  leg.  Normally,  its  movements  will  be  without  variation  or 
failure.  AVhen  at  rest  it  will  easily  sustain  the  weight  assigned  to  it, 
without  showing  hesitancy  or  betraying  pain,  and  when  it  is  raised 
from  the  ground  in  order  to  transfer  the  weight  to  its  mate,  it  will 
perform  the  act  in  such  a  manner  that  when  it  is  again  placed  upon  the 
ground  to  rest  it  will  be  with  a  firm  tread,  indicative  of  its  ability  to 
receive  again  the  burden  to  be  thrown  back  upon  it.  In  planting  it 
upon  the  ground  or  raising  it  up  again  for  the  forward  movement 
while  in  action,  and  again  replanting  it  upon  the  earth,  each  move- 
ment will  be  the  same  for  each  leg  and  for  each  biped,  whether  the 
act  be  that  of  walking  or  trotting,  or  even  of  galloping.     In  short,  the 


282  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

regular  play  of  every  part  of  the  apparatus  will  testify  to  the  exist- 
ence of  that  condition  of  orderly  soundness  and  efficient  activity 
eloquently  suggestive  of  the  condition  of  vital  integrity,  which  is 
simply  but  comprehensively  expressed  by  the  terms  health  and 
sovndness. 

But  let  some  change,  though  slight  and  obscure,  occur  among  the 
elements  of  the  case;  some  invisible  agency  of  evil  intrude  among 
the  harmonizing  processes  going  forward ;  any  disorder  occur  in  the 
relations  of  coop>erating  parts;  anything  iappear  to  neutralize  the 
efficiency  of  vitalizing  forces;  any  disability  of  a  limb  to  accept  and 
to  throw  back  upon  its  mate  the  portion  of  the  weight  which  belongs 
to  it  to  sustain — present  itself,  whether  as  the  effect  of  traumatic  acci- 
dents or  otherwise;  in  short,  let  anything  develop  which  tends  to 
defeat  the  purpose  of  nature  in  organizing  the  locomotive  apparatus, 
at  once  we  are  confronted  by  that  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
cause  of  lameness. 

Not  the  least  of  the  facts  which  it  is  important  to  remember  is  that 
it  is  not  sufficient  to  look  for  the  manifestation  of  an. existing  discord- 
ance in  the  action  of  the  affected  limb  alone,  but  that  it  is  shared  by 
the  sound  one,  and  must  be  searched  for  in  that  as  well  as  the  halting 
member,  if  the  hazard  of  an  error  is  to  be  avoided.  The  mode  of 
action  of  the  leg  which  is  the  seat  of  the  lameness  will  vary  greatly 
from  that  which  it  exhibited  when  in  a  healthy  condition,  and  the 
sound  leg  will  also  offer  important  modifications  in  the  same  three 
particulars  before  alluded  to,  to  wit,  that  of  resting  on  the  ground, 
that  of  its  elevation  and  forward  motion,  and  that  of  striking  the 
ground  again  when  the  full  action  of  stepping  is  accomplished. 
Inability  in  the  lame  leg  to  sustain  weight  will  imply  excessive  exer- 
tion by  the  sound  one,  and  lack  of  facilitj'^  or  disposition  to  rest  the 
lame  member  on  the  ground  will  necessitate  a  longer  continuance  of 
that  action  on  the  sound  side.  Changes  in  the  act  of  elevating  the 
leg,  or  of  carrying  it  forward,  or  in  both,  will  present  entirely  oppo- 
site conditions  between  the  two.  The  lame  member  will  be  elevated 
rapidly,  moved  carefully  forward,  and  returned  to  the  ground  with 
caution  and  hesitancy,  and  the  contact  with  the  earth  will  be  effected 
as  lightly  as  possible,  while  the  sound  limb  will  rest  longer  on  the 
ground,  move  boldly  and  rapidly  forward,  and  strike  the  ground 
promptly  and  forcibly.  All  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sound 
member  carries  more  than  its  normal,  healthy  share  of  the  weight  of 
the  body,  a  share  which  may  l)e  in  excess  from  1  to  'i^O  pounds,  and 
thus  bring  its  burden  to  a  figure  varying  from  251  to  500  pounds,  all 
depending  upon  the  degree  of  the  existing  lameness,  whether  it  is 
simply  a  slight  tenderness  or  soreness,  or  whether  the  trouble  has 
reached  a  stage  which  compels  the  patient  to  the  awkwardness  of 
traveling  on  three  legs. 

That  all  this  is  not  mere  theory,  but  rests  on  a  foundation  of  fact 


HOW   TO   DETECT  LAMENESS.  283 

may  be  established  by  observing  the  manifestations  attending  a  single 
alteration  in  the  balancing  of  the  body.  In  health  the  support  and 
equilibrium  of  that  mass  of  the  body  which  is  borne  by  the  fore  legs 
is  equalized,  and  passes  by  regular  alternations  from  the  right  to  the 
left  side,  and  vice  versa.  But  if  the  left  leg,  becoming  disabled, 
relieves  itself  by  leaning,  as  it  were,  on  the  right,  the  latter  becomes, 
consequently,  practically  heavier,  and  the  mass  of  the  body  will 
incline  or  settle  upon  that  side.  Lameness  of  the  left  side,  therefore, 
means  dropping  or  settling  on  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  We  empha- 
size this  statement  and  insist  upon  it,  the  more  from  the  frequency 
of  the  instances  of  error  which  have  come  under  our  notice,  in  which 
parties  have  insisted  upon  their  view  that  the  leg  which  is  the  seat  of 
the  lameness  is  that  upon  which  he  drops,  and  which  the  animal  is 
usually  supposed  to  favor. 

HOW    TO   DETECT   THE    SEAT   OF   LAMENESS. 

Properly  appreciating  the  remarks  which  have  preceded,  and  fully 
comprehending  the  modus  operandi  and  the  true  pathology  of  lame- 
ness, but  little  remains  to  be  done  in  order  to  reach  an  answer  to  the 
question  as  to  which  side  of  the  animal  the  lameness  is  seated,  except 
to  examine  the  patient  while  in  action.  We  have  already  stated  our 
reasons  for  preferring  the  movement  of  trotting  for  this  purpose.  In 
conducting  such  an  examination  the  animal  should  be  unblanketed, 
and  held  by  a  plain  halter  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  knows  how  to 
manage  his  paces,  and  the  trial  should  always  be  made  over  a  firm, 
hard  road  whenever  such  is  available.  He  is  to  be  examined  from 
various  positions — from  before,  from  behind,  and  from  each  side. 
Watching  him  as  he  approaches,  as  he  passes  by,  and  as  he  recedes, 
the  observer  should  carefully  study  that  important  action  which  we 
have  spoken  of  as  the  dropping  of  the  hody  upon  one  extremity  or  the 
other,  and  this  can  readily  be  detected  by  attending  closely  to  the 
motions  of  the  head  and  of  the  hip.  The  head  drops  on  the  same  side 
on  which  the  mass  of  the  body  will  fall,  dropping  toward  the  right 
when  the  lameness  is  in  the  left  fore  leg,  and  the  hip  dropping  in  pos- 
terior lameness,  also  on  the  sound  leg,  the  reversal  of  the  conditions, 
of  course,  producing  reversed  effects.  In  other  words,  when  the  ani- 
mal in  trotting  exhibits  signs  of  irregularity  of  action,  or  lameness, 
and  this  irregularity  is  accompanied  by  dropping  or  nodding  the 
head,  or  depressing  the  hip  on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  at  the  time 
the  feet  of  the  right  side  strike  the  ground,  the  horse  is  lame  on  the  left 
side.  If  the  dropping  and  nodding  are  on  the  near  side  the  lameness 
is  on  the  off  side. 

But  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  answer  to  the  first  question  relating 
to  the  lameness  of  a  horse  is,  after  all,  not  a  very  difficult  task.  There 
are  two  other  problems  in  the  case  more  difficult  of  solution  and  which 


284  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

often  require  the  exercise  of  a  closer  scrutiny,  and  draw  upon  all  the 
resoiircCvS  of  the  experienced  practitioner  to  settle  satisfactorily.  That 
a  horse  is  lame  in  a  given  leg  may  be  easily  determined,  but  when  it 
becomes  necessary  to  pronounce  upon  the  query  as  to  what  part,  what 
region,  what  structure  is  aflPected,  the  easy  part  of  the  task  is  over, 
and  the  more  difficult  and  important,  because  more  obscure,  portion 
of  the  investigation  has  commenced — except,  of  course,  in  cases  of 
which  the  features  are  too  distinctly  evident  to  the  senses  to  admit  of 
error.  It  is  true  that  by  carefully  noting  the  manner  in  which  a  lame 
leg  is  performing  its  functions,  and  closely  scrutinizing  the  motions 
of  the  whole  extremity,  and  especially  of  the  various  joints  which 
enter  into  its  structure;  by  minutely  examining  every  part  of  the 
limb;  by  observing  the  outlines;  by  testing  the  change,  if  any,  in 
temperature  and  the  state  of  the  sensibility — all  these  investigations 
may  guide  the  surgeon  to  a  correct  localization  of  the  seat  of  trouble, 
but  ho  must  carefully  refrain  from  the  adoption  of  a  hasty  conclusion, 
and,  above  all,  assure  himself  that  he  has  not  failed  to  make  the  foot, 
of  all  the  organs  of  the  horse  the  most  liable  to  injury  and  lesion,  the 
subject  of  the  most  thorough  and  minute  examination  of  all  the  parts 
which  compose  the  suffering  extremity. 

The  greater  liability  of  the  foot  than  of  any  other  paH  of  the 
extremities  to  injury  from  casualties,  natural  to  its  situation  and  use, 
should  always  suggest  the  beginning  of  an  inquiry,  especially  in  an 
obscure  case  of  lameness  at  that  point.  Indeed  the  lameness  may 
have  an  apparent  location  elsewhere  when  that  is  the  true  seat  of 
the  trouble,  and  the  surgeon  who,  while  examining  his  lame  patient, 
discovers  a  ringbone,  and  satisfying  himself  that  he  has  encountered 
the  cause  of  the  disordered  action  suspends  his  investigation  without 
subjecting  the  foot  to  a  close  scrutiny,  may  deeply  regret  his  neglect 
and  inadvertence  at  a  later  day,  when  regrets  will  avail  nothing 
toward  remedj'ing  the  irreparable  injury  which  has  ensued  upon  his 
partial  method  of  exploration.  But,  as  in  human  pathological  experi- 
ence, there  are  instances  when  inscrutable  diseases  will  deliver  their 
fatal  messages,  while  leaving  no  mark  and  making  no  sign  by  which 
they  might  l)e  identified  and  classified,  so  it  will  happen  that  in  the 
humbler  animals  the  onset  and  progress  of  mysterious  and  unrecogniz- 
able ailments  will  at  times  bafile  the  most  skilled  veterinarian,  and 
leave  our  burden-bearing  servants  to  succumb  to  the  inevitable,  and 
suffer  and  perish  in  unrelieved  distress. 

DISEASES   OF   BONES. 
PERIOSTITIS,  OSTITIS,  AND  EXOSTOSIS. 

From  the  closeness  and  intimacy  of  the  connoction  existing  between 
the  two  principal  elements  of  the  bony  structure  while  in  health,  it 
frequently  becomes  exceedingly  difficult,  when  a  state  of  disease  has 
supervened,  to  discriminate  accurately  as  to  the  part  primarily  af- 


DISEASES   OP   THE   BONES.  286 

fected,  and  to  determine  positively  whether  the  periosteum  or  the 
body  of  the  bone  is  originally  implicated.  Yet  a  knowledge  of  the 
fact  is  often  of  the  first  importance,  in  order  to  secure  a  favorable 
result  from  the  treatment  to  be  instituted.  It  is,  however,  quite  evi- 
dent that  in  a  majority  of  instances  the  bony  growths  which  so  fre- 
quently appear  on  the  surface  of  their  structure,  to  which  the  general 
term  of  exostosis  is  applied,  have  had  their  origin  in  an  inflammation 
of  the  periosteum,  or  enveloping  membrane,  and  known  as  periostitis. 
However  this  may  be,  we  have  as  a  frequent  result,  sometimes  on  the 
body  of  the  bone,  sometimes  at  the  extremities,  and  sometimes  involv- 
ing the  articulation  itself,  certain  bony  growths,  or  exostoses,  known 
otherwise  by  the  term  splint^  ringbone^  and  spavin^  all  of  which,  in  an 
important  sense,  may  be  finally  referred  to  the  periosteum  as  their 
nutrient  source  and  support,  at  least  after  their  formation,  if  not  for 
their  incipient  existence. 

Cause. — It  is  certain  that  inflammation  of  the  periosteum  is  fre- 
quently referable  to  wounds  and  bruises  caused  by  external  agencies, 
and  it  is  also  true  that  it  may  possibly  result  from  the  spreading 
inflammation  of  surrounding  diseased  tissues,  but  in  any  case  the 
result  is  uniformly  seen  in  the  deposit  of  a  bony  growth,  more  or  less 
diffuse,  sometimes  of  irregular  outline,  and  at  others  projecting  dis- 
tinctly from  the  surface  from  which  it  springs,  as  so  commonly  pre- 
sented in  the  ringbone  and  the  spavin. 

Symptoms. — This  condition  of  periostitis  is  often  difficult  to  deter- 
mine. The  signs  of  inflammation  are  so  obscure,  the  swelling  of  the 
parts  so  insignificant,  any  increase  of  heat  so  imperceptible,  and  the 
soreness  so  slight,  that  even  the  most  acute  observer  may  fail  to  locate 
the  point  of  its  existence,  and  it  is  often  long  after  the  discovery  of 
the  disease  itself  that  its  location  is  positively  revealed  by  the  visible 
presence  of  the  exostosis.  Yet  the  first  question  had  been  resolved, 
in  discovering  the  fact  of  the  lameness,  while  the  second  and  third 
remained  unanswered,  and  the  identification  of  the  affected  limb 
and  the  point  of  origin  of  the  trouble  remained  unknown  until  their 
palpable  revelation  to  the  senses. 

Treatment. — "When,  by  careful  scrutiny,  the  ailment  has  been 
located,  a  resort  to  treatment  must  be  had  at  once,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent, if  possible,  any  further  deposit  of  the  calcareous  structure  and 
increase  of  the  exostotic  growth.  With  this  view  the  application  of 
water,  either  warm  or  cold,  rendered  astringent  by  the  addition  of 
alum  or  sugar  of  lead,  will  be  beneficial.  The  tendency  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  bony  growth,  and  the  increase  of  its  development  after 
its  actual  formation,  may  often  be  checked  by  the  application  of  a 
severe  blister  of  Spanish  fly.  The  failure  of  these  means  and  the 
establishment  of  the  diseased  process  in  the  form  of  chronic  perios- 
titis cause  various  changes  in  the  bone  covered  by  the  disordered 


286  DISEASES   OF   THE   H0B8E. 

membrane,  and  the  result  may  be  softening,  degeneration,  or  necro- 
sis, but  more  usually  it  is  followed  by  the  formation  of  the  bony 
growths  referred  to,  on  the  cannon  bone,  the  coronet,  the  hock,  etc 

SPLINTS. 

We  first  turn  our  attention  to  the  splint,  as  certain  bony  enlarge- 
ments which  are  developed  on  the  cannon  bone,  between  the  knee  or 
the  hock  and  the  fetlock  joint,  are  called.  They  are  found  on  the 
inside  of  the  leg,  from  the  knee,  near  to  which  they  are  frequently 
found,  downward  to  about  the  lower  third  of  the  principal  cannon 
bone.  They  are  of  various  dimensions,  and  are  readily  perceptible 
both  to  the  eye  and  to  the  touch.  They  vary  considerably  in  size, 
ranging  from  that  of  a  large  nut  downward  to  very  small  proportions. 
In  searching  for  them  they  may  be  readily  detected  by  the  hand  if 
they  have  attained  sufficient  development  in  their  usual  situation,  but 
must  be  distinguished  from  a  small  bony  enlargement  which  may  be 
felt  at  the  lower  third  of  the  cannon  bone,  which  is  neither  a  splint 
nor  a  pathological  formation  of  any  kind,  but  merely  the  buttonlike 
enlargement  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  small  metacarpal  or  splint 
bone. 

We  have  said  that  splints  are  to  be  found  on  the  inside  of  the  leg. 
This  is  true  as  a  general  statement,  but  it  is  not  invariably  so,  and 
they  occasionally  appear  on  the  outside.  It  is  also  true  that  they 
appear  most  commonly  on  the  fore  legs,  but  this  is  not  exclusively  the 
case,  and  they  may  at  times  be  found  on  both  the  inside  and  outside 
of  the  hind  leg.  Usually  a  splint  forms  only  a  true  exostosis,  or  a 
single  bony  growth,  with  a  somewhat  diffuse  base,  but  neither  is  this 
invariably  the  case.  In  some  instances  they  assume  more  important 
dimensions,  and  pass  from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  bone,  on 
its  posterior  face,  between  that  and  the  suspensory  ligament.  This 
form  is  termed  the  f egged  splint,  and  constitutes  a  serious  and  per- 
manent deformity,  in  consequence  of  its  interference  with  the  play 
of  the  fibrous  cord  which  passes  behind  it,  becoming  thus  a  source  of 
continual  irritation  and  consequently  of  permanent  lameness. 

Symptoms. — A  splint  may  thus  frequently  become  a  cause  of  lame- 
ness though  not  necessarily  in  every  instance;  but  it  is  a  lameness 
possessing  features  peculiar  to  itself.  It  is  not  always  continuous, 
but  at  times  assumes  an  intermittent  character,  and  is  more  marked 
when  the  animal  is  warm  than  when  he  is  cool.  If  the  lameness  is 
near  tire  kneejoint,  it  is  very  apt  to  become  aggravated  when  the 
animal  is  put  to  work,  and  the  gait  acquires  then  a  peculiar  character, 
arising  from  the  manner  in  which  the  limb  is  carried  outward  from 
the  knees  downward,  which  is  done  by  a  kind  of  abduction  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  leg.  Other  symptoms,  however,  than  the  lameness 
and  the  presence  of  the  splint,  which  is  its  cause,  may  l)e  looked  for 
in  the  same  connection  as  those  which  have  been  mentioned  as  per- 


SPLINTS.  287 

taining  to  certain  evidences  of  periostitis,  in  the  increase  of  the 
temperature  of  the  part,  with  swelling  and  probably  pain  on  pres- 
sure. This  last  symptom  is  of  no  little  importance,  since  its  presence 
or  absence  has  in  many  cases  formed  the  determining  point  in  decid- 
ing a  question  of  difficult  diagnosis. 

Cause. — A  splint  being  one  of  the  results  of  periostitis,  and  the 
latter  one  of  the  effects  of  external  hurts,  it  naturally  follows  that 
the  parts  which  are  most  exposed  to  blows  and  collisions  will  be  those 
on  which  the  splint  will  most  commonly  be  found,  and  it  may  not  be 
improper,  therefore,  to  refer  to  hurts  from  without  as  among  the 
common  causes  of  the  lesion.  But  other  causes  may  also  be  produc- 
tive of  the  evil,  and  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  overstraining 
of  an  immature  organism  by  the  imposition  of  excessive  labor  upon  a 
young  animal  at  a  too  early  period  of  his  life.  The  bones  which  enter 
into  the  formation  of  the  cannon  are  three  in  number,  one  large  and 
two  smaller,  which,  during  the  youth  of  the  animal,  are  more  or  less 
articulated,  with  a  limited  amount  of  mobility,  but  which  become  in 
maturity  firmly  joined  by  a  rigid  union  and  ossification  of  their 
interarticular  surface.  If  the  immature  animal  is  compelled,  then, 
to  perform  exacting  tasks  beyond  his  strength,  the  inevitable  result 
will  follow  in  the  muscular  straining,  and  perhaps  tearing  asunder 
of  the  fibers  which  unite  the  bones  at  their  points  of  juncture,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  understand  how  inflammation  or  periostitis  can  fail  to 
develop  as  the  natural  consequence  of  such  local  irritation.  If  the 
result  were  deliberately  and  intelligently  designed,  it  could  hardly 
be  more  effectually  accomplished. 

The  splint  is  an  object  of  the  commonest  occurrence — so  common, 
indeed,  that  in  large  cities  a  horse  which  can  not  exhibit  one  or  more 
specimens  upon  some  portion  of  his  extremities  is  one  of  the  rarest  of 
spectacles.  Though  it  is  in  some  instances  a  cause  of  lameness,  and 
its  discovery  and  cure  are  sometimes  beyond  the  ability  of  the  shrewd- 
est and  most  experienced  veterinarians,  yet  as  a  source  of  vital  danger 
to  the  general  equine  organization,  or  even  of  functional  disturbance, 
or  of  practical  inconvenience,  aside  from  the  rare  exceptional  .cases 
which  exist  as  mere  samples  of  possibility,  it  can  not  be  considered  to 
belong  to  the  category  of  serious  lesions.  The  worst  stigma  that  at- 
taches to  it  is  that  in  general  estimation  it  is  ranked  among  eyesores 
and  continues  indefinitely  to  be  that  and  nothing  different.  The 
inflammation  in  which  they  originated,  acute  at  first,  either  subsides 
or  assumes  the  chronic  form,  and  the  bony  growth  becomes  a  perma- 
nence— more  or  less  established,  it  is  true,  but  doing  no  positive  harm 
and  not  hindering  the  animal  from  continuing  his  daily  routine  of 
labor.  All  this,  however,  requires  a  proviso  against  the  occurrence 
of  a  subsequent  acute  attack,  when,  as  with  other  exostoses,  a  fresh 
access  of  acute  symptoms  may  be  followed  by  a  new  pathological 


288  DISEASES   OP   THE   H0B8E. 

activity,  which  shall  again  develop,  as  a  natural  result,  a  reappear- 
ance of  the  lameness. 

Treatment. — It  is,  of  course,  the  consideration  of  the  comparative 
harmlessness  of  splints  that  suggests  and  justifies  the  policy  of  non- 
interference, except  as  they  become  a  positive  cause  of  lameness.  And 
a  more  positive  argument  fqr  such  noninterference  consists  in  the 
fact  that  any  active  and  irritating  treatment  may  so  excite  the  parts 
as  to  bring  about  a  renewed  pathological  activity,  which  may  result 
in  a  reduplication  of  the  phenomena,  with  a  second  edition,  if  not  a 
second  and  enlarged  volume,  of  the  whole  story.  For  our  part,  our 
faith  is  firm  in  the  impolicy  of  interference,  and  this  faith  is  founded 
on  an  experience  of  many  years,  during  which  our  practice  has  been 
that  of  abstention. 

Of  course,  there  will  be  exceptional  conditions  which  will  at  times 
indicate  a  diflferent  course.  These  will  become  evident  when  the  occa- 
sions present  themselves,  and  extraordinary  forms  and  effects  of 
inflammation  and  growth  in  the  tumors  offer  special  indications.  But 
our  conviction  remains  unshaken  that  surgical  treatment  of  the  oper- 
ative kind  is  usually  useless,  if  not  dangerous.  We  have  little  faith 
in  the  method  of  extirpation  except  under  very  special  conditions, 
among  which  that  of  diminutive  size  has  been  named,  which  seems  in 
itself  to  constitute  a  sufficient  negative  argument.  But  even  in  such 
a  case  a  resort  to  the  knife  or  i\\&  gouge  could  scarcely  find  a  justifi- 
cation, since  no  operative  procedure  is  ever  without  a  degree  of  haz- 
ard, to  say  nothing  of  the  considerations  which  are  always  forcibly 
negative  in  any  question  of  the  infliction  of  pain  and  the  unnecessary 
use  of  the  knife. 

If  an  acute  periostitis  of  the  cannon  bone  has  been  readily  discov- 
ered, the  treatment  we  have  already  suggested  for  that  ailment  is 
at  once  indicated,  and  the  astringent  lotions  may  be  relied  upon  to 
bring  about  beneficial  results.  Sometimes,  however,  preference  may 
be  given  to  a  lotion  possessing  a  somewhat  different  quality,  the  alter- 
ative consisting  of  tincture  of  iodine  applied  to  the  inflamed  spot 
several  times  daily.  If  the  lameness  persists  under  this  mild  course 
of  treatment,  it  must,  of  course,  be  attacked  by  other  methods,  and  we 
must  resort  to  the  cantharides  ointment  or  Spanish-fly  blister,  as  we 
have  l)efore  recommended.  Besides  this,  and  producing  an  analogous 
effect,  the  compounds  of  biniodide  of  mercury  are  favored  by  some. 
It  is  prepared  in  the  form  of  an  ointment,  consisting  of  1  dram  of  the 
biniodide  to  1  ounce  of  either  lard  or  vaseline.  It  forms  an  excellent 
blistering  and  alterative  application,  and  is  of  special  advantage  in 
newly  formed  or  recently  discovered  exostosis. 

It  remains  a  pertinent  query,  however,  and  one  which  seems  to  be 
easily  answered,  whether  a  tumor  so  diminutive  in  size  that  it  can 
only  be  detected  by  diligent  search,  and  which  is  neither  a  disfigure- 


.^:sAi^^yimuk*ii'> 


BINGBONES.  289 

ment  nor  an  obstruction  to  the  motion  of  the  limb,  need  receive  any 
recognition  whatever.  Other  modes  of  treatment  for  splints  are  rec- 
ommended and  practiced  which  belong  strictly  to  the  domain  of  oper- 
ative veterinary  surgery.  Among  these  are  to  be  reckoned  actual 
cauterization,  or  the  application  of  the  fire  iron  and  the  operation  of 
periosteotomy.  These  are  frequently  indicated  in  the  treatment  of 
splints  which  have  resisted  milder  means. 

The  mode  of  the  development  of  their  growth;  their  intimacy, 
greater  or  less,  with  both  the  large  and  the  small  cannon  bones;  the 
possibility  of  their  extending  to  the  back  of  these  bones  under  the  sus- 
pensory ligament;  the  dangerous  complications  which  may  follow 
the  rough  handling  of  the  parts,  with  also  a  possibility,  and  indeed  a 
probability,  of  their  return  after  removal — these  are  the  considera- 
tions which  have  influenced  our  judgment  in  discarding  from  our 
practice  and  our  approval  the  method  of  removal  by  the  saw  or  the 
chisel,  as  recommended  by  certain  European  veterinarians. 

BINGBONES. 

This  term  forms  the  designation  of  the  exostosis  which  is  found  on 
the  coronet  and  in  the  digital  and  phalangeal  regions.  The  name  is 
appropriate,  because  the  growth  extends  quite  around  the  coronet, 
which  it  encircles  in  the  manner  of  a  ring,  or  perhaps  because  it  often 
forms  upon  the  back  of  that  bone  a  regular  osseous  arch,  through 
which  the  back  tendons  obtain  a  passage.  The  places  where  these 
growths  are  usually  developed  have  caused  their  subdivision  and 
classification  into  three  varieties,  with  the  designations  of  high, 
middle,  and  low,  though  much  can  not  be  said  as  to  the  importance  of 
such  distinction.  It  is  true  that  the  ringbone  or  phalangeal  exostosis 
may  be  found  at  various  points  on  the  foot,  in  one  case  forming  a 
large  bunch  on  the  upper  part  and  quite  close  to  the  fetlock  joint ;  in 
another  around  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof,  or  perhaps  on  the 
extreme  front  or  on  the  very  back  of  the  coronet.  The  shape  in 
which  they  commonly  appear  is  favorable  to  their  easy  discovery, 
their  form  when  near  the  fetlock  usually  varying  too  much  from  the 
natural  outlines  of  the  part  when  compared  with  those  of  the  opposite 
side  to  admit  of  error  in  the  matter.      (See  also  page  413.) 

A  ringbone  when  on  the  front  of  the  foot,  even  when  not  very 
largely  developed,  assumes  the  form  of  a  diffused  convex  swelling. 
If  situated  on  the  lower  part,  it  will  form  a  thick  ring,  encircling 
that  portion  of  the  foot  immediately  above  the  hoof ;  when  found  on 
the  posterior  part,  a  small,  sharp  osseous  growth  somewhat  project- 
ing, sometimes  on  the  inside  and  sometimes  on  the  outside  of  the 
coronet,  may  comprise  the  entire  manifestation. 

Cause. — As  with  splints,  ringbones  may  result  from  severe  labor  in 
early  life,  before  the  process  of  ossification  has  been  fully  perfected ; 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 19 


290  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOESE. 

or  they  may  be  referred  to  bruises,  blows,  sprains,  or  other  violence ; 
or  injuries  of  tendons,  ligaments,  or  joints  may  be  among  the  accoimt- 
able  causes. 

It  is  certain  that  they  may  commonly  be  traced  to  diseases  and 
traumatic  lesions  of  the  foot,  and  their  appearance  may  be  reason- 
ably anticipated  among  the  sequelae  of  an  abscess  of  the  coronet; 
or  the  cause  may  be  a  severe  contusion  resulting  from  calking,  or  a 
deep-punctured  wound  from  picking  up  a  nail  or  stepping  upon 
any  hard  object  of  suflficiently  irregular  form  to  penetrate  the  sole. 

Moreover,  a  ringbone  may  originate  in  heredity.  This  is  a  fact 
of  no  little  importance  in  its  relation  to  questions  connected  with 
the  extensive  interests  of  the  stock  breeder  and  purchaser. 

That  the  hereditary  transmission  of  constitutional  idiosyncrasies 
is  an  active  cause  with  regard  to  diseases  in  general,  it  would  be 
absurd  to  claim,  but  we  do  claim  that  a  predisposition  to  contract 
ringbone  due  to  faulty  conformation,  such  as  long,  thin  pasterns 
with  narrow  joints  and  steep  fetlocks,  may  be  inherited  in  many 
cases,  and  in  a  smaller  proportion  of  cases  this  predisposition  may 
act  as  a  secondary  cause  in  the  formation  of  ringbone. 

The  importance  of  this  point  when  considered  in  reference  to  the 
policy  which  should  be  observed  in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock 
is  obvious,  and,  as  the  whole  matter  is  within  the  control  of  the  own- 
ers and  breeders,  it  will  be  their  own  fault  if  the  unchecked  trans- 
mission of  ringbones  from  one  equine  generation  to  another  shall  bo 
allowed  to  continue.  It  is  our  belief  that  among  the  diseases  which 
are  known  for  their  tendency  to  perpetuate  and  repeat  themselves 
by  individual  succession,  those  of  the  bony  structures  stand  first, 
and  the  inference  from  such  a  fact  which  would  exclude  every  ani- 
mal of  doubtful  soundness  in  its  o&seous  apparatus  from  the  stud  list 
and  the  brood  farm  is  too  plain  for  argument. 

Symptoms. — Periostitis  of  the  phalanges  is  an  ailment  requiring 
careful  exploration  and  minute  inspection  for  its  discovery,  and  is 
quite  likely  to  result  in  a  ringlx)ne  of  which  lameness  is  the  result. 
The  mode  of  its  manifestation  varies  according  to  the  state  of  de- 
velopment of  the  diseased  growth  as  aflfected  by  the  circumstances 
of  its  location  and  dimensions.  It  is  commonly  of  the  kind  which, 
in  consequence  of  its  intermittent  character,  is  termed  lameness  when 
cool,  having  the  peculiarity  of  exhibiting  itself  when  the  animal 
starts  from  the  stable  and  of  diminishing,  if  not  entirely  disappearing 
after  some  distance  of  travel,  to  return  to  its  original  degree,  if  not 
indeed  a  severer  one,  when  he  has  again  cooled  off  in  his  stable. 
The  size  of  the  ringbone  does  not  indicate  the  degree  to  which  it 
cripples  the  patient,  but  the  position  may,  especially  when  it  inter- 
feres with  the  free  movement  of  the  tendons  which  pass  behind  and 
in  front  of  the  foot.     While  a  large  ringbone  will  often  interfere 


SIDEBONES.  291 

but  little  with  the  motion  of  the  limb,  a  smaller  growth,  if  situated 
under  the  tendon,  may  become  the  cause  of  considerable  and  con- 
tinued pain. 

A  ringbone  is  doubtless  a  worse  evil  than  a  splint.  Its  growth,  its 
location,  its  tendency  to  increased  development,  its  exposure  to  the 
influence  of  causes  of  renewed  danger,  all  tend  to  impart  an  unfavor- 
able cast  to  the  prognosis  of  a  case  and  to  emphasize  the  impor- 
tance and  the  value  of  an  early  discovery  of  its  presence  and  possible 
growth.  Even  when  the  discovery  has  been  made,  it  is  often  the 
case  that  the  truth  has  come  to  light  too  late  for  effectual  treatment. 
]M[pnths  may  have  elapsed  after  the  first  manifestation  of  the  lame- 
ness before  a  discovery  has  been  made  of  the  lesion  from  which  it 
has  originated,  and  there  is  no  recall  for  the  lapsed  time.  And  by 
the  uncompromising  seriousness  of  the  discouraging  prognosis  must 
the  energy  and  severity  of  the  treatment  and  the  promptness  of  its 
administration  be  measured.  The  periostitis  has  been  overlooked; 
any  chance  that  might  have  existed  for  preventing  its  advance  to  the 
chronic  stage  has  been  lost ;  the  osseous  formation  is  established ;  the 
ringbone  is  a  fixed  fact,  and  the  indications  are  urgent  and  pressing. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  keeping  colts 
well  nourished  and  in  trimming  the  hoof  and  shoeing  to  properly  bal- 
ance the  foot,  and  thus  prevent  an  abnormal  strain  on  the  ligaments. 
Even  after  the  ringbone  has  developed,  a  cure  may  sometimes  be  occa- 
sioned by  proper  shoeing  directed  toward  straightening  the  axis  of 
the  foot  as  viewed  from  the  side  by  making  the  wall  of  the  hoof  from 
the  coronet  to  the  toe  continuous  with  the  line  formed  by  the  front 
of  the  pastern.  As  long  as  inflammation  of  the  periosteum  and  liga- 
ments remains,  a  sharp  blister  of  biniodide  of  mercury  and  canthari- 
•des  may  do  good  if  the  animal  is  allowed  to  rest  for  four  or  five 
weeks.  If  this  fails,  some  success  may  be  accomplished  by  point 
firing  in  two  or  three  lines  over  the  ringbone.  It  is  necessary  to  touch 
the  hot  iron  well  into  the  bone,  as  superficial  firing  does  little  good. 
When  all  these  measures  have  failed  to  remove  the  lameness,  or  when 
the  animal  is  not  worth  a  long  and  uncertain  treatment,  a  competent 
veterinarian  should  be  engaged  to  perform  double  neurectomy,  high 
or  low,  of  the  plantar  nerves,  or  neurectomy  of  the  median  nerve  as 
indicated  by  the  seat  of  the  lesion. 

SIDEBONES. 

On  each  side  of  the  bone  of  the  hoof — the  coflinbone — there  are 
normally  two  supplementary  organs  which  are  called  the  cartilages  of 
the  foot.  They  are  soft,  and  though  in  a  degree  elastic,  yet  somewhat 
resisting,  and  are  implanted  on  the  lateral  wings  of  the  coflinbone. 
•Evidently  their  office  is  to  assist  in  the  elastic  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  posterior  part  of  the  hoof,  and  their  healthy  and  normal 


292  DISEASES   OP   THE    HOBSE. 

action  doubtless  contributes  in  an  important  degree  to  the  perfect  per- 
formance of  the  functions  of  that  part  of  the  leg.  These  organs  are, 
however,  liable  to  undergo  a  process  of  disease  which  results  in  an 
entire  change  in  their  properties,  if  not  in  their  shape,  by  which  they 
acquire  a  character  of  hardness  resulting  from  the  deposit  of  earthy 
substance  in  the  intimate  structure  of  the  cartilage,  and  it  is  this 
change,  when  its  consummation  has  been  effected,  that  brings  to  our 
cognizance  the  diseased  growth  which  has  received  the  designation  of 
sidehones.  They  are  situated  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  leg,  bulging 
above  the  superior  border  of  the  hoof  in  the  form  of  two  hard  bodies 
composed  of  ossified  cartilage,  irregularly  square  in  shape  and  MfL- 
yielding  under  the  pressure  of  the  fingers. 

Cause. — Sidebones  may  be  the  result  of  a  low  inflammatory  condi- 
tion or  of  an  acute  attack  as  well,  or  may  be  caused  by  sprains,  bruises, 
or  blows;  or  they  may  have  their  rise  in  certain  diseases  affecting  the 
foot  proper,  such  as  corns,  quarter  cracks,  or  quittor.  The  deposit  of 
calcareous  matter  in  the  cartilage  is  not  always  uniform,  the  base  of 
that  organ  near  its  line  of  union  with  the  cofTmbone  being  in  some 
cases  its  limit,  while  at  other  times  it  is  diffused  throughout  its  sub- 
stance, the  size  and  prominence  of  the  growth  varying  much  in 
consequence. 

Symptoms. — It  would  naturally  be  inferred  that  the  amount  of 
interference  with  the  proper  functions  of  the  hoof  which  must  result 
from  such  a  pathological  change  would  be  j^roportioned  to  the  size  of 
the  tumor,  and  that  as  the  dimensions  increased,  the  resulting  lajne- 
ness  would  be  the  greater  in  degree.  This,  however,  is  not  the  fact. 
A  small  tumor,  while  in  a  condition  of  acute  inflammation  during  the 
formative  stage,  may  cripple  a  patient  more  severely  than  a  much 
larger  one  in  a  later  stage  of  the  disease.  In  any  case  the  lameness  is . 
never  wanting,  and  with  its  intermittent  character  may  usually  be 
detected  when  the  animal  is  cooled  off  after  labor  or  exercise.  The 
class  of  animj^ls  in  which  this  feature  of  the  disease  is  most  frequently 
witnessed  is  that  of  the  heavy  draft  horse,  and  others  similarly  em- 
ployed. There  is  a  wide  margin  of  difference  in  respect  to  the  degrees 
of  severity  which  ma}'  characterize  different  cases  of  sidebone.  While 
one  may  be  so  slight  as  to  cause  no  inconvenience,  another  may  de- 
velop elements  of  danger  which  may  involve  the  necessity  of  severe 
surgical  interference. 

Treatment. — The  curative  treatment  should  be  similar  to  the  pro- 
phylactic, and  ^uch  means  should  be  used  as  would  tend  to  prevent 
the  deposit  of  bony  matters  by  checking  the  acute  inflammation  which 
causes  it.  "  The  means  recommended  are  the  free  use  of  the  cold  bath ; 
frequent  soaking  of  the  feet,  and  at  a  later  jjeriod  treatment  with 
iodine,  either  by  painting  the  surface  with  the  tincture  several  times 
daily  or  by  applying  an  ointment  made  by  mixing  1  dram  of  the 


SPAVIN.  293 

crystals  with  2  ounces  of  vaseline,  rubbed  in  once  a  day  for  several 
days.  If  this  proves  to  be  ineffective,  a  Spanish  fly  blister,  to  which 
a  few  grains  of  biniodide  of  mercury  have  been  added,  will,  in  a 
majority  of  cases,  effect  the  desired  result  and  remove  the  lameness. 
If,  finally,  this  treatment  is  ineffectual,  the  case  must  be  relegated  to 
the  surgeon  for  the  operation  of  neurectomy,  or  the  free  and  deep 
application  of  the  firing  iron. 

SPAVIN. 

This  affection,  popularly  termed  hone  spavin^  is  an  exostosis  of  the 
hock  joint.  The  general  impression  is  that  in  a  spavined  hock  the 
bony  growth  should  be  seated  on  the  anterior  and  internal  part  of 
the  joint,  and  this  is  partially  correct,  as  such  a  growth  will  constitute 
a  spavin  in  the  most  correct  sense  of  the  term.  But  an  enlargement 
may  appear  on  the  upper  part  of  the  hock  also,  or  possibly  a  little 
below  the  inner  side  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  shank  bone,  form- 
ing what  is  known  as  a  high  spavin;  or,  again,  the  growth  may  form 
just  on  the  outside  of  the  hock  and  become  an  outside^  or  jexterTial^ 
spavin.  And,  finally,  the  entire  under  surface  may  become  the  seat 
of  the  osseous  deposit,  and  involve  the  articular  face  of  all  the  bones 
of  the  hock,  and  this  again  is  a  hone  spavin.  There  would  seem,  then, 
to  be  but  little  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  nature  of  a  bone 
spavin,  and  there  would  be  none  but  for  the  fact  that  there  are  similar 
affections  which  might  confuse  one  if  the  diagnosis  is  not  very  care- 
fully made. 

But  the  hock  may  be  "  spavined,"  while  to  all  outward  observation 
it  still  retains  its  perfect  form.  With  no  enlargement  perceptible  to 
sight  or  touch  the  animal  may  yet  be  disabled  by  an  occult  spavin, 
an  anchylosis  in  fact,  which  has  resulted  from  a  union  of  several 
of  the  bones  of  the  joint,  and  it  is  onlj^  those  who  are  able  to  realize 
the  importance  of  its  action  to  the  perfect  fulfillment  of  the  function 
of  locomotion  by  the  hind  leg  who  can  comprehend  tlie  gravity  of  the 
only  prognosis  which  can  be  justified  by  the  facts  of  the  case — a  prog- 
nosis which  is  essentially  a  sentence  of  serious  import  in  respect  to 
the  future  usefulness  and  value  of  the  animal.  For  no  disease,  if 
we  except  those  acute  inflammatory  attacks  upon  vital  organs  to 
which  the  patient  succumbs  at  once,  is  more  destructive  to  the  useful- 
ness and  value  of  a  horse  than  a  confirmed  spavin.  Serious  in  its 
inception,  serious  in  its  progress,  it  is  an  ailment  which,  when  once 
established,  becomes  a  fixed  condition  which  there  is  no  known 
means  of  dislodging. 

Cause. — The  periostitis,  of  which  it  is  nearly  always  a  termination, 
is  usually  the  effect  of  a  traumatic  cause  operating  upon  the  compli- 
cated structure  of  the  hock,  such  as  a  sprain  which  has  torn  a  liga- 
mentous insertion  and  lacerated  some  of  its  fibers;  or  a  violent  effort 
in  jumping,  galloping,  or  trotting,  to  which  the  victim  has  been  com- 
pelled by  the  torture  of  whip  and  spur  while  in  use  as  a  gambling 


294  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

implement  by  a  sporting  owner,  under  the  pretext  of  "  improving  his 
breed ;  "  or  the  extra  exertion  of  starting  an  inordinately  heavy  load ; 
or  an  effort  to  recover  his  balance  from  a  misstep ;  or  slipping  upon 
an  icy  surface ;  or  sliding  with  worn  shoes  upon  a  bad  pavement,  and 
other  kindred  causes.  And  we  can  repeat  here  what  we  have  before 
said  concerning  bones,  in  respect  to  heredity  as  a  cause.  From  our 
own  experience  we  know  of  equine  families  in  which  this  condition 
has  been  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation,  and  animals 
otherwise  of  excellent  conformation  rendered  valueless  by  the  mis- 
fortune of  a  congenital  spavin. 

Symptoms. — The  evil  is  one  of  the  most  serious  character  for  other 
reasons,  among  which  may  be  specified  the  slowness  of  its  develop- 
ment and  the  insidiousness  of  its  growth.  Certain  indefinite  phenom- 
ena and  alarming  changes  and  incidents  furnish  usually  the  only 
portents  of  approaching  trouble.  ^Vmong  these  signs  may  be  men- 
tioned a  peculiar  posture  assumed  by  the  patient  while  at  rest,  and 
becoming  at  length  so  habitual  that  it  can  not  fail  to  suggest  the 
action  of  some  hidden  disorder.  The  posture  is  due  to  the  action  of 
the  adductor  muscles,  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  being  carried  inward, 
and  the  heel  of  the  shoe  resting  on  the  toe  of  the  opposite  foot.  Then 
an  unwillingness  may  be  noticed  in  the  animal  to  move  from  one  side 
of  the  stall  to  the  other.  When  driven  he  will  travel,  but  stiffly,  and 
with  a  sort  of  sidelong  gait  between  the  shafts,  and  after  finishing  his 
task  and  resting  again  in  his  stall  will  pose  with  the  toe  pointing  for- 
ward, the  heel  raised,  and  the  hock  flexed.  Some  little  heat  and  a 
considerable  amount  of  inflammation  soon  appear.  The  slight  lame- 
ness which  appears  when  backing  out  of  the  stall  ceases  to  be  notice- 
able afteij  a  short  distance  of  travel. 

A  minute  examination  of  the  hock  may  then  reveal  the  existence  of 
a  bony  enlargement  which  may  be  detected  just  at  the  junction  of  the 
hock  and  the  cannon  bone,  on  the  inside  and  a  little  in  front,  and 
tangible  both  to  sight  and  touch.  This  enlargement,  or  hone  spavin, 
grows  rapidly  and  persistently  and  soon  acquires  dimensions  which 
render  it  impossible  to  doubt  any  longer  its  existence  or  its  nature. 
Once  CvStablished,  its  development  continues  under  conditions  of  prog- 
ress similar  to  those  to  which  we  have  before  alluded  in  speaking  of 
other  like  affections.  The  argument  advanced  by  some  that  because 
these  bony  deposits  are  frequently  found  on  both  hocks  they  are  not 
spavins  is  fallacious.  If  they  are  discovered  on  both  hocks,  it  proves 
merely  that  they  are  not  confined  to  a  single  joint. 

The  characteristic  lameness  of  bone  spavin,  as  it  affects  the  mgtion 
of  the  hock  joint,  presents  two  aspects.  In  one  class  of  cases  it  is 
most  pronounced  when  the  horse  is  cool,  in  the  other  when  he  is  at 
work.  The  first  is  characterized  by  the  fact  that  when  the  animal 
travels  the  toe  first  touches  the  ground,  and  the  heel  descends  more 


SPAVIN.  295 

slowly,  the  motion  of  flexion  at  the  hock  taking  place  stiffly,  and 
accompanied  by  a  dropping  of  the  hip  on  the  opposite  side.  In  the 
other  case  the  peculiarity  is  that  the  lameness  increases  as  the  horse 
travels ;  that  when  he  stops  he  seeks  to  favor  the  lame  leg,  and  when 
.he  resumes  his  work  soon  after  he  steps  much  on  his  toe,  as  in  the 
first  variety. 

As  with  sidebones,  though  for  a  somewhat  different  reason,  the 
dimensions  of  the  spavin  and  the  degree  of  the  lameness  do  not  seem 
to  bear  any  determinate  relation,  the  most  pronounced  symptoms  at 
times  accompanying  a  very  diminutive  growth.  But  the  distinction 
between  the  two  varieties  of  cool  and  warm  may  easily  be  determined 
by  remembering  the  fact  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  first,  or  cool, 
is  due  to  a  simple  exostosis,  while  the  second  is  generally  connected 
with  disease  of  the  articulation,  such  as  ulceration  of  the  articular 
surface^-a  condition  which,  as  we  proceed  further,  will  meet  our 
attention  when  we  reach  the  subject  of  stringhalt. 

An  excellent  test  for  spavin  lameness,  which  may  be  readily  ap- 
plied, consists  in  lifting  the  affected  leg  off  the  ground  for  one  or  two 
minutes  and  holding  the  foot  high'  so  as  to  flex  all  the  joints.  An 
assistant,  with  the  halter  strap  in  his  hand,  quickly  starts  the  animal 
off  in  a  trot,  when,  if  the  hock  joint  is  affected,  the  lameness  will  be 
so  greatly  intensified  as  to  readily  lead  to  a  diagnosis. 

Prognosis. — Having  thus  fully  considered  the  history  of  bone 
spavin,  we  are  prepared  to  give  due  weight  to  the  reasons  which  exist 
for  the  adverse  prognosis  which  we  must  usually  feel  compelled  to 
pronounce  when  encountering  it  in  practice,  as  well  as  to  realize  the 
importance  of  early  discovery.  It  is  but  seldom,  however,  that  the 
necessary  advantage  of  this  early  knowledge  can  be  secured,  and  when 
the  true  nature  of  the  trouble  has  become  apparent  it  is  usually  too 
late  to  resort  to  the  remedial  measures  which,  if  duly  forewarned,  a 
skillful  practitioner  might  have  employed.  We  are  fully  persuaded 
that  but  for  the  loss  of  the  time  wasted  in  the  treatment  of  purely 
imaginary  ailments  very  many  cases  of  bone  spavin  might  be  arrested 
in  their  incipiency  and  their  victims  preserved  for  years  of  comfort 
for  themselves  and  valuable  labor  to  their  owners. 

Treatment. — To  consider  a  hypothetical  case :  An  early  discovery 
of  lameness  has  been  made ;  that  is,  the  existence  of  an  acute  inflam- 
mation— of  periostitis — has  been  detected.  The  increased  tempera- 
ture of  the  parts  has  been  observed,  with  the  stiffened  gait  and  the 
characteristic  pose  of  the  limb,  and  the  question  is  proposed  for  solu- 
tion. What  is  to  be  done?  Even  with  only  these  comparatively 
doubtful  symptoms — doubtful  with  the  nonexpert — we  should  direct 
our  treatment  to  the  hock  in  preference  to  any  other  joint,  since  of 
all  the  joints  of  the  hind  leg  it  is  this  which  is  most  liable  to  be 
attacked,  a  natural  result  from  its  peculiarities  of  structure  and 


296  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

function.  And  in  answer  to  the  query,  What  is  the  first  treatment 
indicated  ?  We  should  answer  rest — emphatically,  and  as  an  essential 
condition,  rest.  ^Vhether  only  threatened,  suspected,  or  positively 
diseased,  the  animal  must  be  wholly  released  from  labor,  and  it  must 
be  no  partial  or  temporary  quiet  of  a  few  days.  In  all  stages  and 
conditions  of  the  disease,  whether  the  spavin  is  nothing  more  than 
a  simple  exostosis,  or  whether  accompanied  by  the  complication  of 
arthritis,  there  must  be  a  total  suspension  of  effort  until  the  danger 
is  over.  Less  than  a  month's  quiet  ought  not  to  be  thought  of — the 
longer  the  better. 

Good  results  may  also  be  expected  from  local  applications.  The 
various  lotions  which  cool  the  parts,  the  astringents  which  lower  the 
tension  of  the  blood  vessels,  the  tepid  fomentations  which  accelerate 
the  circulation  in  the  engorged  capillaries,  the  liniments  of  various 
composition,  the  stimulants,  the  opiate  anodynes,  the  sedative  prepa- 
rations of  aconite,  the  alterative  frictions  of  iodine — all  these  are 
recommended  and  prescribed  by  one  or  another.  We  prefer  counter- 
irritants,  for  the  simple  reason,  among  many  others,  that  they  tend 
by  the  promptness  of  their  action  to  prevent  the  formation  of  the 
bony  deposits.  The  lameness  will  often  yield  to  the  blistering  action 
of  cantharides,  in  the  form  of  ointment  or  liniment,  and  to  the  alter- 
ative preparations  of  iodine  or  mercury.  And  if  the  owner  of  a 
"  spavined  "  horse  really  succeeds  in  removing  the  lameness,  he  has 
accomplished  all  that  he  is  justified  in  hoping  for;  beyond  this  let 
him  be  well  persuaded  that  a  "  cure  "  is  impossible. 

For  this  reason,  moreover,  he  will  do  well  to  be  on  his  guard  against 
the  patented  "  cures "  which  the  traveling  horse  doctor  may  urge 
upon  him,  and  withhold  his  faith  from  the  circular  of  the  agent  who 
will  deluge  him  with  references  and  certificates.  It  is  possible  that 
nostrums  may  in  some  exceptional  instances  prove  serviceable,  but 
the  greater  number  of  them  are  capable  of  producing  only  injurious 
effects.  The  removal  of  the  bony  tumor  can  not  be  accomplished  by 
any  such  means,  and  if  a  trial  of  these  unknown  compoimds  should 
be  followed  by  complications  no  worse  than  the  establishment  of  one 
or  more  ugly,  hairless  cicatrices,  it  will  be  well  for  both  the  horse  and 
his  owner. 

Rest  and  counterirritation,  with  the  proper  medicaments,  consti- 
tute, then,  the  prominent  points  in  the  treatment  designed  for  the 
relief  of  bone  spavin.  Yet  there  are  cases  in  which  all  the  agencies 
and  methods  referred  to  seem  to  lack  effectiveness  and  fail  to  produce 
satisfactory  results.  Either  the  rest  has  been  prematurely  inter- 
rupted or  the  blisters  have  failed  to  rightly  modify  the  serous  infil- 
tration, or  the  case  in  hand  has  some  undiscernible  characteristics 
which  seem  to  have  rendered  the  disease  neutral  to  the  agencies 
employed  against  it.     An  indication  of  more  energetic  means  is  then 


FBACTUBES.  297 

presented,  and  free  cauterization  with  the  firing  iron  becomes 
necessary. 

At  this  point  a  word  of  explanation  in  reference  to  this  operation 
of  firing  may  be  appropriate  for  the  satisfaction  of  any  among  our 
readers  who  may  entertain  an  exaggerated  idea  of  its  severity  and 
possible  cruelty. 

The  operation  is  one  of  simplicity,  but  is  nevertheless  one  which, 
in  order  to  secure  its  benefits,  must  be  reserved  for  times  and  occa- 
sions of  which  only  the  best  knowledge  and  highest  discretion  should 
be  allowed  to  judge.  It  is  not  the  mere  application  of  a  hot  iron  to  a 
given  part  of  the  body  which  constitutes  the  operation  of  firing.  It 
is  the  methodical  and  scientific  introduction  of  heat  into  the  structure 
with  a  view  to  a  given  effect  upon  a  diseased  organ  or  tissue  by  an 
expert  surgeon.  The  first  is  one  of  the  degrees  of  mere  burning.  The 
other  is  scientific  cauterization,  and  is  a  surgical  manipulation  which 
should  be  committed  exclusively  to  the  practiced  hand  of  the  veter- 
inary surgeon. 

Either  firing  alone  or  stimulation  with  blisters  is  of  great  efficacy 
for  the  relief  of  lameness  from  bone  spavin.  Failure  to  produce  relief 
after  a  few  applications  and  after  allowing  a  sufficient  interval  of  rest 
should  be  followed  by  a  second,  or,  if  needed,  a  third  firing. 

In  case  of  further  failure  there  is  a  reserve  of  certain  special  oper- 
ations which  have  been  tried  and  recommended,  among  which  those 
of  cunean  tenotomy,  periosteotomy,  the  division  of  nervous  branches, 
etc.,  may  be  mentioned.  These,  however,  belong  to  the  peculiar 
domain  of  the  veterinary  practitioner,  and  need  not  now  engage  our 
attention. 

FRACTURES. 

In  technical  language  a  fracture  is  a  "  solution  of  continuity  in  the 
structure  or  substance  of  a  bone."'  It  ranks  among  the  most  serious 
of  the  lesions  to  which  the  horse — or  any  animal — can  be  subject.  It 
is  a  subject  of  special  interest  to  veterinarians  and  horse  owners  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  it  occurs  in  such  a  variety  of  forms  and  sub- 
jects the  patient  to  much  loss  of  time,  resulting  in  the  suspension  of 
his  earning"  capacity.  Though  of  less  serious  consequence  in  the 
horse  than  in  man,  it  is  always  a  matter  of  grave  import.  It  is 
always  slow  and  tedious  in  healing,  and  is  frequently  of  doubtful 
and  unsatisfactory  result. 

This  solution  of  continuity  may  take  place  in  two  principal  ways 
In  the  most  numerous  instances  it  includes  the  total  thickness  of  the 
bone  and  is  a  complete  fracture.  In  other  cases  it  involves  a  portion 
only  of  the  thickness  of  the  bone,  and  for  that  reason  is  described  as 
incomplete.  If  the  bone  is  divided  into  two  separate  portions,  and 
the  soft  parts  have  received  no  injury,  the  fracture  is  a  simple  one;  or 


298  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

it  becomes  compound  if  the  soft  parts  have  suffered  laceration,  and 
comminuted  if  the  bones  have  been  crushed  or  ground  into  fragments, 
many  or  few.  The  direction  of  the  break  also  determines  its  further 
classification.  Broken  at  a  right  angle  it  is  transverse;  at  a  diflferent 
angle  it  becomes  oblique^  and  it  may  be  longitudinal^  or  lengthwise^ 
In  a  complete  fracture,  especially  of  the  oblique  kind,  there  is  a  con- 
dition of  great  importance  in  respect  to  its  effect  upon  the  ultimate 
result  of  the  treatment  in  the  fact  that  from  various  causes,  such  as 
muscular  contractions  or  excessive  motion,  the  bony  fragments  do 
not  maintain  their  mutual  coaptation,  but  become  separated  at  the 
ends,  which  makes  it  necessary  to  add  another  descriptive  term — with 
displacement.  And  these  words  again  suggest  the  negative,  and 
introduce  the  term  without  displacement^  when  the  facts  justify  that 
description.  Furthermore,  a  fracture  may  be  intra-articular  or  extra- 
articular, as  it  extends  into  a  joint  or  otherwise,  and  once  more,  intra- 
periosteal,  when  the  periosteum  remains  intact.  Finally,  there  is  no 
absolute  limit  to  the  use  of  descriptive  terminology  in  the  case. 

The  condition  of  displacement  is  largely  influential  in  determining 
the  question  of  treatment  and  as  affecting  the  final  result  of  a  case  of 
fracture.  This,  however,  is  dependent  upon  its  location  or  whether 
its  seat  be  in  one  or  more  of  the  axes  of  the  bone,  in  its  length,  its 
breadth,  its  thickness,  or  its  circumference.  An  incomplete  fracture 
may  also  be  either  simple  or  comminuted.  In  the  latter  case  the  frag- 
ments are  held  together  by  the  periosteum  when  it  is  intact,  and  the 
fracture  in  that  case  belongs  to  the  intraperiosteal  class.  At  times, 
also,  there  is  only  a  simple  fissure  or  split  in  the  bone,  making  a  con- 
dition of  much  difficulty  of  diagnosis. 

Causes. — Two  varieties  of  originating  cause  may  be  recognized  in 
cases  of  fracture.  They  are  the  predisposing  and  the  occasional.  As 
to  the  first,  different  species  of  animals  differ  in  the  degree  of  their 
liability.  That  of  the  dog  is  greater  than  that  of  the  horse,  and  in 
horses  the  various  questions  of  age,  the  mode  of  labor,  the  season  of 
the  year,  the  portion  of  the  body  most  exposed,  and  the  existence  of 
ailments,  local  and  general,  are  all  to  be  taken  into  account. 

Among  horses,  those  employed  in  heavy  draft  work  or  that  are 
driven,  over  bad  roads  are  more  exposed  than  light-draft  or  saddle 
horses,  and  animals  of  different  ages  are  not  equally  liable.  Dogs 
and  young  horses,  with  those  which  have  become  sufficiently  aged  for 
their  bones  to  have  acquired  an  enhanced  degree  of  frangibility,  are 
more  liable  than  those  which  have  not  exceeded  the  time  of  their 
adult  prime.  The  season  of  the  year  is  undoul)tedly,  though  in  an 
incidental  way,  an  important  factor  in  the  problem  of  the  etiology  of 
these  accidents,  for  though  they  may  be  observed  at  all  times,  it  is 
during  the  months  when  the  slippery  condition  of  the  icy  roads  ren- 
ders it  difficult  for  both  men  and  beasts  to  keep  their  feet  that  they 


FRACTUBES.  2^9 

occur  most  frequently.  The  long  bones,  those  especially  which  belong 
to  the  extremities,  are  most  frequently  the  seat  of  fractures,  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  superficial  position,  their  exposure  to  contact 
and  collision,  and  the  violent  muscular  efforts  involved  both  in  their 
constant  rapid  movement  and  their  labor  in  the  shafts  or  at  the  pole 
of  heavy  and  heavily  laden  carriages. 

The  relation  between  sundry  idiosyncrasies  and  diatheses  and  a  lia- 
bility to  fractures  is  too  constant  and  well-established  a  pathological 
fact  to  need  more  than  a  passing  reference.  The  history  of  rachitis, 
of  melanosis,  and  of  osteoporosis,  as  related  to  an  abnormal  frangi- 
bility  of  the  bones,  is  a  part  of  our  common  medical  knowledge. 
There  are  few  persons  who  have  not  known  of  cases  among  their 
friends  of  frequent  and  almost  spontaneous  fractures,  or  at  least  of 
such  as  seem  to  be  produced  by  the  slightest  and  most  inadequate  vio- 
lence, and  there  is  no  tangible  reason  for  doubting  an  analogous  con- 
dition in  individuals  of  the  equine  race.  Among  local  predisposing 
causes  mention  must  not  be  omitted  of  such  bony  diseases  as  caries, 
tuberculosis,  and  others  of  the  same  class. 

Exciting,  occasional,  or  "efficient"  causes  of  fracture  are  in  most 
instances  external  traumatisms,  as  violent  contacts,  collisions,  falls, 
etc.,  or  sudden  muscular  contractions.  These  external  accidents  are 
various  in  their  character,  and  are  usually  associated  with  quick  mus- 
cular exertion.  A  violent,  ineffectual  effort  to  move  too  heavy  a  load ; 
a  semispasmodic  bracing  of  the  frame  to  avoid  a  fall  or  resist  a  pres- 
sure; a  quick  jump  to  escape  a  blow;  stopping  too  suddenly  after 
speeding;  struggling  to  liberate  a  foot  from  a  rail,  perhaps  to  be 
thrown  in  the  effort — all  these  are  familiar  and  easy  examples  of  acci- 
dents happening  hourly  by  which  our  equine  servants  become  suffer- 
ers. We  may  add  to  these  the  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  vertebrae, 
occurring  when  casting  a  patient  for  the  purpose  of  undergoing  a 
surgical  operation,  quite  as  much  as  the  result  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion as  of  a  preexisting  diseased  condition  of  the  bones.  A  fracture 
occurring  under  these  circumstances  may  be  called  with  propriety 
indirect^  while  one  which  has  resulted  from  a  blow  or  a  fall  differ- 
ently caused  is  of  the  direct  kind. 

Syrri'ptoins. — We  now  return  to  the  first  items  in  our  classification 
of  the  varieties  of  fractures  for  the"  purpose  of  bringing  them  in  turn 
under  an  orderly  review,  and  our  first  examination  will  include  those 
which  belong  to  the  first  category,  or  the  complete  kind.  Irregu- 
larity in  the  performance  of  the  functions  of  the  apparatus  to  which 
the  fractured  bone  belongs  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  existing 
lesion,  and  this  is  lameness.  If  the  broken  bone  belongs  to  one  of  the 
extremities,  the  impossibility  of  the  performance  of  its  natural  func- 
tion in  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body  and  contributing  to  the  act 
of  locomotion  is  usually  complete,  though  the  degree  of  disability 


300  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

"will  vary  according  to  the  kind  of  fracture  and  the  bone  which  is 
injured.  For  example,  a  fracture  of  the  cannon  bone  without  dis- 
placement, or  of  one  of  the  phalanges,  which  are.  surrounded  and  sus- 
tained by  a  complex  fibrous  structure,  is,  in  a  certain  degree,  not 
incompatible  with  some  amount  of  resting  on  the  foot.  But,  on  the 
contrary,  if  the  shank  bone,  or  that  of  the  forearm  be  the  implicated 
member,  it  would  be  very  difficult  for  the  leg  to  exercise  any  agency 
whatever  in  the  support  of  the  body.  And  in  a  fracture  of  the  lower 
jaw  it  would  be  obviously  unreasonable  to  expect  it  to  contribute 
materially  to  the  mastication  of  food. 

A  fracture  seldom  occurs  which  is  not  accompanied  with  a  degree 
of  deformity,  greater  or  less,  of  the  region  or  the  leg  affected.  This 
is  due  to  the  exudation  of  the  blood  into  the  meshes  of  the  surround- 
ing tissues  and  to  the  displacement  which  occurs  between  the  frag- 
ments of  the  bones,  with  subsequently  the  swelling  which  follows  the 
inflammation  of  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  character  of  the 
deformity  will  mainly  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  dis- 
placement occurs. 

In  a  normal  state  of  things  the  legs  perform  their  movements  with 
the  joints  as  their  only  centers  or  bases  of  action,  with  no  participa- 
tion of  intermediate  points,  while  with  a  fracture  the  flexibility  and 
motion  which  will  be  observed  at  unnatural  points  are  among  the  most 
strongly  characteristic  signs  of  the  lesion.  No  one  need  be  told  that 
when  the  shaft  of  a  limb  is  seen  to  bend  midway  between  the  joints, 
with  the  lower  portion  swinging  freely,  that  the  leg  is  broken.  But 
there  are  still  some  conditions  where  the  excessive  mobility  is  not 
easy  to  detect  with  certainty.  Such  are  the  cases  where  the  fracture 
exists  in  a  short  bone,  near  a  movable  joint,  or  in  a  bone  of  a  region 
where  several  short  and  small  bones  are  united  in  a  group,  or  even  in 
a  long  bone  where  its  situation  is  such  that  the  muscular  covering 
prevents  the  visible  manifestation  of  the  symptom. 

If  the  situation  of  a  fracture  precludes  its  discovery  by  means  of 
this  abnormal  flexibility,  other  modes  of  detection  remain.  There  is 
one  method  which  is  absolute  and  positive  and  which  can  be  applied 
in  by  far  the  most,  though  not  in  all  cases.  This  is  crepitation^  or  the 
peculiar  effect  wliich  is  produced  by  the  friction  of  the  fractured  sur- 
faces one  against  another.  Though  discerned  by  the  organs  of  hear- 
ing it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  sound,  for  the  grating  of  the  parts  as 
the  rubbing  takes  place  is  more  felt  than  heard ;  however,  there  is  no 
mistaking  its  import  in  cases  favorable  for  the  application  of  the  test. 
The  conditions  in  which  it  is  not  available  are  those  of  incomplete 
fracture,  in  which  the  mobility  of  the  part  is  lacking,  and  thos^  in 
which  the  whole  array  of  phenomena  are  usually  obscure.  To  obtain 
the  benefit  of  this  pathognomonic  sign  requires  deliberate,  careful, 
and  gentle  manipulation.    Sometimes  the  slightest  of  movements  will 


FRACTTJEES.  301 

be  sufficient  for  its  development,  after  much  rougher  handling  has 
failed  to  discover  it.  Perhaps  the  failure  in  the  latter  case  is  due  to 
a  sort  of  defensive  spasmodic  rigidity  caused  by  the  pain  resulting 
from  the  rude  interference. 

More  or  less  reactive  fever  is  a  usual  accompaniment  of  a  fracture. 
Ecchymosis  in  the  parts  is  but  a  natural  occurrence,  and  is  more 
easily  discovered  in  animals  possessing  a  light-colored  and  delicate 
skin  than  in  those  of  the  opposite  character. 

There  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  diagnosis  of  an  incomplete 
fracture,  even  sometimes  when  there  is  a  degree  of  impairment  in  the 
function  of  locomotion,  with  evidences  of  pain  and  swelling  at  the 
seat  of  lesion.  There  should  then  be  a  careful  examination  for  evi- 
dences of  a  blow  or  other  violence  sufficient  to  account  for  the  frac- 
ture, though  very  often  a  suspicion  of  its  existence  can  only  be  con- 
verted into  a  certainty  by  a  minute  history  of  the  patient  if  it  can  be 
obtained  up  to  the  moment  of  the  occurrence  of  the  injury.  A  diag- 
nosis ought  not  to  be  hastily  pronounced,  and  where  good  ground 
for  suspicion  exists  it  ought  not  to  be  rejected  upon  any  evidence 
less  than  the  best.  Serious  and  fatal  complications  are  too  often 
recorded  of  the  results  following  careless  conclusions  in  similar  cases, 
among  which  we  may  refer  to  one  instance  of  a  complete  fracture 
manifesting  itself  in  an  animal  during  the  act  of  rising  up  in  his 
stall  after  a  decision  had  been  pronounced  that  he  had  no  fracture 
at  all. 

Fractures  are  of  course  liable  to  complications,  especially  those 
which  are  of  a  traumatic  character,  such  as  extensive  lacerations,  tear- 
ing of  tissues,  punctures,  contusions,  etc.  Unless  these  are  in  com- 
munication with  the  fracture  itself  the  indication  is  to  treat  them  sim- 
ply as  independent  lesions  upon  other  parts  of  the  body.  A  traumatic 
emphysema  will  at  times  cause  trouble,  and  abscesses,  more  or  less 
deep  and  diffused,  may  follow.  In  some  cases  small  bony  fragments 
from  a  comminuted  fracture,  becoming  loose  and  acting  as  foreign 
bodies,  give  rise  to  troublesome  fistulous  tracts.  A  frequent  compli- 
cation is  hemorrhage,  which  often  becomes  of  serious  consequence. 
A  fracture  in  close  proximity  to  a  joint  may  be  accompanied  b}-^  dan- 
gerous inflammations  of  important  organs,  and  induce  an  attack  of 
pneumonia,  pleurisy,  arthritis,  etc.,  especially  if  situated  near  the  chest ; 
it  may  also  cause  luxations,  or  dislocations.  Gangrene,  as  a  conse- 
quence of  contusions  or  of  hemorrhage  or  of  an  impediment  to  the 
circulation,  caused  by  unskillfully  applied  apparatus,  must  not  be 
overlooked  among  the  occasional  incidents ;  nor  must  lockjaw,  which 
is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  Even  founder,  or  laminitis,  has  been 
met  with  as  the  result  of  forced  and  long-continued  immobility  of 
the  feet  in  the  standing  posture,  as  one  of  the  involvements  of 
unavoidably  protracted  treatment. 


302  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

When  a  simple  fracture  has  been  properly  treated  and  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone  have  been  securely  held  in  coaptation,  one  of  two 
things  will  occur.  Either — and  this  is  the  more  common  event — there 
will  be  a  union  of  the  two  ends  by  a  solid  cicatrix,  the  callus,  or  the 
ends  will  continue  separated  or  become  only  partially  united  by  an 
intermediate  fibrous  structure.  In  the  first  instance  the  fracture  is 
consolidated,  or  united;  in  the  second  there  is  a  false  articulation,  or 
pseudarthrosis. 

The  time  required  for  a  firm  union  or  true  consolidation  of  a  frac- 
ture will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  bone  affected,  the  age  and 
constitution  of  the  patient,  and  the  general  conditions  of  the  case. 
The  union  will  be  perfected  earlier  in  a  young  than  in  an  adult  ani- 
mal, and  sooner  in  the  latter  than  in  the  aged,  and  a  general  healthy 
condition  is,  of  course,  in  every  respect,  en  advantage. 

The  mode  of  cicatrization,  or  method  of  repair  in  lesions  of  the 
bones,  has  been  a  subject  of  much  study  among  investigators  in 
pathology,  and  has  elicited  various  expressions  of  opinion  from  those 
high  in  authority.  But  the  weight  of  evidence  and  preponderance  of 
opinion  are  about  settled  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  the  law  of  repa- 
ration is  the  same  for  both  the  hard  and  the  soft  tissues.  In  one  case 
a  simple  exudation  of  material,  with  the  proper  organization  of  newly 
formed  tissue,  will  bring  about  a  union  by  the  first  intention,  and  in 
another  the  work  will  be  accompanied  by  suppuration,  or  union  by  the 
second  intention,  a  process  so  familiar  in  the  repair  of  the  soft  struc- 
tures by  granulation. 

Considering  the  process  in  its  simplest  form,  in  a  case  in  which  it 
advances  without  interruption  or  complication  to  a  favorable  result, 
it  may  probably  be  correctly  described  in  this  wise: 

On  the  occurrence  of  the  injury  an  effusion  of  blood  takes  place  be- 
tween the  ends  of  the  bone.  The  coagulation  of  the  fluid  soon  fol- 
lows, and  this,  after  a  few  days,  undergoes  absorption.  There  is  then 
an  excess  of  inflammation  in  the  surrounding  structure,  which  soon 
spreads  to  the  bony  tissue,  when  a  true  ostitis  is  established,  and  the 
compact  tissue  of  the  bone  becomes  the  seat  of  a  new  vascular  organi- 
zation, and  of  a  certain  exudation  of  plastic  lymph,  appearing  be- 
tween the  periosteum  and  the  external  surface  of  the  bone,  as  well  as 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  medullary  cavity.  After  a  few  days  the  ends 
of  the  bone  thus  surrounded  by  this  exudate  become  involved  in  it, 
and  the  lymph,  becoming  vascular,  is  soon  transformed  into  cartilag- 
inous, and  in  due  time  into  bony,  tissue. 

Thus  the  time  required  for  the  consolidation  of  the  fractured  seg- 
ments is  divisible  into  two  distinct  periods.  In  the  first  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  an  external  bony  ring,  and  the  medullary  cavity  is  closed 
by  a  bony  plug  or  stopper,  constituting  the  period  of  the  provisional 
callus.    This  is  followed  by  the  period  of  pernuuient  callus,  during 


FBACTUEES.  303 

which  the  process  is  going  forward  of  converting  the  cartilaginous 
into  the  osseous  form. 

The  restorative  process  is  sooner  completed  in  the  carnivorous  than 
in'  the  herbivorous  tribes.  In  the  former  the  temporary  callus  may 
attain  sufficient  fineness  of  consistency  for  the  careful  use  of  the  limb 
within  four  weeks,  but  with  the  latter  a  period  of  from  six  weeks  to 
two  months  is  not  too  long  to  allow  before  removing  the  supporting 
apparatus  from  the  limb. 

This,  in  general  terms,  represents  the  fact  when  the  resources  of 
nature  have  not  been  thwarted  by  untoward  accidents,  such  as  a  want 
of  vigor  in  the  constitution  of  the  patient  or  a  lack  of  skill  on  the 
i:)art  of  the  practitioner,  and  especially  when,  from  any  cause,  the 
bony  fragments  have  not  been  kept  in  a  state  of  perfect  immobility 
and  the  constant  friction  has  prevented  the  osseous  union  of  the  two 
portions.  Failures  and  misfortunes  are  always  more  than  possible, 
and  instead  of  a  solid  and  practicable  bony  union  the  sequel  of  the 
accident  is  sometimes  a  false  joint^  composed  of  mere  flexible  carti- 
lage, a  poor  pseudarthrosis.  The  explanation  of  this  appears  to  be 
that,  first,  the  sharp  edges  of  the  ends  of  the  bone  disappear  by 
becoming  rounded  at  their  extremities  by  friction  and  polishing 
against  each  other.  Then  follows  an  exudation  of  a  plastic  nature 
which  becomes  transformed  into  a  cartilaginous  layer  of  a  rough 
articular  aspect.  In  this  bony  nuclei  soon  appear,  and  the  lymph 
secreted  between  the  segments  thus  transformed,  instead  of  becoming 
truly  ossified,  is  changed  into  a  sort  of  fibro-cartilaginous  pouch,  or 
capsular  sac,  in  which  a  somewhat  albuminous  secretion,  or  pseudo- 
synovia,  permits  the  movement  to  take  place.  Most  commonly,  how- 
ever, in  our  animals,  the  union  of  the  bony  fragments  is  obtained 
wholly  through  the  medium  of  a  layer  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  it  is 
because  the  union  has  been  accomplished  by  a  ligamentous  formation 
only  that  motion  becomes  practicable. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  in  a  case  of  fracture  in  an  animal  is  one 
of  the  gravest  vital  import  to  the  patient,  and  therefore  of  serious 
pecuniary  concern  to  his  owner.  The  period  has  not  long  elapsed 
when  to  have  received  such  a  hurt  was  quite  equivalent  to  undergoing 
a  sentence  of  death  for  the  suffering  animal,  and  perhaps  to-day  a 
similar  verdict  is  pronounced  in  many  cases  in  which  the  exercise 
of  a  little  mechanical  ingenuity,  with  a  due  amount  of  careful  nurs- 
ing, might  secure  a  contrary  result  and  insure  the  return  of  the 
patient  to  his  former  condition  of  soundness  and  usefulness. 

Treatment. — Considered,  per  se,  a  fracture  in  an  animal  is  in  fact 
no  less  amenable  to  treatment  than  the  same  description  of  injury 
in  any  other  living  being.  But  the  question  of  the  propriety  and 
expediency  of  treatment  is  dependent  upon  certain  specific  points  of 
collateral  consideration. 


304  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

First.  The  nature  of  the  lesion  itself  is  a  point  of  paramount  im- 
portance. A  simple  fracture  occurring  in  a  bone  where  the  ends 
can  be  firmly  secured  in  coaptation  presents  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions for  successful  treatment.  If  it  be  that  of  a  long  bone,  it  will 
be  the  less  serious  if  situated  at  or  near  the  middle  of  its  length  than 
if  it  were  in  close  proximity  to  a  joint,  from  the  fact  that  perfect 
immobility  can  rarely,  in  the  latter  case,  be  secured  without  incurring 
the  risk  of  subsequent  rigidity  of  the  joint. 

A  simple  is  always  less  serious  than  a  compound  fracture.  A  com- 
minuted is  always  more  dangerous  than  a  simple,  and  a  transverse 
break  is  easier  to  treat  than  one  which  is  oblique.  The  most  serious 
jjre  those  which  are  situated  on  parts  of  the  body  in  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  secure  perfect  immobility,  and  especially  those  which  are 
accompanied  by  severe  contusions  and  lacerations  in  the  soft  parts; 
the  protrusion  of  fragments  through  the  skin';  the  division  of  blood 
vessels  by  the  broken  ends  of  the  bone;  the  existence  of  an  articula- 
tion near  the  point  to  which  inflammation  is  likely  to  extend;  the 
luxation  of  a  fragment  of  the  bone;  laceration  of  the  periosteum; 
the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  bony  particles,  the  result  of  the 
crushing  of  the  bone — all  these  are  circumstances  which  discourage 
a  favorable  prognosis,  and  weigh  against  the  hope  of  saving  the 
patient  for  future  usefulness. 

Fractures  which  may  be  accounted  curable  are  those  which  are  not 
conspicuously  visible,  as  those  of  the  ribs,  where  displacements  are 
either  very  limited  or  do  not  occur,  the  parts  being  kept  in  situ  by  the 
nature  of  their  positioin,  the  shape  of  the  bones,  the  articulations  they 
form  with  the  vertebra,  the  sternum,  or  their  cartilages  of  prolonga- 
tion; those  of  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebra;  those  of 
the  bones  of  the  face;  those  of  the  ilium;  and  that  of  the  coffinbones. 
To  continue  the  category,  the  following  are  evidently  curable  when 
their  position  and  the  character  of  the  patient  contribute  to  aid  the 
treatment;  Those  of  the  cranium,  in  the  absence  of  cerebral  lesions; 
those  of  the  jaws;  of  the  ribs,  with  displacement;  of  the  hip;  and 
those  of  the  bone  of  the  leg  in  movable  regions,  but  where  their 
vertical  position  admits  of  perfect  coaptation. 

On  the  contrary,  a  compound,  complicated,  or  comminuted  frac- 
ture, in  whatever  region  it  may  be  situated,  may  be  counted  incurable. 

In  treating  fractures  time  is  an  important  element  and  "  delays  are 
dangerous."  Those  of  recent  occurrence  unite  more  easilv  and  more 
regularly  than  older  ones. 

Second.  As  a  general  rule,  fractures  are  less  serious  in  animals  of 
the  smaller  species  than  in  those  of  more  bulky  dimensions.  This 
influence  of  species  will  be  readily  appreciated  when  we  realize  that 
the  difficulties  involved  in  the  treatment  of  the  latter  class  have  hardly 
anv   existence   in    connection   with   the    former.     The   difference   in 


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Z 


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FRACTURES.  305 

weight  and  size,  and  consequent  facility  in  handling  and  making  the 
necessary  applications  of  dressings  and  other  appliances  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  indispensable  immobility  of  the  parts,  and 
usually  a  less  degree  of  uneasiness  in  the  deportment  of  the  patients 
are  considerations  in  this  connection  of  great  weight. 

Third.  In  respect  to  the  utilization  of  the  animal,  the  most  obvious 
point  in  estimating  the  gravity  of  the  case  in  a  fracture  accident  is 
the  certainty  of  the  total  loss  of  the  services  of  the  patient  during 
treatment — certainly  for  a  considerable  period  of  time;  perhaps  per- 
manently. For  example,  the  fracture  of  the  jaw  of  a  steer  just 
fattening  for  the  shambles  will  involve  a  heavier  loss  than  a  similar 
accident  to  a  horse.  Usually  the  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  extrem- 
ities in  a  horse  is  a  very  serious  casualty,  the  more  so  proportionately 
as  the  higher  region  of  the  limb  is  affected.  In  working  animals  it 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  treat  a  fracture  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
restore  a  limb  to  its  original  perfection  of  movement.  A  fracture  of 
a  single  bone  of  an  extremity  in  a  breeding  stallion  or  mare  will  not 
necessarily  impair  their  value  as  breeders.  Other  specifications  under 
this  head,  though  pertinent  and  more  or  less  interesting,  may  be 
omitted. 

Fourth.  Age  and  temper  are  important  factors  of  cure.  A  young, 
growing,  robust  patient  whose  vis  vitce  is  active  is  amenable  to  treat- 
ment which  one  with  a  waning  constitution  and  past  mature  energies 
would  be  unable  to  endure;  and  a  docile,  quiet  disposition  will  act 
cooperatively  with  remedial  measures  which  would  be  neutralized  by 
the  fractious  opposition  of  a  peevish  and  intractable  sufferer. 

The  fulfillment  of  three  indications  is  indispensable  in  all  fractures. 
The  first  is  the  reduction,  or  the  replacement,  of  the  parts  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  their  normal  position.  The  second  is  their  retention  in 
that  position  for  a  period  sufficient  for  the  formation  of  the  provi- 
sional callus,  and  the  third,  which,  in  fact,  is  but  an  incident  of  the 
second,  the  careful  avoidance  of  any  accidents  or  causes  of  miscar- 
riage which  might  disturb  the  curative  process. 

In  reference  to  the  first  consideration,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  accident  may  befall  the  patient  at  a  distance  from  his  home,  and 
his  removal  becomes  the  first  duty  to  be  attended  to.  Of  course,  this 
must  be  done  as  carefully  as  possible.  If  he  can  be  treated  on  the  spot, 
so  much  the  better,  though  this  is  seldom  practicable,  and  the  method 
of  removal  becomes  the  question  calling  for  settlement.  But  two 
ways  present  themselves — he  must  either  walk  or  be  carried.  If  the 
first,  it  is  needless  to  say  that  every  caution  must  be  observ  ed  m  order 
to  obviate  additional  pain  for  the  suffering  animal  and  to  avoid  any 
aggravation  of  the  injury.  Led  slowly,  and  with  partial  support,  if 
practicable,  the  journey  will  not  always  involve  untoward  results.  If 
H.  Doe.  795,  59-2 20 


306  DISEASES   OF    THE    HORSE. 

he  is  carried,  it  must  be  by  means  of  a  wagon,  a  truck,  or  an  ambu- 
lance; the  latter,  being  designed  and  adapted  to  the  purpose,  would, 
of  course,  be  the  preferable  vehicle.  As  a  precaution  which  should 
never  be  overlooked,  a  temporary  dressing  should  first  be  applied. 
This  may  be  so  done  as  for  the  time  to  answer  all  the  purpose  of  the 
permanent  adjustment  and  bandaging.  Without  thus  securing  the 
patient,  a  fracture  of  an  inferior  degree  may  be  transformed  to  one  of 
the  severest  kind,  and,  indeed,  a  curable  changed  to  an  incurable 
injury.  We  recall  a  case  in  which  a  fast  trotting  horse,  after  running 
away  in  a  fright  caused  by  the  whistle  of  a  locomotive,  was  found  on 
the  road  limping  with  excessive  lameness  in  the  off  fore  leg,  and 
walked  with  comparative  ease  some  2  miles  to  a  stable  before  being 
seen  by  a  surgeon.  His  immediate  removal  in  an  ambulance  was 
advised,  but  before  that  vehicle  could  be  procured  the  horse  lay  down, 
and  upon  being  made  to  get  upon  his  feet  was  found  with  a  well- 
marked  comminuted  fracture  of  the  os  suffraginis,  with  considerable 
displacement.  The  patient,  however,  after  long  treatment,  made  a 
comparatively  good  recovery  and  though  with  a  large  bony  deposit, 
a  ringbone,  was  able  to  trot  among  the  forties. 

The  two  obvious  indications  in  cases  of  fracture  are  reduction,  or 
replacement,  and  retention. 

In  an  incomplete  fracture,  where  there  is  no  displacement,  the 
necessity  of  reduction  does  not  exist.  With  the  bone  kept  in  place 
by  an  intact  periosteum,  and  the  fragments  secured  by  the  unin- 
jured fibrous  and  ligamentous  structure  which  surrounds  them,  there 
IS  no  dislocation  to  correct.  Reduction  is  also  at  times  rendered 
impossible  by  the  seat  of  the  fracture  itself,  by  its  dimensions  alone, 
or  by  the  resistance  arising  from  muscular  contraction.  This  is 
illustrated  even  in  small  animals,  as  in  dogs,  by  the  exceeding  diffi- 
culty encountered  in  bringing  the  ends  of  a  broken  femur  or  humerus 
together,  the  muscular  contraction  being  even  in  these  animals  suffi- 
ciently forcible  to  renew  the  displacement. 

It  is  generally,  therefore,  only  fractures  of  the  long  bones,  and 
then  at  points  not  in  close  proximity  to  the  trunk,  that  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  amenable  to  reduction.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the 
more  superficial  bones,  as  those  of  the  head,  of  the  pelvis,  and  of 
the  thoracic  walls,  may  in  some  cases  require  special  manipulations 
and  appliances  for  their  retention  in  their  normal  positions,  hence 
the  treatment  of  these  and  of  a  fractured  leg  can  not  be  the  same. 

The  methods  of  accomplishing  reduction  vary  with  the  features  of 
each  case,  the  manipulations  being  necessarily  modified  to  meet  dif- 
ferent circumstances.  If  the  displacement  is  in  the  thickness  of  the 
bone,  as  in  transverse  fracture,  the  manipulation  of  reduction  con- 
sists in  applying  constant  pressure  upon  one  of  the  fragments,  while 
the  other  is  kept  steady  in  its  place,  the  object  of  the  pressure  being 


FRACTURES.  307 

the  reestablishment  of  the  exact  coincidence  of  the  two  bony  surfaces. 
If  the  displacement  has  taken  place  at  an  angle  it  will  be  sufficient  in 
order  to  eflfect  the  reduction  to  press  upon  the  summit,  or  apex,  of 
the  angle  until  its  disappearance  indicates  that  the  parts  ha^e  been 
brought  into  coaptation.  This  method  is  often  practiced  in  the  treat- 
ment of  a  fractured  rib.  In  a  longitudinal  fracture,  or  when  the 
fragments  are  pressed  together  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  to 
which  they  give  insertion  until  they  so  overlap  as  to  correspond  by 
certain  points  of  their  circumference,  the  reduction  is  to  be  accom- 
plished by  effecting  the  movements  of  extension^  c&unter  extension^ 
and  coaptation.  Extension  is  accomplished  by  making  traction  upon 
the  lower  portion  of  the  limb.  Counter  extension  consists  in  firmly 
holding  or  confining  the  upper  or  body  portion  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  shall  not  be  affected  by  the  traction  applied  to  the  lower  part. 
In  other  words,  the  operator,  grasping  the  limb  below  the  fracture, 
draws  it  down  or  away  from  the  trunk,  while  he  seeks  not  to  draw 
away,  but  simply  to  hold  still  the  upper  portion  until  the  broken 
ends  of  bone  are  brought  to  their  natural  relative  positions,  when 
the  coaptation,  which  is  thus  effected,  has  only  to  be  made  permanent 
by  the  proper  dressings  to  perfect  the  reduction. 

In  treating  fractures  in  small  animals  the  strength  of  the  hand  is 
usually  sufficient  for  the  required  manipulations.  In  the  fracture  of 
the  forearm  of  a  dog,  for  example,  while  the  upper  segment  is  firmly 
held  by  one  hand  the  lower  may  be  grasped  by  the  other  and  the  bone 
itself  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  lever  to  bring  about  the  desired 
coaptation.  In  such  a  case  that  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  muscular 
contraction  and  correct  the  overlapping  or  other  malposition  of  the 
bones.  If,  however,  the  resistance  can  not  be  overcome  in  this  mode, 
the  upper  segment  may  be  committed  to  an  assistant  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  counter  extension,  leaving  to  the  operator  the  free  use  of 
both  hands  for  the  further  manipulation  of  the  case. 

But  if  the  reduction  of  fractures  in  small  animals  is  an  easy  task,  it 
is  far  from  being  so  when  a  large  animal  is  the  patient,  whose  mus- 
cular force  is  largely  greater  than  that  of  several  men  combined.  In 
such  a  case  resort  must  be  had  not  only  to  superior  numbers  for  the 
necessary  force,  but  in  many  cases  to  mechanical  aids.  A  reference 
to  the  mode  of  proceeding  in  a  case  of  fracture  with  displacement  of 
the  forearm  of  a  horse  will  illustrate  the  matter.  The  patient  is  first 
to  be  carefully  cast,  on  the  uninjured  side,  with  ropes,  or  a  broad 
leather  strap  about  18  feet  long,  passed  under  and  around  his  body 
and  under  the  axilla  of  the  fractured  limb  and  secured  at  a  point 
opposite  to  the  animal  and  toward  his  back.  This  will  form  the 
mechanical  means  of  counter  extension.  Another  rope  will  then  be 
placed  around  the  inferior  part  of  the  leg  below  the  point  of  frac- 
ture, with  which  to  produce  extension,  and  this  will  sometimes  be 


308  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

furnished  with  a  block  and  pulleys,  in  order  to  augment  the  power 
when  necessary;  and  there  is,  in  fact,  always  an  advantage  in  their 
use,  on  the  side  of  steadiness  and  uniformity,  as  well  as  of  increased 
power.  It  is  secured  around  the  fetlock  or  the  coronet,  or,  what  is 
better,  above  the  knee  and  nearer  the  point  of  fracture,  and  is  com- 
mitted to  assistants.  The  traction  on  this  should  be  firm,  uniform, 
and  slow,  without  relaxing  or  jerking,  while  the  operator  carefully 
watches  the  process.  If  the  bone  is  superficially  situated  he  is  able 
to  judge  by  the  eye  of  any  changes  that  may  occur  in  the  form  or 
length  of  the  parts  under  traction,  and  discovering,  at  the  moment  of 
its  happening,  the  restoration  of  symmetry  in  the  disturbed  region, 
he  gently  but  firmly  manipulates  the  place  until  all  appearance  of 
severed  continuity  has  vanished.  Sometimes  the  fact  and  the  instant 
of  restoration  are  indicated  by  a  peculiar  sound,  or  "  click,"  as  the 
ends  of  the  bone  slip  into  contact,  to  await  the  next  step  of  the 
restorative  procedure. 

The  process  is  the  same  when  the  bones  are  covered  with  thick 
muscular  masses,  excepting  that  it  is  attended  with  greater  difficulties, 
from  the  fact  that  the  finger  must  be  substituted  for  the  eye,  and  the 
taxis  must  take  the  place  of  the  sight. 

It  frequently  happens  that  perfect  coaptation  is  prevented  by  the 
interposition  between  the  bony  surfaces  of  substances,  such  as  a  small 
fragment  of  detached  bone  or  a  clot  of  blood,  and  sometimes  the 
extreme  obliquity  of  the  fracture  is  the  opposing  cause,  by  permit- 
ting the  bones  to  slip  out  of  place.  These  are  difficulties  which  can 
not  always  be- overcome,  even  in  small-sized  animals,  and  still  it  is 
only  when  they  are  mastered  that  a  correct  consolidation  can  be 
looked  for.  Without  it  the  continuity  between  the  fragments  will  be 
by  a  deformed  callus,  the  union  will  leave  a  shortened,  crooked,  or 
angular  limb  and  a  disabled  animal. 

If  timely  assistance  can  be  obtained,  and  the  reduction  accom- 
plished immediately  after  the  occurrence  of  the  accident,  tliat  is  the 
best  time  for  it.  But  if  it  can  not  be  attended  to  until  inflammation 
has  become  established  and  the  parts  have  become  swollen  and  pain- 
ful, time  must  be  allowed  for  the  subsidence  of  these  symptoms 
before  attempting  the  operation.  A  spasmodic  muscular  contraction 
which  sometimes  interposes  a  difficulty  may  be  easily  overcome  by 
subjecting  the  patient  to  general  anesthesia,  and  need  not,  therefore, 
cause  any  loss  of  time.  A  tendency  to  this  may  also  be  overcome 
by  the  use  of  sedatives  and  antiphlogistic  remedies. 

The  reduction  of  the  fracture  having  been  accomplished,  the  prob- 
lem which  follows  is  that  of  retention.  The  parts  which  have  been 
restored  to  their  natural  position  must  be  kept  there,  without  dis- 
turbance or  agitation,  until  the  perfect  formation  of  a  callus,  and  it 
is  here  that  ample  latitude  exists  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  and 


FRACTURES.  309 

skill  by  the  surgeon  in  the  contrivance  of  the  necessary  apparatus. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  the  conditions  which  are  available  by 
the  surgeon  in  treating  human  patients  is  denied  to  the  veterinarian 
in  the  management  of  those  which  belong  to  the  animal  tribes.  This 
is  position.  The  intelligence  of  the  human  patient  cooperates  with 
the  instructions  of  the  surgeon,  but  with  the  animal  sufferer  there 
is  a  continual  antagonism  between  the  parties,  and  the  forced  exten- 
sion and  fatiguing  position  which  must  for  a  considerable  period  be 
maintained  as  a  condition  of  restoration  require  special  and  effective 
appliances  to  insure  successful  results.  To  obtain  complete  immo- 
bility is  scarcely  possible,  and  the  surgeon  must  be  content  to  reach 
a  point  as  near  as  possible  to  that  which  is  unattainable.  For  this 
reason,  as  will  subsequently  be  seen,  the  use  of  slings  and  the  re- 
straint of  patients  in  very  narrow  stalls  is  much  to  be  preferred 
to  the  practice  sometimes  recommended  of  allowing  entire  freedom 
of  motion  by  turning  them  loose  in  box  stalls.  Temporary  and 
movable  apparatus  are  not  usually  of  difficult  use  in  veterinary 
practice,  but  the  restlessness  of  the  patients  and  their  unwillingness 
to  submit  quietly  to  the  changing  of  the  dressings  render  it  obliga- 
tory to  have  recourse  to  permanent  and  immovable  bandages,  which 
should  be  retained  without  disturbance  until  the  process  of  consolida- 
tion is  complete. 

The  materials  composing  the  retaining  apparatus  consist  of  oakum, 
bandages,  and  splints,  with  an  agglutinating  compound  which  forms 
a  species  of  cement  by  which  the  different  constituents  are  blended 
into  a  consistent  mass  to  be  spread  upon  the  surface  covering  the 
locality  of  the  fracture.  Its  components  are  black  pitch,  rosin,  and 
Venice  turpentine,  blended  by  heat.  The  dressing  may  be  applied 
directly  to  the  skin,  or  a  covering  of  thin  linen  may  be  interposed. 
A  putty  made  with  powdered  chalk  and  the  white  of  egg  is  recom- 
mended for  small  animals,  though  a  mixture  of  sugar  of  lead  and 
burnt  alum  with  the  albumen  is  preferred  by  others.  Another  formula 
is  spirits  of  camphor,  Goulard's  extract,  and  albumen.  Another  rec- 
ommendation is  to  saturate  the  oakum  and  bandages  with  an  adhesive 
solution  formed  with  gum  arable,  dextrin,  flour  paste,  or  starch. 
This  is  advised  particularly  for  small  animals,  as  is  also  the  silicate  of 
soda.  Dextrin  mixed,  while  warm,  with  burnt  alum  and  alcohol  cools 
and  solidifies  into  a  stony  consistency,  and  is  preferable  to  plaster  of 
Paris,  which  is  less  friable  and  has  less  solidity,  besides  being  heavier 
and  requiring  constant  additions  as  it  becomes  older.  Starch  and 
plaster  of  Paris  form  another  good  compound. 

In  applying  the  dressing  the  leg  is  usually  padded  with  a  cushion 
of  oakum,  thick  and  soft  enough  to  equalize  the  irregularities  of  the 
surface  and  to  form  a  bedding  for  the  protection  of  the  skin  fi'om 
chafing.    Over  this  the  splints  are  placed.    The  material  for  these  is, 


310  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

variously,  pasteboard,  thin  wood,  bark,  laths,  gutta  percha,  strips  of 
thin  metal,  as  tin  or  perhaps  sheet  iron.  These  should  be  of  sufficient 
length  not  only  to  cover  the  region  of  the  fracture,  but  to  extend 
sufficiently  above  and  below  to  render  the  immobility  more  complete 
than  in  the  surrounding  joints.  The  splints,  again,  are  covered  with 
cloth  bandages,  linen  preferably,  soaked  in  a  glutinous  mixture. 
These  bandages  are  to  be  carefully  applied,  with  a  perfect  condition 
of  lightness.  They  are  usually  made  to  embrace  the  entire  length  of 
the  leg,  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  interference  with  the  cir- 
culation of  the  extremity,  as  well  as  for  the  prevention  of  chafing. 
They  should  be  rolled  from  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  upward,  and 
carefully  secured  against  loosening.  In  some  instances  suspensory 
bandages  are  recommended,  but  excepting  for  small  animals  our 
experience  does  not  justify  a  concurrence  in  the  recommendation. 

These  permanent  dressings  always  need  careful  watching  with  ref- 
erence to  their  immediate  effect  upon  the  region  they  cover,  especially 
during  the  first  days  succeeding  that  of  their  application.  Any  mani- 
festation of  pain,  or  any  appearance  of  swelling  above  or  below,  or 
any  odor  suggestive  of  suppuration  should  excite  suspicion,  and  a 
thorough  investigation  should  follow  without  delay.  The  removal  of 
the  dressing  should  be  performed  with  great  care,  and  especially  so  if 
time  enough  has  elapsed  since  its  application  to  allow  of  a  probability 
of  a  commencement  of  the  healing  process  or  the  existence  of  any 
points  of  consolidation.  With  the  original  dressing  properly  applied 
in  its  entirety  in  the  first  instance,  the  entire  extremity  will  have  lost 
all  chance  of  mobility,  and  the  repairing  process  may  be  permitted  to 
proceed  without  interference.  There  will  be  no  necessity  and  there 
need  be  no  haste  for  removal  or  change  except  under  such  special  con- 
ditions as  have  just  been  mentioned,  or  when  there  is  reason  to  judge 
that  solidification  has  become  perfect,  or  for  the  comfort  of  the  ani- 
mal, or  for  its  readaptation  in  consequence  of  the  atrophy  of  the  limb 
from  want  of  use.  Owners  of  animals  are  often  tempted  to  remove  a 
splint  or  bandage  prematurely  at  the  risk  of  producing  a  second  frac- 
ture in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  callus  properly  to  consolidate. 

The  method  of  applying  the  splints  which  we  have  described  refers 
to  the  simple  variety  only.  In  a  compound  case  the  same  rules  must 
be  observed,  with  the  modification  of  leaving  openings  through  the 
thickness  of  the  dressing,  opposite  the  wound,  in  order  to  permit  the 
escape  of  pus  and  to  secure  access  to  the  points  requiring  the  applica- 
tion of  treatment. 

FRACTURE    OF    DIFFERENT   BOXES. 
CBANIAL    nONKS. 

Causes. — Fractures  of  these  bones  in  large  animals  are  compara- 
tively rare,  though  the  records  are  not  destitute  of  cases.  When  they 
occur,  it  is  as  the  result  of  external   violence,  the  sufferers  being 


FRACTURES   OF   BONES   IN   THE   HEAD.  311 

usually  runaways  which  have  come  in  collision  with  a  wall  or  a  tree 
or  other  obstruction ;  or  it  may  occur  in  those  which  in  pulling  upon 
the  halter  have  broken  it  with  a  jerk  and  been  thrown  backward, 
as  might  occur  in  rearing  too  violently.  Under  these  conditions  we 
have  witnessed  fractures  of  the  parietal,  of  the  frontal,  and  of  the 
sphenoid  bones.  These  fractures  may  be  of  both  the  complete  and 
the  incomplete  kind,  which  indeed  is  usually  the  case  with  those  of 
the  flat  bones,  and  ihey  are  liable  to  be  complicated  with  lacerations 
of  the  skin,  in  consequence  of  which  they  are  easily  brought  under 
observation.  But  when  the  fact  is  otherwise  and  the  skin  is  intact, 
the  diagnosis  becomes  difficult. 

Symptoms. — The  incomplete  variety  may  be  unaccompanied  by  any 
special  symptoms,  but  in  the  complete  kind  one  of  the  bony  plates 
may  be  so  far  detached  as  to  press  upon  the  cerebral  substance  with 
sufficient  force  to  produce  serious  nervous  complications.  AVhen  the 
injury  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  cranium,  hemorrhage  may  be  looked 
for,  with  paralytic  symptoms,  and  when  these  are  present  the  usual 
termination  is  death.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  the  symptoms 
of  an  apparently  very  severe  concussion  may  disappear,  resulting  in 
an  early  and  complete  recovery,  and  the  surgeon  will  therefore  do 
well  to  avoid  undue  haste  in  venturing  upon  a  prognosis.  In  frac- 
tures of  the  orbital  or  the  zygomatic  bones  the  danger  is  less  pressing 
than  with  injuries  otherwise  located  about  the  head. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  cranial  fractures  is  simple,  though 
involving  the  best  skill  of  an  experienced  surgeon.  ^^Tien  incomplete, 
hardly  any  interference  is  needed;  even  plain  bandaging  may  usually 
be  dispensed  with.  In  the  complete  variety  the  danger  to  be  com- 
bated is  compression  of  the  brain,  and  attention  to  this  indication 
must  not  be  delayed.  The  means  to  be  employed  are  the  trephining 
of  the  skull  over  the  seat  of  the  fracture  and  the  elevation  of  the 
depressed  bone  or  the  removal  of  the  portion  which  is  causing  the 
trouble.  Fragments  of  bone  in  comminuted  cases,  bony  exfoliations, 
collections  of  fluid,  or  even  protruding  portions  of  the  brain  substance 
must  be  carefully  cleansed  away,  and  a  simple  bandage  so  applied  as 
to  facilitate  the  application  of  subsequent  dressings. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE. 

In  respect  to  their  origin — usually  traumatic — these  injuries  rank 
with  the  preceding,  and  are  commonly  of  the  incomplete  variety. 
They  may  easily  be  overlooked  and  may  even  sometimes  escape  recog- 
nition until  the  reparative  process  has  been  well  established  and  the 
discovery  of  the  wound  becomes  due  to  the  prominence  caused  by  the 
presence  of  the  provisional  callus  which  marks  its  cure.  WTien  the 
fracture  is  complete  it  will  be  marked  by  local  deformity,  mobility  of 
the  fragments,  and  crepitation.  Xasal  hemorrhage,  roaring,  frequent 
sneezing,  loosening  or  loss  of  teeth,  difficulty  of  mastication,  and  in- 


312  DISEASES    OF   THE    HOBSE. 

flammation  of  the  cavities  of  the  sinuses  are  varying  complications  of 
these  accidents.  The  object  of  the  treatment  should  be  the  restora- 
tion of  the  depressed  bones  as  nearly  as  possible  to  their  normal 
position,  and  their  retention  in  place  by  protecting  splints,  which 
should  cover  the  entire  facial  region.  Special  precautions  should  be 
observed  to  prevent  the  patient  from  disturbing  the  dressing  by  rub- 
bing his  head  against  surrounding  objects,  such  as  the  stall,  the 
manger,  the  rack,  etc.  Clots  of  blood  in  the  nasal  passages  must  be 
washed  out,  collections  of  pus  must  be  removed  from  the  sinuses,  and 
if  the  teeth  are  loosened  and  likely  to  fall  out  they  should  be  removed. 
If  roaring  is  threatened,  tracheotomy  is  indicated. 

FRACTURES   OF  THE   PREMAXUXARY   BONE. 

These  are  mentioned  b}'^  continental  authors.  They  are  usually 
encountered  in  connection  with  fractures  of  the  nasal  bone,  and  may 
take  place  either  in  the  width  or  the  length  of  the  bone. 

The  deformity  of  the  upper  lip,  which  is  drawn  sidewise  in  this 
lesion,  renders  it  easy  of  diagnosis.  The  abnormal  mobility  and  the 
crepitation,  with  the  pain  manifested  by  the  patient  when  undergoing 
examination,  are  concurrent  symptoms.  Looseness  of  the  teeth, 
abundant  salivation,  and  entire  inability  to  grasp  the  food  complete 
the  symptomatology  of  these  accidents.  In  the  treatment,  splints  of 
gutta-percha  or  leather  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  are  of  difficult 
application.  Our  own  judgment  and  practice  are  in  favor  of  the 
union  of  the  bones  by  means  of  metallic  sutures. 

FRACTURES    OF   THE   LOWER   JAW. 

A  fracture  here  is  not  an  injury  of  infrequent  occurrence.  It 
involves  the  body  of  the  bone,  at  its  symphysis,  or  back  of  it,  and 
includes  one  or  both  of  its  branches,  either  more  or  less  forward,  or 
at  the  posterior  part  near  the  temporo-maxillary  articulation,  at  the 
coronoid  process. 

Falls,  blows,  or  other  external  violence,  or  powerful  muscular  con- 
tractions during  the  use  of  the  speculum,  may  be  mentioned  among 
the  causes  of  this  lesion.  The  fracture  of  the  neck,  or  that  portion 
formed  by  the  juncture  of  the  two  opposite  sides,  and  of  the  branches 
in  front  of  the  cheeks,  causes  the  lower  jaw,  the  true  dental  arch,  to 
drop,  without  the  ability  to  raise  it  again  to  the  upjx^r,  and  the  result 
is  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  physiognomy.  The  prehension  and 
mastication  of  food  become  impossible;  there  is  an  abundant  escape 
of  fetid  and  sometimes  bloody  saliva,  especially  if  the  gums  have  been 
wounded ;  there  is  excessive  mobility  of  the  lower  end  of  the  jawbone ; 
and  thore  is  crepitation,  and  frequently  paralysis  of  the  under  lip. 
Although  an  animal  siiffering  with  a  complete  and  often  compound 
and  comminuted  fracture  of  the  submaxilla  presents  at  times  a  serious 


FBACTTJRES    OF   VERTEBRAE.  3l3 

aspect,  the  prognosis  of  the  case  is  comparatively  favorable,  and 
recovery  is  usually  only  a  question  of  time.  The  severity  of  the  lesion 
corresponds  in  degree  with  that  of  the  violence  to  which  it  is  due,  also 
with  the  resulting  complications  and  the  situation  of  the  wound.  It 
is  simple  when  at  the  symphysis,  but  becomes  more  serious  when  it 
affects  one  of  the  branches,  and  most  aggravated  when  both  are 
involved.  Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  becomes  important  prin- 
cipally as  an  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  morbid  diathesis,  such  as 
osteoporosis,  or  the  like. 

The  particular  seat  of  the  injury,  with  its  special  features,  will, 
of  course,  determine  the  treatment.  For  a  simple  fracture,  without 
displacement,  provided  there  is  no  laceration  of  the  periosteum,  an 
ordinary  supporting  bandage  will  usually  be  sufficient;  but  when 
there  is  displacement  the  reduction  of  the  fracture  must  first  be  accom- 
plished, and  for  this  special  splints  are  necessary.  In  a  fracture  of 
the  symphysis  or  of  the  branches  the  adjustment  of  the  fragments  by 
securing  them  with  metallic  sutures  is  the  first  step  necessary,  to  be 
followed  by  the  application  of  supports,  consisting  of  splints  of 
leather  or  sheets  of  metal,  the  entire  front  of  the  head  being  then 
covered  with  bandages  prepared  with  adhesive  mixtures.  During 
the  entire  course  of  treatment  a  special  method  of  feeding  becomes 
necessary.  The  inability  of  the  patient  to  appreciate  the  situation, 
of  course,  necessitates  a  resort  to  an  artificial  mode  of  introducing  the 
necessary  food  into  his  stomach,  and  it  is  accomplished  by  forcing 
between  the  commissures  of  the  lips,  in  a  liquid  form,  by  means  of  a 
syringe,  the  milk  or  nutritive  gruels  selected  for  his  sustenance  until 
the  consolidation  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  permit  the  ingestion  of 
food  of  a  more  solid  consistency.  The  callus  will  usually  be  suffi- 
ciently hardened  in  two  or  three  weeks  to  allow  of  a  change  of  diet 
to  mashes  of  cut  hay  and  scalded  grain,  until  the  removal  of  the 
dressing  restores  him  to  his  old  habit  of  mastication. 

FRACTURES    OF    VERTEBRA. 

These  are  not  very  common,  but  when  they  do  occur  the  bones  most 
frequently  injured  are  those  of  the  back  and  loins. 

Causes. — The  ordinary  causes  of  fracture  are  responsible  here  as 
elsewhere,  such  as  heavy  blows  on  the  spinal  column,  severe  falls  while 
conveying  heavy  loads,  and  especially  violent  efforts  in  resisting  the 
process  of  casting.  Although  occurring  more  or  less  frequently  under 
the  latter  circumstances,  the  accident  is  not  always  attributable  to 
carelessness  or  error  in  the  management.  It  may,  of  course,  some- 
times result  from  such  a  cause  as  a  badly  prepared  bed,  or  the  acci- 
dental presence  of  a  hard  body  concealed  in  the  straw,  or  to  a  heavy 
fall  when  the  movements  of  the  patient  have  not  been  sufficiently 
controlled  by  an  effective  apparatus  and  its  skillful  adaptation,  but  it 


314  DISEASES   OF   THE    HOBSE. 

is  quite  as  likely  to  be  caused  by  the  violent  resistance  and  the  con- 
sequent powerful  muscular  contraction  by  the  frightened  patient. 
The  simple  fact  of  the  overarching  of  the  vertebral  column,  with 
excessive  pressure  against  it  from  the  intestinal  mass,  owing  to  the 
spasmodic  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  may  account  for  it,  and 
so  also  may  the  struggles  of  the  animal  to  escape  from  the  restraint 
of  the  hobbles  while  frantic  under  the  pain  of  an  operation  without 
anesthesia.  In  these  cases  the  fracture  usually  occurs  in  the  body 
or  the  annular  part,  or  both,  of  the  posterior  dorsal  or  the  anterior 
lumbar  vertebra.  Wlien  the  transverse  processes  of  the  last-named 
bones  are  injured,  it  is  probably  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  concus- 
sion incident  to  striking  the  ground. when  cast.  The  diagnosis  of  a 
fracture  of  the  body  of  a  vertebra  is  not  always  easy,  especially  when 
quite  recent,  and  more  especially  when  there  is  no  accompanying 
displacement. 

SymptoTTis. — There  are  certain  peculiar  signs  accompanying  the 
occurrence  of  the  accident  while  an  operation  is  in  progress  which 
should  at  once  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  surgeon.  In  the  midst  of 
a  violent  struggle  the  patient  becomes  suddenly  quiet ;  the  movement 
of  a  sharp  instrument,  which  at  first  excited  his  resistance,  fails  to 
give  rise  to  any  further  evidence  of  sensation;  perhaps  a  general 
trembling,  lasting  for  a  few  minutes,  will  follow,  succeeded  by  a  cold, 
profuse  perspiration,  particularly  between  the  hind  legs,  and  fre- 
quently there  will  be  micturition  and  defecation.  Careful  examina- 
tion of  the  vertebral  column  may  then  detect  a  slight  depression  or 
irregularity  in  the  direction  of  the  spine,  and  there  may  be  a  diminu- 
tion or  loss  of  sensation  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  trunk,  while  the 
anterior  portion  continues  to  be  as  sensitive  as  before.  In  making 
an  attempt  to  get  upon  his  feet,  however,  upon  the  removal  of  the 
hobbles,  only  the  fore  part  of  the  body  will  respond  to  the  effort,  a 
degree  of  paraplegia  being  present,  and  while  the  head,  neck,  and 
fore  part  of  the  body  will  be  raised,  the  hind  quarters  and  hind  legs 
will  remain  inert.  The  animal  may  perhaps  succeed  in  rising  and 
probably  may  be  removed  to  his  stall,  but  the  displacement  of  the 
bone  will  follow,  converting  the  fracture  into  one  of  the  complete 
kind,  either  through  the  exertion  of  walking  or  by  a  renewed  attempt 
to  rise  after  another  fall  before  reaching  his  stall.  By  this  time  the 
paralysis  is  complete,  and  the  extension  of  the  meningitis,  which  has 
become  established,  is  a  consummation  soon  reached. 

To  say  that  the  prognosis  of  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  vertebra  is 
always  serious  is  to  speak  very  mildly.  It  would  be  better,  perhaps, 
to  say  that  occasionally  a  case  may  recover.  Fractures  of  the  trans- 
verse processes  are  less  serious. 

Treatment. — Instead  of  stating  the  indication  in  this  class  of  cases 
as  if  assuming  them  to  be  amenable  to  treatment,  the  question  natur- 


FRACTURES    OF    THE    RIBS.  315 

ally  would  be :  Can  any  treatment  be  recommended  in  a  fracture  of 
the  body  of  a  vertebra?  The  only  indication  in  such  a  case,  in  our 
opinion,  is  to  reach  the  true  diagnosis  in  the  shortest  possible  time 
and  to  act  accordingly.  If  there  is  displacement,  and  the  existence 
of  serious  lesions  may  be  inferred  from  the  nervous  symptoms,  the 
destruction  of  the  suffering  animal  appears  to  suggest  itself  as  the  one 
conclusion  in  which  considerations  of  policy,  humanity,  and  science  at 
once  unite. 

If,  however,  it  is  fairly  evident  that  no  displacement  exists;  that 
pressure  upon  the  spinal  cord  is  not  yet  present ;  that  the  animal  with 
a  little  assistance  is  able  to  rise  upon  his  feet  and  to  walk  a  short  dis- 
tance— it  may  be  well  to  experiment  upon  the  case  to  the  extent  of 
placing  the  patient  in  the  most  favorable  circumstances  for  recovery 
and  allow  nature  to  operate  without  further  interference.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  securing  immobility  of  the  whole  body  as  much  as 
possible,  and  especially  of  the  suspected  region,  by  placing  the  patient 
in  slings,  in  a  stall  sufficiently  narrow  to  preclude  lateral  motion,  and 
covering  the  loins  with  a  thick  coat  of  agglutinative  mixture.  Watch 
and  wait  for  developments. 

FBACTUBE    OF    THE    BIBS. 

The  different  regions  of  the  chest  are  not  equally  exposed  to  the 
violence  to  which  fractures  of  the  ribs  are  due,  and  thej^  are  therefore 
either  more  common  or  more  easily  discovered  during  life  at  some 
points  than  at  others.  The  more  exposed  regions  are  the  middle  and 
the  posterior,  while  the  front  is  largely  covered  and  defended  by  the 
shoulder.  A  single  rib  may  be  the  seat  of  fracture,  or  a  number  may 
be  involved,  and  there  may  be  injuries  on  both  sides  of  the  chest  at  the 
same  time.  It  may  take  place  lengthwise,  in  any  part  of  the  bone, 
though  the  middle,  being  the  most  exposed,  is  the  most  frequently 
hurt.  Incomplete  fractures  are  usually  lengthwise,  involving  a  por- 
tion only  of  the  thickness  or  one  or  other  of  the  surfaces.  The  com- 
plete kind  may  be  either  transverse  or  oblique,  and  are  most  com- 
monly denticulated.  The  fracture  may  be  comminuted,  and  a  single 
bone  may  show  one  of  the  complete  and  one  of  the  incomplete  kind  at 
different  points.  The  extent  of  surface  presented  by  the  thoracic 
region,  with  its  complete  exposure  at  all  points,  explains  the  liability 
of  the  ribs  to  suffer  from  all  the  forms  of  external  violence. 

Symptoms. — In  many  instances  fractures  of  these  bones  continue 
undiscovered,  especially  the  incomplete  variety,  without  displace- 
ment, though  the  evidences  of  local  pain,  a  certain  amount  of  swelling, 
and  a  degree  of  disturbance  of  the  respiration,  if  noticed  during  the 
examination  of  a  patient,  may  suggest  a  suspicion  of  their  existence. 
Abnormal  mobility  and  crepitation  are  difficult  of  detection,  even 
when  present,  and  they  are  not  always  present.  AMien  there  is  dis- 
placement the  deformity  which  it  occasions  will  betray  the  fact,  and 


316  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

when  such  an  injury  exists  the  surgeon  will,  of  course,  become  vigi- 
lant, in  view  of  possible  and  probable  complications  of  thoracic 
trouble,  and  prepare  himself  for  an  encounter  with  a  case  of  trau- 
matic pleuritis  or  pneumonia.  Fatal  injuries  of  the  heart  are  re- 
corded. Subcutaneous  emphysema  is  a  common  accompaniment  of 
broken  ribs,  and  I  recall  the  death  from  this  cause  of  a  patient  of  my 
own  which  had  suffered  a  fracture  of  two  ribs  in  the  region  of  the 
withers,  under  the  cartilages  of  the  shoulder,  and  of  which  the  diag- 
nosis was  only  made  after  the  fatal  ending  of  the  case. 

These  hurts  are  not  often  of  a  very  serious  character,  though  the 
union  is  never  as  solid  and  complete  as  in  other  fractures,  the  callus 
being  usually  imperfect  and  of  a  fibrous  character,  with  an  amphiar- 
throsis  formation.  Still,  complications  occur  which  may  impart 
gravity  to  the  prognosis. 

Treatment. — Fractures  with  but  a  slight  or  no  displacement  need 
no  reduction.  All  that  is  necessary  is  a  simple  application  of  a  blis- 
tering nature  as  a  preventive  of  inflammation  or  for  its  subjugation 
when  present,  and  in  order  to  excite  an  exudation  which  will  tend  to 
aid  in  the  support  and  immobilization  of  the  parts.  At  times,  how- 
ever, a  better  effect  is  obtained  b}'^  the  application  of  a  bandage  placed 
firmly  around  the  chest,  although,  while  this  limits  the  motion  of  the 
ribs,  it  is  apt  to  render  the  respiration  more  labored. 

If  there  is  displacement,  with  much  accompanying  pain  and  evident 
irritation  of  the  lungs,  the  fracture  must  be  reduced  without  delay. 
The  means  of  effecting  this  vary  according  to  whether  the  displace- 
ment is  outward  or  inward.  In  the  first  case  the  bone  may  be 
straightened  by  pressure  from  without,  while  in  the  second  the  end  of 
the  bone  must  be  raised  by  a  lever,  for  the  introduction  of  which  a 
small  incision  through  the  skin  and  intercostal  spaces  will  be  neces- 
sary. When  coaptation  has  been  effected  it  must  be  retained  by  the 
external  application  of  adhesive  mixture,  with  splints  and  bandages 
around  the  chest. 

FBACTUBKS   OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  PELVIS. 

These  fractures  will  be  considered  under  their  separate  denomina- 
tions, as  those  of  the  sacrxim  and  the  on  innominatum^  or  hip,  which 
includes  the  subdivisions  of  the  ilium,  the  pubcs,  and  the  ischium. 

The  sacrum. — Fractures  of  this  bone  are  rarely  met  with  among 
solipeds.  Among  cattle,  however,  it  is  of  common  occurrence,  being 
attributed  not  only  to  the  usual  varieties  of  violence,  as  blows  and 
other  external  hurts,  but  to  the  act  of  coition  and  violent  efforts  in 
parturition.  It  is  generally  of  the  transverse  kind  and  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  deformity  which  it  occasions.  This  is  due  to  the  drop- 
ping of  the  bone,  with  a  change  in  its  direction  and  a  lower  attachment 
of  the  tail,  which  also  becomes  more  or  less  paralyzed.  The  natural 
and  spontaneous  relief  which  usually  interposes  in  these  cases  has 


FRACTURES    OF    HIP   BONES.  317 

doubtless  been  observed  by  the  extensive  cattle  breeders  of  the  West, 
and  their  practice  and  example  fully  establish  the  inutility  of  inter- 
ference. Still,  cases  may  occur  in  which  reduction  may  be  indicated, 
and  it  then  becomes  a  matter  of  no  difficulty.  It  is  effected  by  the 
introduction  of  a  round,  smooth  piece  of  wood  into  the  rectum  as 
far  as  the  fragment  of  bone  and  using  it  as  a  lever,  resting  upon 
another  as  a  fulcrum  placed  under  it  outside.  The  bone,  having  been 
thus  returned,  niay  be  kept  in  place  by  the  ordinary  external  means 
in  use. 

The  OS  innominatum. — Fractures  of  the  ilium  may  be  observed 
either  at  the  angle  of  the  hip  or  at  the  neck  of  the  bone ;  those  of  the 
pubes  may  take  place  at  the  symphysis,  or  in  the  body  of  the  bone; 
those  of  the  ischium  on  the  floor  of  the  bone,  or  at  its  posterior  ex- 
ternal angle.  Or,  again,  the  fracture  may  involve  all  three  of  these 
constituent  parts  of  the  hip  bone  by  having  its  situation  in  the  articu- 
lar cavity — the  acetabulum  by  which  it  joins  the  femur  or  thigh  bone. 

/Symptoms. — Some  of  these  fractures  are  easily  recognized,  wliile 
others  are  difficult  to  identify.  The  ordinary  deformity  which  char- 
acterizes a  fracture  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium,  its  drop]>ing 
and  the  diminution  of  that  side  of  the  hip  in  width,  unite  in  indica- 
ting the  existence  of  the  condition  expressed  by  the  term  "  hipped." 
But  an  incomplete  fracture,  or  one  that  is  complete  without  displace- 
ment, or  even  one  with  displacement,  often  demands  the  closest  scru- 
tiny for  its  discovery.  The  lameness  may  be  well  marked,  and  an 
animal  may  show  but  little  appearance  of  it  while  walking,  but  upon 
being  urged  into  a  trot  will  manifest  it  more  and  more,  until  pres- 
ently he  will  cease  to  use  the  crippled  limb  altogether,  and  perform 
his  traveling  entirely  on  three  legs.  The  acute  character  of  the  lame- 
ness will  vary  in  degree  as  the  seat  of  the  lesion  approximates  the 
acetabulum.  In  walking,  the  motion  at  the  hip  is  ver\'  limited,  and 
the  leg  is  dragged ;  while  at  rest  it  is  relieved  from  bearing  its  share 
in  sustaining  the  body.  An  intelligent  opinion  and  correct  conclu- 
sion will  depend  largely  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  case, 
and  while  in  some  instances  that  will  be  but  a  report  of  the  common 
etiology  of  fractures,  such  as  blows,  hurts,  and  other  external  vio- 
lence, the  simple  fact  of  a  fall  may  furnish  in  a  single  word  a  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  whole  matter. 

With  the  exception  of  the  deformity  of  the  ilium  in  a  fracture  of 
its  external  angle,  and  unless  there  has  been  a  serious  laceration  of 
tissues  and  infiltration  of  blood,  or  excessive  displacement,  there  are 
no  very  definite  external  symptoms  in  a  case  of  a  fracture  of  the  hip 
bone.  There  is  one,  however,  which,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  will  not 
fail — it  is  crepitation.  This  evidence  is  attainable  by  both  external 
and  internal  examination — by  manipulation  of  the  gluteal  surface 
and  by  rectal  taxis.  Very  often  a  lateral  motion,  or  balancing  of  the 
hinder  parts  by  pressing  the  body  from  one  side  to  the  other,  will  be 


318  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

sufficient  to  render  the  crepitation  more  distinct — a  slight  sensation  of 
grating,  which  may  be  perceived  even  through  the  thick  coating  of 
muscle  which  covers  the  bone — and  the  sensation  may  not  only  be 
felt,  but  to  the  ear  of  the  expert  may  even  become  audible.  This 
external  manifestation  is,  however,  not  alw^ays  sufficient  in  itself, 
and  should  always  be  associated  with  the  rectal  taxis  for  corrobora- 
tion. It  is  true  that  this  may  fail  to  add  to  the  evidence  of  fracture, 
but  till  then  the  simple  testimony  afforded  by  the  detection  of  crepita- 
tion from  the  surface,  though  a  strong  confirmatory  point,  is  scarcely 
sufficiently  absolute  to  establish  more  than  a  reasonable  probability 
or  strong  suspicion  in  the  case. 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  the  rectal  examination  brings  the  ex- 
ploring hand  of  the  surgeon  into  near  proximity  to  the  desired  point 
of  search,  and  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  situation  of  parts, 
both  pro  and  con  as  respects  his  own  views,  there  is  another  advan- 
tage attendant  upon  it  which  is  well  entitled  to  appreciation.  This  is 
the  facility  with  which  he  can  avail  himself  of  the  help  of  an  assist- 
ant, who  can  aid  him  by  manipulating  the  implicated  limb  and 
placing  it  in  various  positions,  so  far  as  the  patient  will  permit,  while 
the  surgeon  himself  is  making  explorations  and  studying  the  effect 
from  within.  By  this  method  he  can  hardly  fail  to  ascertain  the 
character  of  the  fracture  and  the  condition  of  the  bony  ends.  By 
the  rectal  taxis,  as  if  with  eyes  in  the  finger  ends,  he  will  "  see  "  what 
is  the  extent  of  the  fracture  of  the  ilium  or  of  the  neck  of  that  bone ; 
to  what  part  of  the  central  portion  of  the  bone  (the  acetabulum)  it 
reaches;  whether  this  is  free  from  disease  or  not,  and  in  what  loca- 
tion on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  the  lesion  is  situated.  We  have  fre- 
quently by  this  method  been  able  to  detect  a  fracture  at  the  symphysis, 
which,  from  its  history  and  symptoms  and  an  external  examination, 
could  only  have  been  guessed  at. 

Yet,  with  all  its  advantages,  the  rectal  examination  is  not  always 
necessary,  as,  for  example,  when  the  fracture  is  at  the  posterior  and 
external  angle  of  the  ischium,  when  by  friction  of  the  bony  ends  the 
surgeon  may  discern  the  crepitation  without  it. 

Every  variety  of  complication,  including  muscular  lacerations  with 
the  formation  of  deep  abscesses  and  injuries  to  the  organs  of  the 
pelvic  cavity,  the  bladder,  the  rectum,  and  the  uterus,  may  be  associ- 
ated with  fractures  of  tlie  hip  bone. 

Prognosis. — The  proir.iosis  of  these  lesions  will  necessarily  vary 
considerably.  A  fracture  of  the  most  superficial  part  of  the  bone  of 
the  ilium  or  of  the  ischium,  especially  where  there  is  little  displace- 
ment, will  unite  rapidly,  leaving  a  comparatively  sound  animal  often 
quite  free  from  subsequent  lameness.  But  if  there  is  much  displace- 
ment, only  a  ligamentous  union  will  take  place,  with  much  deformity 
and  more  or  less  irregularity  in  the  gait.     Other  fractures  may  be 


FRACTURE   OF    THE   SCAPULA.  319 

followed  by  complete  disability  of  the  patient,  as,  for  example,  when 
the  cotyloid  cavity  is  involved,  or  when  the  reparatory  process  has 
left  bony  deposits  in  the  pelvic  cavity  at  the  seat  of  the  union,  which 
may,  with  the  female,  interfere  with  the  steps  of  parturition,  or 
induce  some  local  paralysis  by  pressure  upon  the  nerves  which  govern 
the  muscles  of  the  hind  legs.  This  is  a  condition  not  infrequently 
observed  when  the  callus  has  been  formed  on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis 
near  the  obturator  foramen,  pressing  upon  the  course  or  involving  the 
obturator  nerve. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  all  fractures  of  the  hip  bone  should, 
in  our  estimation,  be  of  the  simplest  kind.  Rendered  comparatively 
immovable  by  the  thickness  of  the  muscles  by  which  the  region  is 
enveloped,  one  essential  indication  suggests  itself,  and  that  is  to  place 
the  animal  in  a  position  which,  so  far  as  possible,  will  be  fixed  and 
permanent.  For  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  the  best  meas- 
ure, as  we  consider  it,  is  to  place  him  in  a  stall  of  just  sufficient  width 
to  admit  him,  and  to  apply  a  set  of  slings,  snugly,  but  comfortably. 
This  will  fulfill  the  essential  conditions  of  recovery — rest  and 
immobility.  Blistering  applications  would  be  injurious,  though  the 
adhesive  mixture  might  prove  in  some  degree  beneficial. 

The  minimum  period  allowable  for  solid  union  in  a  fractured  hip 
is,  in  our  judgment,  two  months,  and  we  have  known  cases  in  which 
that  was  too  short  a  time. 

As  we  have  before  said,  there  may  be  cases  in  which  the  treatment 
for  fracture  at  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  has  been  followed  by  symptoms 
of  partial  paralysis,  the  animal,  when  lying  down,  being  unable  to 
regain  his  feet,  but  moving  freely  when  placed  in  an  upright  position. 
This  condition  is  due  to  the  interference  of  the  callus  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  obturator  nerve,  which  it  presses  upon  or  surrounds.  T 
feel  warranted  by  my  experience  in  similar  cases  in  cautioning  owners 
of  horses  in  this  condition  to  exercise  due  patience,  and  to  avoid  a 
premature  sentence  of  condemnation  against  their  invalid  servants; 
they  are  not  all  irrecoverably  paralytic.  With  alternations  of  moder- 
ate exercise,  rest  in  the  slings,  and  the  effect  of  time  while  the  natural 
process  of  absorption  is  taking  effect  upon  the  callus,  with  other  ele- 
ments of  change  that  may  be  so  operating,  the  horse  may  in  due  time 
become  able  to  once  more  earn  his  subsistence  and  serve  his  master. 

FBACTUBE   OF   THE   SCAPULA. 

This  bone  is  seldom  fractured,  its  comparative  exemption  being  due 
to  its  free  mobility  and  the  protection  it  receives  from  the  superim- 
posed soft  tissues.  Only  direct  and  powerful  causes  are  sufficient  to 
effect  the  injury,  and  when  it  occurs  the  large  rather  than  the  smaller 
animals  are  the  subjects. 

Cause. — The  causes  are  heavy  blows  or  kicks  and  violent  collisions 
with  unyielding  objects.    Those  which  are  occasioned  by  falls  are 


320  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

generally  at  the  neck  of  the  bone,  and  of  the  transverse  and  commi- 
nuted varieties. 

Symptoms. — The  diagnosis  is  not  always  easy.  The  symptoms  are 
inability  to  rest  the  leg  on  the  ground  and  to  carry  weights,  and  they 
are  present  in  various  degrees  from  slight  to  severe.  The  leg  rests 
upon  the  toe  and  seems  shortened,  and  locomotion  is  performed  by 
jumps.  Moving  the  leg  while  examining  it  and  raising  the  foot  for 
inspection  seem  to  produce  much  pain  and  cause  the  animal  to  rear. 
Crepitation  is  readily  felt  with  the  hand  upon  the  shoulder  when  the 
leg  is  moved.  If  the  fracture  occurs  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bone, 
overlapping  of  the  fragments  and  displacement  will  be  considerable. 

The  fracture  of  this  bone  is  usually  classed  among  the  more  serious 
accidents,  though  cases  may  occur  which  are  followed  by  recovery 
without  very  serious  ultimate  results,  especially  when  the  seat  of  the 
injury  is  at  some  of  the  upper  angles  of  the  bone,  or  about  the  acro- 
mion crest.  But  if  the  neck  and  the  joint  are  the  parts  involved,  com- 
plications are  apt  to  be  present  which  are  likely  to  disable  the  animal 
for  life. 

Treatment. — If  there  is  no  displacement  a  simple  adhesive  dressing, 
to  strengthen  and  immobilize  the  parts,  will  be  sufficient.  A  coat  of 
black  pitch  dissolved  with  wax  and  Venice  turpentine,  and  kept  in 
place  over  the  region  with  oakum  or  linen  bands,  will  be  all  the  treat- 
ment required,  especially  if  the  animal  is  kept  quiet  in  the  slings-. 

Displacement  can  not  be  remedied,  and  reduction  is  next  to  impos- 
sible. Sometimes  an  iron  plate  is  applied  over  the  parts  and  retained 
by  bandages,  as  in  the  dressing  of  Bourgelat ;  and  this  may  be  advan- 
tageously replaced  by  a  pad  of  thick  leather.  In  smaller  animals  the 
parts  are  retained  by  figure-8  bandages,  embracing  both  the  normal 
and  the  diseased  shoulders,  crossing  each  other  in  the  axilla  and  cov- 
ered with  a  coating  of  adhesive  mixture. 

FRACTUBES  OF  THE    HUMERUS. 

These  are  more  common  in  small  than  in  large  animals,  and  are 
always  the  result  of  external  traumatism,  such  as  falls,  kicks,  and  col- 
lisions. They  are  generally  very  oblique,  are  often  comminuted,  and 
though  more  usually  involving  the  shaft  of  the  bone  will  in  some  cases 
extend  to  the  uppor  end  and  into  the  articular  head. 

Symptoms. — There  is  ordinarily  considerable  displacement  in  con- 
sequence of  the  overlapping  of  the  broken  ends  of  the  bone,  and  this, 
of  course,  causes  more  or  less  shortening  of  the  limb.  There  will  also 
be  swelling,  with  difficulty  of  locomotion,  and  crepitation  will  be 
easy  of  detection.  This  fracture  is  always  a  serious  damage  to  the 
patient,  leaving  him  with  a  permanently  shortened  limb  and  an  incur- 
able, lifelong  lameness. 

Treatment. — If  treatment  is  determined  on  it  will  consist  in  the 
reduction  of  the  fracture  by  means  of  extension  and  counter  exten- 


FRAOTUEE  OP  THE  FOBEARM.  321 

sion,  and  in  order  to  accomplish  this  the  animal  must  be  thrown. 
If  successful  in  the  reduction,  then  follows  the  application  and  adjust- 
ment of  the  apparatus  of  retention,  which  must  needs  be  of  the  most 
perfect  and  efficient  kind.  And  finally,  this,  however  skillfully  con- 
trived and  carefully  adapted,  will  often  fail  to  effect  any  good  pur- 
pose whatever. 

FRACTUBE  OF  THE  FOBEABM. 

A  fracture  in  this  region  may  also  involve  the  radius  or  the  ulna, 
the  latter  being  broken  at  times  in  its  upper  portion  above  the  radio-- 
ulnar  arch  at  the  olecranon.  If  the  fracture  occurs  at  any  part  of  the 
forearm  from  the  radio-ulnar  arch  down  to  the  knee,  it  may  involve 
either  the  radius  alone  or  the  radius  and  the  cubitus,  which  are  there 
intimately  united. 

Cause. — Besides  having  the  same  etiology  with  most  of  the  frac- 
tures, those  of  the  forearm  are,  nevertheless,  more  commonly  due  to 
kicks  from  other  animals,  especially  when  crowded  together  in  large 
numbers  in  insufficient  space.  It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that, 
under  these  circumstances,  fractures  of  the  incomplete  kind  are  those 
which  occur  on  the  inside  of  the  leg,  the  bone  being  in  that  region 
almost  entirely  subcutaneous,  while  those  of  the  complete  class  are 
either  oblique  or  transverse.  The  least  common  are  the  longitudinal, 
in  the  long  axis  of  the  bone. 

Symptoms. — This  variety  of  fracture  is  easily  recognized  by  the 
appearance  of  the  leg  and  the  different  changes  it  undergoes.  There 
is  inability  to  use  the  limb;  impossibility  of  locomotion;  mobility 
below  the  injury;  the  ready  detection  of  crepitation — in  a  word,  the 
assemblage  of  all  the  signs  and  symptoms  which  have  been  already 
considered  as  associated  with  the  history  of  broken  bones. 

The  fracture  of  the  ulna  alone,  principally  above  the  radio-ulnar 
arch,  may  be  ascertained  by  the  aggravated  lameness,  the  excessive 
soreness  on  pressure,  and  perhaps  a  certain  increase  of  motion,  with 
a  very  slight  crepitation  if  tested  in  the  usual  way.  Displacement 
is  not  likely  to  take  place  except  when  it  is  well  up  toward  the  ole- 
cranon or  its  tuberosity,  the  upper  segment  of  the  bone  being  in  that 
case  likely  to  be  drawn  upward.  For  a  simple  fracture  of  this  region 
there  exists  a  fair  chance  of  recovery,  but  in  a  case  of  the  compound 
and  comminuted  class  there  is  less  ground  for  a  favorable  prognosis, 
especially  if  the  elbow  joint  has  suffered  injury.  A  fracture  of  the 
ulna  alone  is  not  of  serious  importance,  except  when  the  same  con- 
ditions prevail.  A  fracture  of  the  olecranon  is  less  amenable  to 
treatment,  and  promises  little  better  than  a  ligamentous  union. 

Treatment. — Considering  all  the  various  conditions  involving  the 
nature  and  extent  of  these  lesions,  the  position  and  direction  of  the 
bones  of  the  forearm  are  such  as  to  render  the  chances  for  recovery 
II.  Doc.  795,  59-2 21 


322  DISEASES    OF   THE   HOBSE. 

from  fracture  as  among  the  best.  The  reduction,  by  extension  and 
counter  extension ;  the  maintenance  of  the  coaptation  of  the  segments; 
the  adaptation  of  the  dressing  by  splints,  oakum,  and  agglutinative 
mixtures;  in  fact,  all  the  details  of  treatment  may  be  here  fulfilled 
with  a  degree  of  facility  and  precision  not  attainable  in  any  other  part 
of  the  organism.  An  important,  if  not  an  essential,  point,  however, 
must  be  emphasized  in  regard  to  the  splints.  Whether  these  are  of 
metal,  wood,  or  other  material,  they  should  reach  from  the  eJbow  joint 
to  the  ground,  and  should  be  placed  on  the  posterior  face  and  on  both 
sides  of  the  leg.  This  is  then  to  be  so  confined  in  a  properly  con- 
structed box  as  to  preclude  all  possibility  of  motion,  while  yet  it  must 
sustain  a  certain  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  iron  splint 
(represented  in  Plate  XXVII)  recommended  by  Bourgelat  is  designed 
for  fractures  of  the  forearm,  of  the  knee,  and  of  the  cannon  bone,  and 
will  prove  to  be  an  appliance  of  great  value.  For  small  animals  the 
preference  is  for  an  external  covering  of  gutta-percha,  embracing  the 
entire  leg.  A  sheet  of  this  substance  of  suitable  thickness,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  animal,  softened  in  lukewarm  water,  is,  when  suffi- 
ciently pliable,  molded  on  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  when  suddenly 
hardened  by  the  application  of  cold  water  forms  a  complete  casing 
sufficiently  rigid  to  resist  all  motion.  Patients  treated  in  this  manner 
have  been  able  to  use  the  limb  freely,  without  pain,  immediately  after 
the  application  of  the  dressing.  The  removal  of  the  splint  is  easily 
effected  by  cutting  it  away,  either  wholly  or  in  sections,  after  soften- 
ing it  by  immersing  the  leg  in  a  warm  bath. 

FBACTXJBE  OF  THE   KNEE. 

This  accident,  happily,  is  of  rare  occurrence,  but  when  it  takes 
place  is  of  a  severe  character,  and  always  accompanied  by  synovitis, 
with  disease  of  the  joint 

Cause. — It  may  be  caused  by  falling  upon  a  hard  surface,  and  is 
usually  compound  and  comminuted.  Healing  seldom  occurs,  and 
when  it  does  there  is  usually  a  stiffness  of  the  joint  from  arthritis. 

Symptoms. — As  a  result  of  this  fracture  there  is  inability  to  bear 
weight  on  the  foot.  The  leg  is  flexed  as  in  complete  radial  paralysis, 
or  fracture  of  the  ulna.  There  is  abnormal  mobility  of  the  bones  of 
the  knee,  but  crepitation  is  usually  absent. 

Prognosis. — Ilealing  is  hard  to  obtain,  as  one  part  of  the  knee  is 
drawn  upward  by  the  two  flexor  muscles  which  separate  it  from  the 
lower  part.  The  callus  which  forms  is  largely  fibrous,  and  if  the 
animal  is  put  to  work  too  quickly  this  callus  is  apt  to  rupture.  In 
favorable  cases  healing  takas  place  in  two  or  three  months.  Many 
horses  during  the  treatment  develop  founder,  with  consequent  drop 
sole  in  the  sound  leg,  as  a  result  of  pressure  due  to  continuous 
standing. 

TreatTnent. — Place  the  animal  in  the  slings,  bring  the  pieces  of 
bone  together  if  possible,  and  try  to  keep  them  in  place  by  a  tight 


FEACTUEE   OF   THE   FEMUB.  323 

plaster  of  Paris  dressing  about  the  leg,  extending  down  to  the  fet- 
lock. Place  the  animal  in  a  roomy  box  stall  well  provided  with  bed- 
ding so  that  he  can  lie  down,  to  prevent  founder. 

FBACTUBE  OF  THE   FEMT7B. 

The  protection  which  this  bone  receives  from  the  large  mass  of 
muscles  in  which  it  is  enveloped  does  not  suffice  to  invest  it  with 
immunity  in  regard  to  fractures. 

Cause. — It  contributes  its  share  to  the  list  of  accidents  of  this 
description,  sometimes  in  consequence  of  external  violence  and  some- 
times as  the  result  of  muscular  contraction ;  sometimes  it  takes  place 
at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  bone;  sometimes  at  the  lower;  some- 
times at  the  head,  when  the  condyles  become  implicated;  but  it  is 
principally  found  in  the  body  or  diaphysis.  The  fracture  may  be  of 
any  of  the  ordinary  forms,  simple  or  compound,  complete  or  incom- 
plete, transverse  or  oblique,  etc.  A  case  of  the  comminuted  variety 
is  recorded  in  which  eighty-five  fragments  of  bone  were  counted  and 
removed. 

The  thickness  of  the  muscular  covering  sometimes  renders  the 
diagnosis  difficult  by  interfering  with  the  manipulation,  but  the  crepi- 
tation test  is  readily  available,  even  when  the  swelling  is  considerable, 
and  which  is  likely  to  be  the  case  as  the  result  of  the  interstitial  hem- 
orrhage which  naturally  follows  the  laceration  of  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  region  involved. 

Symptoms. — If  the  fracture  is  at  the  neck  of  the  bone  the  muscles 
of  that  region  (the  gluteal)  are  firmly  contracted  and  the  leg  seems  to 
be  shortened  in  consequence.  Locomotion  is  impossible.  There  is 
intense  pain  and  violent  sweating  at  first.  Crepitation  may  in  some 
cases  be  discerned  by  rectal  examination,  with  one  hand  resting  over 
the  coxo-femoral  (hip)  articulation.  Fractures  of  the  tuberosities  of 
the  upper  end  of  the  bone,  the  great  trochanter,  may  be  identified  by 
the  deformity,  the  swelling,  the  impossibility  of  rotation,  and  the 
dragging  of  the  leg  in  walking.  Fracture  of  the  body  is  always 
accompanied  by  displacement,  and  as  a  consequence  a  shortening  of 
the  leg,  which  is  carried  forward.  The  lameness  is  excessive,  the  foot 
being  moved,  both  when  raising  it  from  the  ground  and  when  setting 
it  down,  very  timidly  and  cautiously.  The  manipulations  for  the  dis- 
covery of  crepitation  always  cause  much  pain.  Lesions  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  bone  are  more  difficult  to  diagnosticate  with  certainty, 
though  the  manifestation  of  pain  while  making  heavy  pressure  upon 
the  condyles  will  be  so  marked  that  only  crepitation  will  be  needed  to 
turn  a  suspicion  into  a  certainty. 

Treatm^ent. — The  question  as  to  treatment  in  fractures  of  this 
description  resolves  itself  into  the  query  whether  any  treatment  can 
be  suggested  that  will  avail  anything  practically  as  a  curative  meas- 
ure; whether, 'upon  the  hypothesis  of  reduction  as  an  accomplished 


324  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

fact,  any  permanent  or  efficient  device  as  a  means  of  retention  is 
within  the  scope  of  human  ingenuity.  If  the  reduction  were  success- 
fully performed,  would  it  be  possible  to  keep  the  parts  in  place  by  any 
known  means  at  our  disposal  ?  At  the  best  the  most  favorable  result 
that  could  be  anticipated  would  be  a  reunion  of  the  fragments,  with  a 
considerable  shortening  of  the  bone,  and  a  helpless,  limping,  crippled 
animal  to  remind  us  that  for  human  achievement  there  is  a  "  thus  far 
and  no  farther." 

In  small  animals,  however,  attempts  at  treatment  are  justifiable, 
and  we  are  convinced  that  in  many  cases  of  difficulty  in  the  applica- 
tion of  splints  and  bandages  a  patient  may  be  placed  in  a  condition 
of  undisturbed  quiet  and  left  to  the  processes  of  nature  for  "  treat- 
ment "  as  safely  and  with  as  good  an  assurance  of  a  favorable  result 
as  if  he  had  been  subjected  to  the  most  heroic  secundum  arteTn  doctor- 
ing known  to  science.  As  a  case  in  point,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  case  of  a  pregnant  bitch  which  suffered  a  fracture  of  the  upper 
end  of  the  femur  by  being  run  over  by  a  light  wagon.  Her  "  treat- 
ment "  consisted  in  being  tied  up  in  a  large  box  and  let  alone.  In 
due  time  she  was  delivered  of  a  family  of  puppies,  and  in  three  weeks 
she  was  running  in  the  streets,  limping  very  slightly,  and  nothing 
the  worse  for  her  accident. 

J-BACTUBE  OF  THE  PATEtXA. 

This,  fortunately,  is  a  rare  accident  and  can  only  result  from  direct 
violence,  as  a  kick  or  other  blow.  The  lameness  which  follows  it  is 
accompanied  with  enormous  tumefaction  of  tlie  joint,  pain,  inability 
to  bear  weight  upon  the  foot,  and  finally  disease  of  the  articulation. 
Crepitation  is  absent,  because  the  hip  muscles  draw  away  the  upper 
part  of  the  bone.  The  prognosis  is  unavoidably  adverse,  destruction 
being  the  only  termination  of  this  incurable  and  very  painful  injury. 
Most  of  the  reported  cases  of  cures  are  based  upon  a  wrong  diagnosis. 

FRACTURES   OF  THE    TIBIA. 

Of  all  fractures  these  are  probably  more  frequently  encountered 
than  any  others  among  the  class  of  accidents  we  are  considering.  As 
with  injuries  of  the  forearm  of  a  like  character,  they  may  be  complete 
or  incomplete;  the  former  when  the  bone  is  broken  in  the  middle  or 
at  the  extremities,  and  transverse,  oblique,  or  longitudinal.  The 
incomplete  kind  are  more  common  in  this  bone  than  in  any  other. 

Symptoms. — Complete  fractures  are  easy  to  recognize,  either  with 
or  without  displacement.  The  animal  is  very  lame,an(l  the  leg  is  either 
dragged  or  held  up  clear  from  the  ground  by  flexion  at  the  stifle, 
while  the  lower  part  hangs  down.  Carrying  weight  or  moving  back- 
ward is  impossible.  There  is  excessive  mobility  l^elow  the  fracture, 
and  well-marked  crepitation.  If  there  is  much  displacement,  as  in 
mn  oblique  fracture,  there  will  be  considerable  shortening  of  the  leg. 


PBACTURE   OP   THE   TIBIA.  325 

While  incomplete  fractures  can  not  be  recognized  in  the  tibia  with 
any  greater  degree  of  certainty  than  in  any  other  bone,  there  are  some 
facts  associated  with  them  by  which  a  diagnosis  may  be  justified. 
The  hypothetical  history  of  a  case  may  serve  as  an  illustration : 

An  animal  has  received  an  injury  by  a  blow  or  a  kick  on  the  inside 
of  the  bone,  perhaps  without  showing  any  mark.  Becoming  very 
lame  immediately  afterwards,  he  is  allowed  a  few  days'  rest.  Being 
then  taken  out  again,  he  seems  to  have  recovered  his  soundness,  but 
within  a  day  or  two  he  betrays  a  little  soreness,  and  this  increasing 
he  becomes  very  lame  again,  to  be  furloughed  once  more,  with  the 
result  of  a  temporary  improvement,  and  again  a  return  to  labor  and 
again  a  relapse  of  the  lameness ;  and  this  alternation  seems  to  be  the 
rule.  The  leg  being  now  carefully  examined,  a  local  periostitis  is 
readily  discovered  at  the  point  of  the  injury,  the  part  being  warm, 
swollen,  and  painful.  What  further  proof  is  necessary?  Is  it  not 
evident  that  a  fracture  has  occurred,  first  superficial — a  mere  split  in 
the  bony  structure,  which,  fortunately,  has  been  .discovered  before 
some  extra  exertion  or  a  casual  misstep  had  developed  it  into  one  of 
the  complete  kind,  possibly  with  complications?  AATiat  other  infer- 
ence can  such  a  series  of  symptoms  thus  repeated  establish  ? 

The  prognosis  of  fracture  of  the  tibia  must,  as  a  rule,  be  unfavor- 
able. 

Treatment. — The  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  union  without  shortening, 
and  consequently  without  lameness,  is  proof  of  the  futility  of  ordi- 
nary attempts  at  treatment.  But  though  this  may  be  true  in  respect 
to  fractures  of  the  complete  kind,  it  is  not  necessarily  so  with  the 
incomplete  variety,  and  with  this  class  the  simple  treatment  of  the 
slings  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  secure  consolidation.  A  few  weeks  of 
this  confinement  will  be  sufficient. 

With  dogs  and  other  small  animals  there  are  cases  which  may  be 
successfully  treated.  If  the  necessary  dressings  can  be  successfull}^ 
applied  and  retained,  a  cure  will  follow. 

FEACTUBES   OF   THE   HOCK. 

Injuries  of  the  astragalus  have  been  recorded  which  had  a  fatal  ter- 
mination. Fractures  of  the  os  calcis  have  also  been  observed,  but 
never  with  a  favorable  prognosis,  and  attempts  to  induce  recovery 
have,  as  might  have  been  anticipated,  proved  futile. 

FRACTXRES  OF  THE   CANNON   BONES. 

Whether  these  occur  in  the  fore  or  hind  legs,  they  appear  either  in 
the  body  or  near  their  extremities.  If  in  the  bod}:,  as  a  rule  the  three 
metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones  are  affected,  and  the  fracture  is 
generally  transverse  and- oblique.  On  account  of  the  absence  of  soft 
tissue  and  tightness  of  the  skin,  the  broken  bones  pierce  the  skin  and 
render  the  fracture  a  complicated  one.    The  diagnosis  is  easy  when  all 


326  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

the  bones  are  completely  broken,  but  the  incomplete  fracture  can  only 
be  suspected. 

Symptoms. — There  is  no  displacement,  but  excessive  mobility,  crep- 
itation, inability  to  sustain  weight,  and  the  leg  is  kept  off  the  ground 
by  the  flexion  of  the  upper  joint. 

No  region  of  the  body  affords  better  facilities  for  the  application  of 
treatment,  and  the  prognosis  is,  on  this  account,  usually  favorable. 
We  recall  a  case,  however,  which  proved  fatal,  though  under  excep- 
tional circumstances.  The  patient  was  a  valuable  stallion  of  highly 
nervous  organization,  with  a  compound  fracture  of  one  of  the  cannon 
bones,  and  his  unconquerable  resistance  to  treatment,  excited  by  the 
intense  pain  of  the  wound,  precluded  all  chance  of  recovery,  and 
ultimately  caused  his  death. 

Treatment. — The  general  form  of  treatment  for  these  lesions  will 
not  differ  from  that  which  has  been  already  indicated  for  other  frac- 
tures. Reduction,  sometimes  necessitating  the  casting  of  the  patient ; 
coaptation,  comparatively  easy  by  reason  of  the  subcutaneous  situa- 
tion of  the  bone;  retention,  by  means  of  splints  and  bandages — 
applied  on  both  sides  of  the  region,  and  reaching  to  the  ground  as 
in  fractures  of  the  forearm — these  are  always  indicated.  We  have 
obtained  excellent  results  by  the  use  of  a  mold  of  thick  gutta-percha, 
composed  of  two  sections  and  made  to  surround  the  entire  lower  part 
of  the  leg  as  in  an  inflexible  case. 

FBACTUBE  OF  THE  FIBST  PHALANX. 

The  hind  extremity  is  more  liable  than  the  fore  to  this  injury.  It 
is  usually  the  result  of  a  violent  effort,  or  of  a  sudden  misstep  or 
twisting  of  the  leg,  and  may  be  transverse,  or,  as  has  usually  been  the 
case  in  our  experience,  longitudinal,  extending  from  the  upper  artic- 
ular surface  down  to  the  center  of  the  bone,  and  generally  oblique 
and  often  comminuted.  The  symptoms  are  the  swelling  and  tender- 
ness of  the  region,  possibly  crepitation;  a  certain  abnormal  mobility; 
an  excessive  degree  of  lameness,  and  in  some  instances  a.  dropping 
back  of  the  fetlock,  with  perhaps  a  straightened  or  upright  condi- 
tion of  the  pastern. 

The  difficulty  of  reduction  and  coaptation  in  this  accident,  and  the 
probability  of  bony  deposits,  as  of  ringbones,  resulting  in  lameness, 
are  circumstances  which  tend  to  discourage  a  favorable  prognosis. 

The  treatment  is  that  which  has  been  recommended  for  all  frac- 
tures, so  far  as  it  can  be  applied.  The  iron  splint  which  has  been 
mentioned  gives  excellent  results  in  many  instances,  but  if  the  frac- 
ture is  incomplete  ahd  without  displacement,  a  form  of  treatment  less 
energetic  and  severe  should  be  attempted.  One  case  is  within  our 
knowledge  in  which  the  owner  lost  his  horse  by  his  refusal  to  subject 
the  animal  to  treatment,  the  post-mortem  revealing  only  a  simple 
fracture  with  very  slight  displacement. 


FRACTURES   OP   BONES   OF   THE   FOOT.  327 

FBACTUBES    OF    THE    SECOND    PHALANX     ( CORONET). 

Though  these  are  generally  of  the  comminuted  kind,  there  are  often 
conditions  associated  with  them  which  justify  the  surgeon  in  attempt- 
ing their  treatment.  Though  crepitation  is  not  always  easy  to  detect, 
the  excessive  lameness,  the  soreness  on  pressure,  the  inability  to  carry 
weight,  the  difficulty  experienced  in  raising  the  foot,  all  these  suggest, 
as  the  solution  of  the  question  of  diagnosis,  the  fracture  of  the  coronet, 
with  the  accompanying  realization  of  the  fact  that  there  is  yet,  by  rea- 
son of  the  situation  of  the  member,  immobilized  as  it  is  by  its  struc- 
ture and  its  surroundings,  room  left  for  a  not  unfavorable  prognosis. 
Only  a  slight  manipulation  will  be  needed  in  the  treatment  of  this 
lesion.  To  render  the  immobility  of  the  region  more  fixed,  to  support 
the  bones  in  their  position  by  bandaging,  and  to  establish  forced 
immobility  of  the  entire  body  with  the  slings  is  usually  all  that  is  re- 
quired. Ringbone,  being  a  common  sequela  of  the  reparative  process, 
must  receive  due  attention  subsequently.  One  of  the  severest  com- 
plications likely  to  be  encountered  is  an  immobile  joint  (anchylosis). 
Neurectomy  of  the  median  nerve  may  relieve  lameness  after  a  frac- 
ture of  the  phalanges. 

FBACTUBES   OF    THE   THIBD   PHALANX    (OS    PEDIS). 

These  lesions  may  result  from  a  penetrating  street  nail,  or  follow 
plantar  or  median  neurectomy.  In  the  latter  instance  it  is  caused  by 
the  animal  setting  the  foot  down  carelessly  and  too  violently,  and 
partly  due  to  degeneration  of  bone  tissue  which  follows  nerving. 

Though  these  fractures  are  not  of  very  rare  occurrence,  their  recog- 
nition is  not  easy,  and  there  is  more  of  speculation  than  of  certainty 
pertaining  to  their  diagnosis.  The  animal  is  very  lame  and  spares 
the  injured  foot  as  much  as  possible,  sometimes  resting  it  upon  the 
toe  alone  and  sometimes  holding  it  suspended  in  the  air.  The  foot 
is  very  tender,  and  the  exploring  pinchers  of  the  examining  surgeon 
causes  much  pain.  During  the  first  twenty-four  hours  there  is  no 
increased  pulsation  in  the  digital  and  plantar  arteries,  but  on  the 
second  day  this  symptom  is  apparent. 

There  is  nothing  to  encourage  a  favorable  prognosis,  and  a  not 
unusual  termination  is  an  anchylosis  with  either  the  navicular  bone 
or  the  coronet. 

No  method  of  treatment  needs  to  be  suggested  here,  the  hoof  per- 
forming the  office  of  retention  unaided.  Local  treatment  by  baths 
and  fomentations  will  do  the  rest.  It  may  be  months  before  there  is 
any  mitigation  of  the  lameness. 

An  ultimate  recovery  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  whether  the 
other  foot  can  support  the  weight  during  the  healing  process  without 
causing  a  drop  sole  in  the  supporting  foot. 


328  DISEASES   OF    THE    HORSE. 

FKACTUBE  OF  THE  SESAMOID  BONES. 

This  lesion  has  been  considered  by  veterinarians,  erroneously,  we 
think,  one  of  rare  occurrence.  We  believe  it  to  be  more  frequent 
than  has  been  supposed.  Many  observations  and  careful  dissections 
have  convinced  us  that  fractures  of  these  little  bones  have  often  been 
mistaken  -for  specific  lesions  of  the  numerous  ligaments  that  are 
implanted  upon  their  superior  and  inferior  parts,  and  which  have 
been  described  as  a  "  giving  way  "  or  "  breaking  down  "  of  these 
ligaments.  In  my  post-mortem  examinations  I  have  always  noted 
the  fact  that  when  the  attachments  of  the  ligaments  were  torn  from 
their  bony  connections  minute  fragments  of  bony  structure  were  also 
separated,  though  we  have  failed  to  detect  any  diseased  process  of 
the  fibrous  tissue  composing  the  ligamentous  substance. 

Cause. — From  whatever  cause  this  lesion  may  arise,  it  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  of  a  traumatic  nature,  no  external  violence  having 
any  apparent  agency  in  producing  it,  and  it  is  our  belief  that  it  is 
due  to  a  peculiar  degeneration  or  softening  of  the  bones  themselves,  a 
theory  which  acquires  plausibility  from  the  consideration  of  the 
spongy  consistency  of  the  sesamoids.  Tlie  disease  is  a  peculiar  one, 
and  the  suddenness  with  which  different  feet  are  successively  attacked, 
at  short  intervals  and  without  any  obvious  cause,  seems  to  prove  the 
existence  of  some  latent,  morbid  cause  which  has  been  unsuspectedly 
incubating.  It  is  not  peculiar  to  any  particular  class  of  horses,  nor 
to  any  special  season  of  the  year,  having  fallen  under  our  observation 
in  each  of  the  four  seasons. 

Symptoms. — ^The  general  fact  is  reported  in  the  history  of  a 
majority  of  cases  that  it  makas  its  appearance  without  premonition 
in  animals  which,  after  enjoying  a  considerable  period  of  rest,  are 
first  exercised  or  put  to  work,  though  in  point  of  fact  it  may  manifest 
itself  while  the  horse  is  still  idle  in  his  stable.  A  hypothetical  case, 
in  illustration,  will  explain  our  theory :  An  animal  which  has  been 
at  rest  in  his  stable  is  taken  out  to  work,  and  it  will  be  presently 
noticed  that  there  is  something  unusual  in  his  movement.  His  gait 
is  changed,  and  he  travels  with  short,  mincing  stops,  without  any  of 
his  accustomed  ease  and  freedom.  This  may  continue  until  his  return 
to  the  stable,  and  then,  after  l)eing  placed  in  his  stall,  he  will  be 
noticed  shifting  his  weight  from  side  to  side  and  from  one  leg  to 
another,  continuing  the  movement  until  rupture  of  the  lK)ny  structure 
takes  place.  But  it  may  happen  that  the  lameness  in  one  or  more  of 
the  extremities,  anterior  or  posterior,  suddenly  increases,  and  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  rupture  has  taken  place  in  consequence  of 
a  misstep  or  a  stumble  while  the  horse  is  at  work.  Then,  upon  com- 
ing to  a  standstill,  he  will  be  found  with  one  or  more  of  his  toes 
turned  up:  he  is  unable  to  place  the  affected  foot  flat  on  the  ground. 
The  fethnk  has  dropped  and  the  leg  rests  upon  this  l^art,  the  skin  of 


DISEASES   OF   JOINTS.  329 

which  may  have  remained  intact  or  may  have  been  more  or  less  exten- 
sively lacerated.  It  seldom  happens  that  more  than  one  toe  at  a 
time  will  turn  up,  yet  still  the  lesion  in  one  will  be  followed  by  its 
occurrence  in  another.  Commonly  two  feet,  either  the  anterior  or 
posterior,  are  affected,  and  we  recall  one  case  in  which  the  two  fore 
and  one  of  the  hind  legs  were  included  at  the  same  time.  The  acci- 
dent, however,  is  quite  as  likely  to  happen  while  the  horse  is  at  rest 
in  his  stall,  and  he  may  be  found  in  the  morning  standing  on  his 
fetlocks.  One  of  the  earliest  of  the  cases  occurring  in  my  own  expe- 
rience had  been  under  care  for  several  weeks  for  suspected  disease 
of  the  fetlocks,  the  nature  of  which  had  not  been  made  out,  when, 
apparently,  improved  by  the  treatment  which  he  had  undergone,  the 
patient  was  taken  out  of  the  stable  to  be  walked  a  short  distance  into 
the  country,  but  had  little  more  than  started  when  he  was  called  to 
a  halt  by  the  fracture  of  the  sesamoids  of  both  fore  legs. 

While  there  are  no  positive  premonitory  symptoms  known  of  these 
fractures,  we  believe  that  there  are  signs  and  symptoms  which  come 
but  little  short  of  being  so,  and  the  appearance  of  which  will  always 
justify  a  strong  suspicion  of  the  truth  of  the  case.  These  have  been 
indicated  when  referring  to  the  soreness  in  standing,  the  short  min- 
cing gait,  and  the  tenderness  betrayed  when  pressure  is  made  over  the 
sesamoids  on  the  sides  of  the  fetlock,  with  others  less  tangible  and 
definable. 

Prognosis. — These  injuries  can  never  be  accounted  less  than  seri- 
ous, and  in  our  judgment  will  never  be  other  than  fatal.  If  our 
theory  of  their  pathology  is  the  correct  one,  and  the  cause  of  the 
lesions  is  truly  the  softening  of  the  sesamoidal  bony  structure  and 
independent  of  any  changes  in  the  ligamentous  fibers,  the  possibility 
of  a  solid  osseous  union  can  hardly  be  considered  admissible. 

Treatment. — In  respect  to  the  treatment  to  be  recommended  and 
instituted  it  can  only  be  employed  with  any  rational  hope  of  benefit 
during  the  incubation,  and  with  the  anticipatory  purpose  of  preven- 
tion. It  must  be  suggested  by  a  suspicion  of  the  verities  of  the  case, 
and  applied  before  any  rupture  has  taken  place.  To  prevent  this  and 
to  antagonize  the  causes  which  might  precipitate  the  final  catastro- 
phe— the  elevation  of  the  toes — resort  must  be  had  to  the  slings  and 
to  the  application  of  firm  bandages  or  splints,  perhaps  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  with  a  high  shoe,  as  about  the  only  indications  which  science 
and  nature  are  able  to  offer.  "\Mien  the  fracture  is  an  occurred  event, 
and  the  toes,  one  or  more,  are  turned  up,  any  further  resort  to  treat- 
ment will  be  futile. 

DISEASES    or    JOINTS. 

Three  classes  of  injury  will  be  considered  under  this  head.  These 
are,  affections  of  the  synovial  sacs ;  those  of  the  joint  structures,  or  of 


330  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

the  bones  and  their  articular  surfaces,  and  those  forms  of  solution  of 
continuity  known  as  dislocations  or  luxations. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   8YN0VIAI.  SACS. 

Two  forms  of  affection  here  present  themselves,  one  being  the 
result  of  an  abnormal  secretion  which  induces  a  dropsical  condition 
of  the  sac  without  any  acute  inflammatory  action,  while  the  other  is 
characterized  by  excessive  inflammatory  symptoms,  with  their  modi- 
fications, constituting  synovitis. 

SYNOVIAL  DROPSIES. 

We  have  already  considered  in  a  general  way  the  presence  of  these 
peculiar  oil  bags  in  the  joints,  and  in  some  regions  of  the  legs  where 
the  passage  of  the  tendons  takes  place,  and  have  noticed  the  similarity 
of  structure  and  function  of  both  the  articular  and  the  tendinous 
bursae,  as  well  as  the  etiology  of  their  injuries  and  their  pathological 
history,  and  we  now  propose  to  treat  of  the  affections  of  both. 

WINDGALLS. 

This  name  is  given  to  the  dilated  bursae  found  at  the  posterior  part 
of  the  fetlock  joint.  They  have  their  origin  in  a  dropsical  condition 
of  the  bursae  of  the  joint  itself,  and  also  of  the  tendon  which  slides 
behind  it,  and  are  therefore  further  known  by  the  designations  of 
articular  and  tendinous  windgalls,  or  puffs.     (See  also  page  375.) 

They  appear  in  the  form  of  soft  and  somewhat  symmetrical  tumors, 
of  varying  dimensions,  and  generally  well  defined  in  their  circumfer- 
ence. They  are  more  or  less  tense,  according  to  the  amount  of  secre- 
tion they  contain,  apparently  becoming  softer  as  the  foot  is  raised  and 
the  fetlock  flexed.  Usually  they  are  painless  and  only  cause  lameness 
under  certain  conditions,  as  when  they  begin  to  develop  themselves 
under  the  stimulus  of  inflammatory  action,  or  when  large  enough  to 
interfere  with  the  functions  of  the  tendons,  or  again  where  they  have 
undergone  certain  jnithological  changes,  such  as  calcification,  which  is 
among  their  tendencies. 

Cause. — Windgalls  may  be  attributed  to  external  causes,  such  as 
severe  labor  or  strains  resulting  from  heavy  pulling,  fast  driving,  or 
jumping,  or  they  may  be  among  the  sequela?  of  internal  disorders, 
buch  as  strangles  or  the  resultants  of  a  pleuritic  or  pneumonic  attack. 

An  unneces.sary  amount  of  anxiety  is  sometimes  experienced  respect- 
ing these  growths,  with  much  questioning  touching  the  expediency  of 
their  removal,  all  of  which  might  be  spared,  for,  while  they  constitute 
a  blemish,  their  unsightliness  will  not  hinder  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal,  and  in  any  case  they  rarely  fail  to  show  themselves  easily 
amenable  to  treatment. 

Treatment. — ^^^len  in  their  acute  stage,  and  when  the  dropsical 
condition  is  not  excessive,  the  inflammation  may  be  checked  during 


DISEASES   OF   JOINTS.  331 

the  day  by  continuous  cold  water  irrigation  by  means  of  a  hose  or 
soaking  tub  and  at  night  by  applying  a  moderately  tight  roller  band- 
age. Later  absorption  may  be  promoted  by  a  Priessnitz  bandage,* 
pressure  by  roller  bandages,  sweating,  the  use  of  liniments,  or  if  neces- 
sary by  a  sharp  blister  of  biniodide  of  mercury.  This  treatment 
should  subdue  the  inflammation,  abort  the  soreness,  absorb  the  excess 
of  secretion,  strengthen  the  walls  of  the  sac,  and  finally  cause  the 
windgalls  to  disappear,  provided  the  animal  is  not  too  quickly  re- 
turned to  labor  and  exposed  to  the  same  factors  that  occasioned  them 
at  first. 

But  if  the  inflammation  has  become  chronic,  and  the  enlargement 
has  been  of  considerable  duration,  the  negative  course  will  be  the 
wiser  one.  If  any  benefit  results  from  treatment  it  will  be  of  only  a 
transient  kind,  the  dilatation  returning  when  the  patient  is  again  sub- 
jected to  labor,  and  it  will  be  a  fortunate  circumstance  if  inflamma- 
tion has  not  supervened. 

But  notwithstanding  the  generally  benignant  nature  of  the  swelling 
there  are  exceptional  cases,  usually  when  it  is  probably  undergoing 
certain  pathological  changes,  which  may  result  in  lameness  and  dis- 
able the  animal,  in  which  case  surgical  treatment  will  be  indicated, 
especially  if  repeated  blisters  have  failed  to  improve  the  symptoms. 
Line  firing  is  then  a  preeminent  suggestion,  and  many  a  useful  life 
has  received  a  new  lease  as  the  result  of  this  operation  timely  per- 
formed. Another  method  of  firing,  which  consists  in  emptying  the 
sac  by  means  of  punctures  through  and  through,  made  with  a  red-hot 
needle  or  wire,  and  the  subsequent  injection  into  the  cavity  of  cer- 
tain irritating  and  alterative  compounds,  designed  to  effect  its  closure 
by  exciting  adhesive  inflammation,  such  as  tincture  of  iodine,  may  be 
commended.  But  they  are  all  too  active  and  energetic  in  their  effects 
and  require  too  much  special  attention  and  intelligent  management  to 
be  trusted  to  any  hands  other  than  those  of  an  expert  veterinarian. 

BLOOD    SPAVIN,    BOG    SPAVIN,    AND    THGBOUGHPIN. 

The  blood  spavin  is  situated  in  front  and  to  the  inside  of  the  hock 
and  is  merely  a  varicose  or  dilated  condition  of  the  saphena  vein.  It 
occurs  directly  over  the  point  where  the  bog  spavin  is  found,  and  has 
thus  been  frequently  confused  with  the  latter. 

The  complicated  arrangement  of  the  hock  joint,  and  the  powerful 
tendons  which  pass  on  the  posterior  part,  are  lubricated  with  the 
product  of  secretion  from  one  tendinous  synovial  and  several  articular 

"  This  bandage  consists  of  a  clotii  drenclied  in  warm  water  or  a  dripping  band- 
age laid  around  the  diseased  part,  then  covered  by  severai  layers  of  woolen 
blanket  or  cloth,  which  is  in  turn  covered  by  parchment  paper,  rubber  cloth,  or 
other  impervious  material.  Heat,  moisture,  and  pressure  are  obtained  by  such 
a  bandage  if  water  is  poured  upon  it  several  times  daily. 


332  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

synovial  sacs.  A  large  articular  sac  contributes  to  the  lubrication  of 
the  shank  bone  (the  tibia)  and  one  of  the  bones  of  the  hock  (the  astrag- 
ahis).  The  tendinous  sac  lies  back  of  the  articulation  itself  and 
extends  upward  and  downward  in  the  groove  of  that  joint  through 
which  the  flexor  tendons  slide.  The  dilatation  of  this  articular  syno- 
vial sac  is  what  is  denominated  bog  spavin,  the  term  thoroughpin 
being  applied  to  the  dilatation  of  the  tendinous  capsule. 

The  bog  spavin  is  a  round,  smooth,  well-defined,  fluctuating  tumor 
situated  in  front  and  a  little  inward  of  the  hock.  On  pressure  it 
disappears  at  this  point  to  reaj^pear  on  the  outside  and  just  behind  the 
hock.  If  pressed  to  the  front  from  the  outside  it  will  then  appear 
on  the  inside  of  the  hock.  On  its  outer  surface  it  presents  a  vein 
which  is  quite  prominent,  running  from  below  upward,  and.it  is  to 
the  preternatural  dilatation  of  this  blood  vessel  that  the  term  blood 
spavin  is  applied. 

The  thoroughpin  is  found  at  the  back  and  on  the  top  of  the  hock 
in  that  part  known  as  the  "  hollows,"  immediately  behind  the  shank 
lK)ne.  It  is  round  and  smooth,  but  not  so  regularly  formed  as  the 
bog  spavin,  and  is  most  apparent  when  viewed  from  behind.  The 
swelling  is  usually  on  both  sides  and  a  little  in  front  of  the  so-called 
hamstring,  but  may  be  more  noticeable  on  the  inside  or  on  the  outside. 

In  their  general  characteristics  bog  spavins  and  thoroughpins  are 
similar  to  windgalls,  and  one  description  of  the  origin,  symptoms, 
pathological  changes,  and  treatment  will  serve  for  all  equally,  except 
that  it  is  possible  for  a  bog  spavin  to  cause  lameness,  and  thus  to 
involve  a  verdict  of  unsoundness  in  the  patient,  a  circumstance  which 
will,  of  course,  justify  its  classification  by  itself  as  a  severer  form  of  a 
single  type  of  disease. 

AVe  have  already  referred  to  the  subject  of  treatment  and  the  means 
employed — rest,  of  course — with  liniments,  blistei's,  etc.,  and  what 
we  esteem  as  the  most  active  and  beneficial  of  any,  early,  deep,  and 
ireU-pcrforvicd  ranterizntion.  There  are,  besides,  commendatory 
reports  of  a  form  of  treatment  by  the  application  of  pressure  pads 
and  peculiar  bandages  u})on  the  hocks,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the 
removal  of  the  tumors  has  been  effected  by  their  use.  But  our  expe- 
rience with  this  apparatus  has  not  been  accompanied  by  such 
favorable  results  as  would  justify  our  indorsement  of  the  flattering 
representations  whicli  have  sometimes  appeared  in  its  behalf. 

OPEM    JOINTS,    BROKEN     KNEE8,     SYNOVITIS,    AND    ARTHRITIS. 

The  close  relationship  which  exists  among  these  several  affections, 
their  apparently  possible  connection  as  successive  developments  of  a 
similar,  if  not  an  es.sentially  identical,  origin,  together  with  the 
advantage  gained  by  avoiding  frequent  roj)etitions  in  the  details  of 
symptoms,  treatment,  etc.,  are  our  reasons  for  treating  under  a  single 
head  the  ailments  we  have  grouped  together  in  the  present  section. 


DISEASES    OF    JOINTS.  333 

Cause. — The  great,  comprehensive,  common  cause  of,  sometimes 
permanent,  sometimes  only  transient,  disability  of  the  horse  is  exter- 
nal traumatism. 

Blows,  bruises,  hurts  by  nearly  every  known  form  of  violence, 
falls,  kicks,  lacerations,  punctures — we  may  add  compulsory  speed 
in  racing  and  cruel  overloading  of  draft  animals — cover  the  entire 
ground  of  causation  of  the  diseases  and  injuries  of  the  joints  now 
receiving  our  consideration. 

In  one  case,  a  working  horse  making  a  misstep  stumbles,  and  fall- 
ing on  his  knees  receives  a  hurt,  variously  severe,  from  a  mere  abra- 
sion of  the  skin  to  a  laceration,  a  division  of  the  tegument,  a  slough, 
mortification,  and  the  escape  of  the  synovial  fluid,  with  or  without 
exposure  of  the  bones  and  their  articular  cartilages. 

In  another  case,  an  animal,  from  one  cause  or  another,  perhaps  an 
impatient  temper,  has  formed  the  habit  of  striking  or  pawing  his 
manger  with  his  fore  feet  until  inflammation  of  the  knee  joint  is 
induced,  first  as  a  little  swelling,  diffused,  painless;  then  as  a  perios- 
titis of  the  bones  of  the  knee ;  later  as  bony  deposits,  then  lameness, 
and  finally  the  implication  of  the  joint,  with  all  the  various  sequelae 
of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  kneejoint. 

In  another  case,  a  horse  has  received  a  blow  wdth  a  fork  from  a 
careless  hostler  on  or  near  a  joint,  or  has  been  kicked  by  a  stable 
companion,  with  the  result  of  a  punctured  wound,  at  first  mild- 
looking,  painless,  apparently  without  inflammation,  and  not  yet  caus- 
ing lameness,  but  which,  in  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  only  after  a  few 
daj's,  becomes  excessively  painful,  grows  worse,  the  entire  joint  swells, 
presently  discharges,  and  at  last  a  case  of  supfuratwe  synovitis  is 
presented,  with  perhaps  disease  of  the  joint  proper,  and  arthritis  as 
a  climax.  The  s^miptoms  of  articular  injuries  vary  not  only  in  the 
degrees  of  the  hurt,  but  in  the  nature  of  the  lesion. 

Or  the  condition  of  hroken  knees^  resulting  as  we  have  said,  may 
have  for  its  starting  point  a  mere  abrasion  of  the  skin — a  scratch, 
apparently,  w^hich  disappears  without  a  resulting  scar.  The  injury 
may,  however,  have  been  more  severe,  the  blow  heavier,  the  fall  aggra- 
vated by  occurring  upon  an  irregular  surface,  or  sharp  or  rough  ob- 
ject, with  tearing  or  cutting  of  the  skin,  and  this  laceration  may  re- 
main.    A  more  serious  case  than  the  first  is  now  brought  to  our  notice. 

Another  time,  immediately  following  the  accident,  or  possibly  as 
a  sequel  of  the  traumatism,  the  tendinous  sacs  may  be  opened,  with 
the  escape  of  the  synovia ;  or  worse,  the  tendons  which  pass  in  front 
of  the  knee  are  torn,  the  inflammation  spreads,  the  joint  and  leg 
are  swollen,  the  animal  is  becoming  very  lame;  synovitis  has  set  in. 
With  this  the  danger  becomes  very  great,  for  soon  suppuration  will  be 
established,  then  the  external  coat  of  the  articulation  proper  becomes 
ulcerated,  if  it  is  not  already  in  that  state,  and  Ave  find  ourselves  in 


334  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOUSE. 

the  presence  of  an  open  joint  with  suppurative  synovitis — that  is,  with 
the  worst  among  the  conditions  of  diseased  processes,  because  of  the 
liability  of  the  suppuration  to  become  infiltrated  into  every  part  of  the 
joint,  macerating  the  ligaments  and  irritating  the  cartilages,  soon  to 
be  succeeded  by  their  ulceration,  with  the  destruction  of  the  articular 
surface — or  the  lesion  of  ulcerative  arthritis^  one  of  the  gravest  among 
all  the  disorders  known  to  the  animal  economy. 

But  ulcerative  arthritis  and  suppurative  synovitis  may  be  devel- 
oped otherwise  than  in  connection  with  open  joints ;  the  simplest  and 
apparently  most  harmless  punctures  may  prove  to  be  cause  sufficient. 
For  example,  a  horse  may  be  kicked,  perhaps,  on  the  inside  of  the 
hock ;  there  is  a  mark  and  a  few  drops  of  blood  to  indicate  the  spot, 
he  is  put  to  work,  apparently  free  from  pain  or  lameness,  and  per- 
forms his  task  with  his  usual  ease  and  facility.  But  on  the  following 
morning  the  hock  is  found  to  be  a  little  swollen  and  there  is  some  stiff- 
ness. A  little  later  on  he  betrays  a  degree  of  uneasiness  in  the  leg, 
and  shrinks  from  resting  his  weight  upon  it,  moving  it  up  and  down 
for  relief.  The  swelling  has  increased  and  is  increasing,  the  pain  is 
severe,  and,  finally,  there  is  an  oozing,  at  the  spot  where  the  kick 
impinged,  of  an  oily  liquid  mixed  with  whitish  drops  of  suppuration. 
The  mischief  is  done;  a  simple,  harmless,  punctured  wound  has  ex- 
panded into  a  case  of  ulcerative  arthritis  and  suppurative  synovitis. 

Prognosis. — From  ever  so  brief  and  succinct  description  of  this 
traumatism  of  the  articulations,  the  serious  and  important  character 
of  these  lesions,  irrespective  of  which  particular  joint  is  affected,  will 
be  readily  understood.  Yet  there  will  be  modifications  in  the  prog- 
nosis in  different  cases,  in  accordance  with  the  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture in  the  joint  specially  involved,  as,  for  example,  it  is  obvious  that 
a  better  result  may  be  expected  from  treatment  when  but  a  single 
joint,  with  only  its  plain  articular  surfaces,  is  the  place  of  injury, 
than  in  one  which  is  composed  of  several  bones,  united  in  a  complex 
formation,  as  in  the  knee  or  hock.  As  severe  a  lesion  as  suppurative 
sjoiovitis  always  is,  and  as  frequently  fatal  as  it  proves  to  be,  still 
cases  arise  in  which,  the  inflammation  assuming  a  modified  character 
and  at  length  subsiding,  the  lesion  terminates  favorably  and  leaves 
the  animal  with  a  comparatively  sound  and  useful  joint.  There  are 
cases,  however,  which  terminate  in  no  more  favorable  a  result  than 
the  union  of  the  bones  and  occlusion  of  the  joint,  to  form  an  anchylo- 
sis, which  is  scarcely  a  condition  to  justify  a  high  degree  of  satisfac- 
tion, since  it  insures  a  permanent  lameness  with  very  little  capacity 
for  usefulness. 

Appreciating  now  the  dangers  associated  with  all  wounds  of  articu- 
lations, however  simple  and  apparently  slight,  and  how  serious  and 
troublesome  are  the  complications  which  are  likely  to  arise  during 
their  progress  and  treatment,  we  are  prepared  to  understand  and 


DISEASES    OF    JOINTS.  335 

realize  the  necessity  and  the  value  of  early  and  prompt  attention  upon 
their  discovery  and  diagnosis. 

Treatment. — For  simple  bruises,  like  those  which  appear  in  the 
form  of  broken  knees  or  of  carpitis,  simple  remedies,  such  as  warm 
fomentations  or  cold  water  applications  and  compresses  of  astringent 
mixtures,  suggest  themselves  at  once.  Injuries  of  a  more  complicated 
character,  as  lacerations  of  the  skin  or  tearing  of  soft  structures,  will 
also  be  benefited  by  simple  dressings  with  antiseptic  mixtures,  as 
those  of  the  carbolic  acid  order.  The  escape  of  synovia  should  sug- 
gest the  prompt  use  of  collodion  dressings  to  check  the  flow  and  pre- 
vent the  further  escape  of  the  fluid.  But  if  the  discharge  is  abundant 
and  heavily  suppurative,  little  can  be  done  more  than  to  put  in  prac- 
tice the  "  expectant "  method  with  warm  fomentations,  repeatedly 
applied,  and  soothing  mucilaginous  poultices.  Improvement,  if  any 
is  possible,  will  be  but  slow  to  manifest  itself.  The  most  difficult  of 
all  things  to  do,  in  view  of  varying  interests  and  opinions — that  is, 
in  a  practical  sense — is  to  abstain  from  "  doing  "  entirely,  and  yet  we 
are  firmly  convinced  that  noninterference  in  the  cases  we  are  con- 
sidering is  the  best  and  wisest  policy. 

In  cases  which  are  carried  to  a  successful  result  the  discharge  will 
by  degrees  diminish,  the  extreme  pain  will  gradually  subside,  and  the 
convalescent  will  begin  timidly  to  rest  his  foot  upon  the  ground,  and 
presently  to  bear  weight  upon  it,  and  perhaps,  after  a  long  and  tedi- 
ous process  of  recuperation,  he  may  be  returned  to  his  former  and 
normal  condition  of  usefulness.  When  the  discharge  has  wholly 
ceased  and  the  wounds  are  entirely  healed,  a  blister  covering  the 
whole  of  the  joint  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  absorption  of 
the  exudation  will  be  of  great  service.  But  if,  on  the  contrary,  there 
is  no  amelioration  of  symptoms  and  the  progress  of  the  disease  resists 
every  attempt  to  check  it ;  if  the  discharge  continues  to  flow,  not  only 
without  abatement,  but  in  an  increased  volume,  and  not  alone  by  a 
single  opening,  but  by  a  number  of  fistulous  tracts  which  have  succes- 
sively formed;  if  it  seems  evident  that  this  drainage  is  rapidly  and 
painfully  sapping  the  suffering  animal's  vitality,  and  a  deficient  vis 
vita)  fails  to  cooperate  with  the  means  of  cure — all  rational  hope  of 
recovery  may  be  finally  abandoned.  Any  further  waiting  for 
chances,  or  time  lost  in  experimenting,  will  be  mere  cruelty  and  there 
need  be  no  hesitation  concerning  the  next  step.  The  poor  beast  is 
under  sentence  of  death,  and  every  consideration  of  interest  and  of 
humanity  demands  an  anticipation  of  nature's  evident  intent  in  the 
quick  and  easy  execution  of  the  sentence. 

One  of  the  essentials  of  treatment,  and  probably  an  indispensable 
condition  when  recovery  is  in  any  wise  attainable,  is  the  suspension 
of  the  patient  in  slings.  He  should  be  continued  in  them  as  long  as 
he  can  be  made  to  submit  quietly  to  their  restraint. 


336  DISEASES   OP  THE   HORSE. 

DISLOCATIONS. 

Dislocations  and  luxations  are  interchangeable  terms,  meaning  the 
separation  and  displacement  of  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the  bones 
entering  into  the  formation  of  a  joint.  This  injury  is  rarely  en- 
countered in  our  large  animals  on  account  of  the  combination  of 
strength  and  solidity  in  the  formation  of  their  joints.  It  is  met  with 
but  seldom  in  cattle  and  less  so  in  horses,  while  dogs  and  smaller  ani- 
mals are  more  often  the  sufferers. 

Cavse. — The  accident  of  a  luxation  is  less  often  encountered  in  the 
animal  races  than  in  man.  This  is  not  because  the  former  are  less  sub- 
ject to  occasional  violence  involving  powerful  muscular  contractions, 
or  are  less  often  exposed  to  casualties  similar  to  those  which  result  in 
luxations  in  the  human  skeleton,  but  because  it  requires  the  coopera- 
tion -of  conditions — anatomical,  physiological,  and  perhaps  mechan- 
ical— present  in  the  human  race  and  lacking  in  the  others,  which,  how- 
ever, can  not  in  every  case  be  clearly  defined.  Perhaps  the  greater 
relative  length  of  the  bony  levers  in  the  human  formation  may  con- 
stitute a  cause  of  the  difference. 

Among  the  predisposing  causes  in  animals  may  be  enumerated 
caries  of  articular  surfaces,  articular  abscesses,  excessive  dropsical 
conditions,  degenerative  softening  of  the  ligaments,  and  any  excessive 
laxity  of  the  soft  structures. 

Symptoms  and  diagnosis. — Three  signs  of  dislocation  must  usually 
be  taken  into  consideration.  They  are:  (1)  An  alteration  in  the 
shape  of  the  joint  and  in  the  normal  relationship  of  the  articulating 
surfaces;  (2)  an  alteration  in  the  length  of  the  limb,  either  shorten- 
ing or  lengthening;  (3)  an  alteration  in  the  mo vableness  of  the  joint, 
usually  an  unnatural  immobility.  Only  the  first,  however,  can  be 
relied  upon  as  essential.  Luxations  are  not  always  complete;  they 
may  be  partial,  that  is,  the  articulating  surfaces  may  be  displaced 
but  not  separated.  In  such  cases  several  symptoms  might  not  be 
present.  And  not  only  may  the  third  sign  be  absent,  but  the  mobility 
of  the  first  be  greatly  increased  when  the  character  of  the  injury  has 
been  such  as  to  j)roduce  extensive  lacerations  of  the  articular  ligaments. 

In  addition  to  the  above  signs,  a  luxation  is  usually  characterized 
by  pain,  swelling,  hemorrhage  beneath  the  skin  from  damaged  or 
ruptured  blood  vessels,  and  even  paralysis,  when  important  nerves  are 
pressed  on  by  the  displaced  bones. 

Sometimes  a  bone  is  fractured  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  joint. 
The  knowledge  of  this  fact  rcciuircs  that  we  shall  be  able  to  diagnose 
Ijetween  a  dislocation  and  such  a  fracture.  In  this  we  generally  have 
three  points  to  assist  us:  (1)  The  immobility  of  a  dislocated  joint  as 
against  the  apparently  remarkable  freedom  of  movement  in  fracture ; 
(2)  in  a  dislocation  there  is  no  true  crepitus — that  peculiar  grating 
sensation  heard  as  well  as  felt  on  rubbing  together  the  rough  ends  of 


PL^VTE    XXVJ 


.Sound  Jn/c/c 


1 


It.in.-s.dcl 


•V"" 

Haiii.'S,.!.-'.  Nos!  L'aiiil  .\  driiiiial.X.'   '1    itl.-i   !'<■ 

BOXK       Sl'AVlN 


plate:   xx\ni. 


J  Brace  for  (iislocntion  of'llii>  elbow  i^ippUeti  t,/(he  hnr.se. 
I  a.  The  sujiir  brtice  seen  alone.  'J,  Brrtre  for  liisfoeo  fin/i 
of  fetlock    2 a ,   Tlie   sa.nte   bi-ace    cippUni  to  t fie  horse. 


.'J.Bldie    for  .sproineil  nr  ,i  t.\lt_;  otr,,    .^  li.,ii  hi  er, 
.'Sil.Thc  .sanw    broee    iippticl    :,,  ffir     s-hoiild>r 

Haiiirs  Ui'l.al  le-rPeiK  1;  jinl  roussiiiiil 


DlSI.OrATIOX  ()!•'  SHOl'I.DF.i;  AXl)  l':i.lU)\V 

Hour'ielHrs  aj)pai-alus 


I'j.A'iv:  xxviii 


Haiiii-s  del  aflcr  R<?vnd«rs 


js  s;i:n  6.  CO 


iHi-:   si.iNCi  IN   rsK 


DISLOCATIONS.  3S7 

fractured  bones;  however,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  a  disloca- 
tion two  or  three  days  old  the  inflammatory  changes  around  the  joint 
may  give  rise  to  a  crackling  sensation  similar  to  that  in  fracture;  (3) 
as  a  rule,  in  luxations,  if  the  ligamentous  and  muscular  tissues  about 
the  joint  are  not  badly  torn,  the  displacement^  when  reduced^  does 
not  recur. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  of  a  luxation  is  comparatively  less  seri- 
ous than  that  of  a  fracture,  though  at  times  the  indications  of  treat- 
ment may  prove  to  be  so  difficult  to  apply  that  complications  may 
arise  of  a  very  severe  character. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  luxations  must,  of  course,  be  similar 
to  that  of  fractures.  Reduction,  naturally,  will  be  the  first  indication 
in  both  cases,  and  the  retention  of  the  replaced  parts  must  follow. 
The  reduction  involves  the  same  steps  of  extension  and  counter  exten- 
sion, performed  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  patient  subdued  by 
anesthetics. 

The  difference  between  the  reduction  of  a  dislocation  and  that  of  a 
fracture  consists  in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  the  object  is  simply  to 
restore  the  bones  to  their  true  normal  position,  with  each  articular 
surface  in  exact  contact  with  its  companion  surface,  the  apparatus 
necessary  afterwards  to  keep  them  in  situ  being  similar  to  that  which 
is  employed  in  fracture  cases,  and  which  will  usually  require  to  be 
retained  for  a  period  of  from  forty  to  fifty  days,  if  not  longer,  before 
the  ruptured  retaining  ligaments  are  sufficiently  firm  to  be  trusted  to 
perform  their  office  unassisted.  A  variety  of  manipulations  are  to  be 
employed  by  the  surgeon,  consisting  in  pushing,  pulling,  pressing, 
rotating,  and  indeed  whatever  movement  may  be  necessary,  until  the 
bones  ai:e  forced  into  such  relative  positions  that  the  muscular  con- 
traction, operating  in  just  the  right  directions,  pulls  the  opposite 
matched  ends  together  in  true  coaptation — a  head  into  a  cavity,  an 
articular  eminence  into  a  trochlea,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  "  setting  " 
is  accompanied  by  a  peculiar  snapping  sound,  audible  and  significant, 
as  well  as  a  visible  return  of  the  surface  to  its  normal  symmetry. 

Special  dislocations. — While  all  the  articulations  of  the  body  are 
liable  to  this  form  of  injury,  there  are  three  in  the  large  animals 
which  may  claim  a  special  consideration,  viz : 

THE    SHOULDER   JOINT. 

We  rnention  this  displacement  without  intending  to  imply  the  prac- 
ticability of  any  ordinary  attempt  at  treatment,  which  is  usually 
unsuccessful,  the  animal  whose  mishap  it  has  been  to  become  a  victim 
to  it  being  disabled  for  life.  The  superior  head  of  the  arm  bone  as  it 
is  received  into  the  lower  cavity  of  the  shoulder  blade  is  so  situated  as 
to  be  liable  to  be  forced  out  of  place  in  four  directions.  It  may  escape 
from  its  socket,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  violence  affects 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 22 


338  DISEASES    OF   THE   fiOBSE. 

it — outward,  inward,  backward,  or  forward — and  the  deformity 
which  results  and  the  effects  which  follow  will  correspondingly  differ. 
We  have  said  that  treatment  is  generally  unsuccessful.  It  may  be 
added  that  the  difficulties  which  interpose  in  the  way  of  reduction  are 
nearly  insurmountable,  and  that  the  application  of  means  for  the 
retention  of  the  parts  after  reduction  would  be  next  to  impossible. 
The  prognosis  is  sufficiently  grave  from  any  point  of  view  for  the 
luckless  animal  with  a  dislocated  shoulder. 

THE   HIP  JOINT. 

This  joint  partakes  very  much  of  the  characteristics  of  the  humero- 
scapular  articulation,  but  is  more  strongly  built.  The  head  of  the 
thigh  bone  is  more  separated,  or  prominent  and  rounder  in  form,  and 
the  cuplike  cavity,  or  socket,  into  which  it  fits  is  much  deeper,  form- 
ing together  a  deep,  true  ball-and-socket  joint,  which  is,  moreover, 
reenforced  by  two  strong  cords  of  funicular  ligaments,  which  unite 
them  together.  It  will  be  easily  comprehended,  from  this  hint  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  region,  that  a  luxation  of  the  hip  joint  must  be  an 
accident  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence.  And  yet  cases  are  recorded 
in  which  the  head  of  the  bone  has  been  affirmed  to  slip  out  of  its 
cavity  and  assume  various  positions — inward,  outward,  forward,  or 
backward. 

The  indications  of  treatment  are  those  of  all  cases  of  dislocation. 
When  the  reduction  is  accomplished  the  surgeon  will  be  apprised 
of  the  fact  by  the  peculiar  snapping  sound  usually  heard  on  such 
occasions. 

PSEUDO-LUXATIONS   OF   THE   PATELLA. 

This  is  not  a  true  dislocation.  The  stifle  bone  is  so  peculiarly 
articulated  with  the  thigh  bone  that  the  means  of  union  are.  of  suffi- 
cient strength  to  resist  the  causes  which  usually  give  rise  to  luxations. 
Yet  there  is  sometimes  discovered  a  peculiar  pathological  state  in  the 
hind  legs  of  animals,  the  effect  of  which  is  closely  to  simulate  the 
manifestation  of  many  of  the  general  symptoms  of  dislocations.  This 
peculiar  pathological  condition  originates  in  muscular  cramps,  the 
action  of  which  is  seen  in  a  certain  change  in  the  coaptation  of  the 
articular  surfaces  of  the  stifle  and  thigh  bone,  resulting  in  the  exhibi- 
tion of  a  sudden  and  alarming  series  of  symptoms  which  have  sug- 
gested the  phrase  of  "  stifle  out "  as  a  descriptive  term. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  so  affected  stands  quietly  and  firmly  in  his 
stall,  or  perhaps  with  one  of  his  hind  legs  extended  backward,  and 
resists  every  attempt  to  move  him  backward.  If  urged  to  move  for- 
ward he  will  either  refuse  or  comply  with  a  jump,  with  the  toe  of 
the  disabled  leg  dragging  on  the  ground  and  brought  forward  by  a 
second  effort.  There  is  no  flexion  at  the  hock  and  no  motion  at  the 
stifle,  while  the  circular  motion  of  the  hip  is  quite  free.  The  leg 
appears  to  be  much  longer  than  the  other,  owing  to  the  straightened 


DISLOCATIONS.  339 

position  of  the  thigh  bone,  which  forms  almost  a  straight  line  with 
the  tibia  from  the  hip  joint  down.  The  stifle  joint  is  motionless,  and 
the  motions  of  all  the  joints  below  it  are  more  or  less  interfered  with. 
External  examination  of  the  muscles  of  the  hip  and  thigh  reveals  a 
certain  amount  of  rigidity,  with  perhaps  some  soreness,  and  the  stifle 
bone  may  be  seen  projecting  more  or  less  on  the  outside  and  upper 
part  of  the  joint. 

This  state  of  things  may  continue  for  some  length  of  time  and  until 
treatment  is  applied,  or  it  may  spontaneously  and  suddenly  terminate, 
leaving  everything  in  its  normal  condition,  but  perhaps  to  return 
again. 

Cause. — Pseudo-dislocation  of  the  patella  is  likely  to  occur  under 
many  of  the  conditions  which  cause  actual  dislocation,  and  yet  it  may 
often  occur  in  animals  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  the  ordinary 
causes,  but  which  have  remained  at  rest  in  their  stables.  Sometimes 
these  cases  are  assignable  to  falls  in  a  slippery  stall,  or  perhaps  slip- 
ping when  endeavoring  to  rise ;  sometimes  to  weakness  in  convalescing 
patients;  sometimes  to  lack  of  tonicity  of  structure  and  general  de- 
bility ;  sometimes  to  relaxation  of  tissues  from  want  of  exercise  or  use. 
A  straight  leg,  sloping  croup,  and  the  young  are  predisposed  to  this 
dislocation. 

Treatment. — The  reduction  of  these  displacements  of  the  patella  is 
not  usually  attended  with  difficulty.  A  sudden  jerk  or  spasmodic 
action  will  often  be  all  that  is  required  to  spring  the  patella  into 
place,  when  the  flexion  of  the  leg  at  the  hock  ends  the  trouble  for  the 
time.  But  this  is  not  always  sufficient,  and  a  true  reduction  may  still 
be  indicated.  To  effect  this  the  leg  must  be  drawn  well  forward  by 
a  rope  attached  to  the  lower  end,  and  the  patella,  grasped  with  the 
hand,  forcibly  pushed  forward  and  inward  and  made  to  slip  over  the 
outside  border  of  the  trochlea  of  the  femur.  The  bone  suddenly  slips 
into  position,  the  excessive  rigor  of  the  leg  ceases  with  a  spasmodic 
jerk,  and  the  animal  may  walk  or  trot  away  without  suspicion  of 
lameness.  But  though  this  may  end  the  trouble  for  the  time,  and 
the  restoration  seem  to  be  perfect  and  permanent,  a  repetition  of  the 
entire  transaction  may  subsequently  take  place,  and  perhaps  from  the 
loss  of  some  proportion  of  tensile  power  which  would  naturally  fol- 
low the  original  attack  in  the  muscles  involved  the  lesion  might 
become  a  habitual  weakness. 

Warm  fomentations  and  douches  with  cold  water  will  often  pro- 
mote permanent  recovery,  and  liberty  in  a  box  stall  or  in  the  field 
will  in  many  cases  insure  constant  relief.  The  use  of  a  high-heeled 
shoe  is  recommended  by  European  veterinarians.  The  use  of  stimu- 
lating liniments,  with  frictions,  charges,  or  even  severe  blisters,  may 
be  resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  the  difficulty  by 
strengthening  and  toning  up  the  parts. 


340  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

DISEASES   OF   MUSCLES   AND   TENDONS. 
SPBAinS. 

This  term  expresses  a  more  or  less  complete  laceration  or  yielding 
of  the  fibers  of  the  muscles,  tendons,  or  the  sheaths  surrounding  and 
supporting  them.  The  usual  cause  of  a  sprain  is  external  violence, 
such  as  a  fall  or  a  powerful  exertion  of  strength,  with  following 
symptoms  of  soreness,  heat,  swelling,  and  a  suspension  of  function. 
Their  termination  varies  from  simple  resolution  to  suppuration,  and 
commonly  fibrinous  exudation  difficult  to  remove.  None  of  the 
muscles  or  tendons  of  the  body  are  exempt  from  liability  to  this 
lesion,  though  naturally  from  their  uses  and  the  exposure  of  their 
situation  the  extremities  are  more  liable  than  other  regions  to  become 
their  seat.  The  nature  of  the  prognosis  will  be  determined  by  a 
consideration  of  the  seat  of  the  injury  and  the  complications  likely 
to  arise. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  will  resolve  itself  into  the  routine  of 
local  applications,  including  warm  fomentations,  stimulating  lini- 
ments, counterirritation  by  blistering,  and  in  some  cases  even  firing. 
Rest,  in  the  stable  or  in  a  box  stall,  will  be  of  advantage  by  promoting 
the  absorption  of  whatever  fibrinous  exudation  may  have  formed,  or 
absorption  may  be  stimulated  by  the  careful  and  persevering  applica- 
tion of  iodine  in  the  form  of  ointments  of  various  degrees  of  strength. 

There  are  many  conditions  in  which  not  only  the  muscular  and  ten- 
dinous structures  proper  are  aflfected  by  a  strain,  but,  by  contiguity  of 
parts,  the  periosteum  of  neighboring  bones  may  become  involved, 
with  a  complication  of  periostitis  and  its  sequela;. 

LAMENESS    OF   THE    SHOULDER. 

The  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  lameness  in  the  shoulder  from 
sprains  entitles  it  to  precedence  of  mention  in  the  present  category. 
For,  though  so  well  covered  with  its  muscular  envelope,  it  is  often 
the  seat  of  injuries  which,  from  the  complex  structure  of  the  region, 
become  difficult  to  diagnosticate  with  satisfactory  precision  and 
facility.  The  flat  bone  which  forms  the  skeleton  of  that  region  is 
articulated  in  a  comparatively  loose  manner  with  the  bone  of  the  arm, 
but  the  joint  is,  notwithstanding,  rather  solid,  and  is  powerfully 
strengthened  by  tendons  jjassing  outside,  inside,  and  in  front  of  it. 
Still,  shoulder  lameness  or  sprain  may  exist,  originating  in  lacera- 
tions of  the  muscles,  the  tendons  or  the  ligaments  of  the  joint,  or 
perhaps  in  diseases  of  the  bones  themselves.  "  Slip  of  the  shoulder  " 
is  a  phrase  frequently  applied  to  such  lesions. 

The  identification  of  the  particular  structures  involved  in  these 
lesions  is  of  much  importance,  in  view  of  its  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  prognosis.  For  example,  while  a  simple  superficial  injury  of 
the  spinatus  muscles,  or  of  the  muscles  by  which  the  leg  is  attached  to 


SHOULDER    LAMFNESS.  341 

the  trunk,  may  not  be  of  serious  import  and  may  readily  yield  to 
treatment,  or  even  recover  spontaneously  and  without  interference,  the 
condition  is  quite  changed  when  a  case  of  tearing  of  the  flexor  brachii, 
or  of  its  tendons  as  they  pass  in  front  of  the  articulation,  occurs,  or, 
what  is  still  more  serious,  if  there  is  inflammation  or  ulceration  in  the 
groove  over  which  this  tendon  slides,  or  upon  the  articular  surfaces 
or  their  surroundings,  or  periostitis  at  any  point  adjacent. 

Causes. — The  frequency  of  attacks  of  shoulder  lameness  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  account  for.  The  superficial  and  unprotected  position  of  the 
part,  and  the  numerous  movements  of  which  it  is  capable,  and  which 
in  fact  it  performs,  render  it  both  subjectively  and  objectively  preemi- 
nently liable  to  accident  or  injury.  It  would  be  difficult,  nor  would 
it  materially  avail,  to  enumerate  all  the  forms  of  violence  by  which 
the  shoulder  may  be  crippled.  A  fall,  accompanied  by  powerful  con- 
cussion ;  a  violent  muscular  contraction  in  starting  a  heavily  loaded 
vehicle  from  a  standstill ;  a  misstep  following  a  quick  muscular  effort ; 
a  jump  accompanied  by  miscalculated  results  in  alighting;  a  slip  on  a 
smooth,  icy  road ;  balling  the  feet  with  snow ;  colliding  with  another 
horse  or  other  object — indeed,  the  list  might  be  indefinitely  extended, 
but  it  would  be  without  profit  or  utility. 

Symptoms. — Some  of  the  symptoms  of  shoulder  lameness  are  pecul- 
iar to  themselves,  and  yet  the  trouble  is  frequently  mistaken  for 
other  affections — navicular  disease  more  often  than  any  other.  The 
fact  that  in  both  affections  there  are  instances  when  the  external 
symptoms  are  but  imperfectly  defined,  and  that  one  of  them  espe- 
cially is  very  similar  in  both,  is  sufficient  to  mislead  careless  or 
inexperienced  observers,  and  to  occasion  the  error  which  is  sometimes 
committed  of  applying  to  one  disease  the  name  of  the  other,  erring 
both  ways  in  the  interchange.  The  true  designation  of  pathological 
lesions  is  very  far,  at  times,  from  being  of  certain  and  easy  accom- 
plishment, and,  owing  to  the  massive  structure  of  the  parts  we  are 
considering,  this  is  especially  true  in  the  present  connection.  And 
still  there  are  many  cases  in  which  there  is  really  no  reasonable  excuse 
for  an  error  in  diagnosis  by  an  average  practitioner. 

Shoulder  lameness  will  of  course  manifest  itself  by  signs  and 
appearances  more  or  less  distinct  and  pronounced,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  degree  and  the  extent  of  the  originating  cause.  We 
summarize  some  of  these  signs  and  appearances : 

The  lameness  is  not  intermittent  but  continued,  the  disturbance  of 
motion  gauging  the  severity  of  the  lesion  and  its  extent.  It  is  more 
marked  when  the  bones  are  diseased  than  when  the  muscles  alone  are 
affected.  When  in  motion  the  two  upper  bony  levers — the  shoulder 
blade  and  the  bone  of  the  upper  arm — are  reduced  to  nearly  complete 
immobility  and  the  walking  is  performed  by  the  complete  displace- 
ment of  the  entire  mass,  which  is  dragged  forward  without  either 


342  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

flexion  or  extension.  The  action  of  the  joint  below,  as  a  natural  con- . 
sequence,  is  limited  in  its  flexion.  In  many  instances  there  is  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  swelling  at  the  point  of  injury — at  the  joint,  or  more 
commonly  in  front  of  it,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  spinatus  muscle. 
Again,  instead  of  swelling  there  will  be  muscular  atrophy,  though 
while  this  condition  of  loss  of  muscular  power  may  interfere  with 
perfect  locomotion,  it  is  not  in  itself  usually  a  cause  of  shoulder  lame- 
ness. "  Sweenied "  shoulders  are  more  often  due  to  disease  below 
the  fetlock  than  to  affections  above  the  elbow. 

During  rest  the  animal  often  carries  his  leg  forward,  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  "  pointing  "  position  of  navicular  disease,  though  in 
some  cases  the  painful  member  drops  at  the  elbow  in  a  semiflexed 
position.  The  backing  is  sometimes  typical,  the  animal  when  per- 
forming it,  instead  of  flexing  his  shoulder,  dragging  the  whole  leg 
without  motion  in  the  upper  segment  of  the  extremity. 

The  peculiar  manner  in  which  the  leg  is  brought  forward  in  the  air 
for  another  step  in  the  act  of  walking  or  trotting  is  in  some  instances 
characteristic  of  injuries  of  the  shoulder.  The  lameness  also  mani- 
fests itself  in  bringing  the  leg  forward  with  a  circumflex  swinging 
motion  and  a  shortening  in  the  extension  of  the  step.  The  foot  is 
carried  close  to  the  ground  and  stumbling  is  frequont,  especially  on 
an  uneven  road. 

With  the  utmost  scrutiny  and  care  the  vagueness  and  uncertainty 
of  the  symptoms  will  contribute  to  perplex  and  discredit  the  diagnosis 
and  embarrass  the  surgeon,  and  sometimes  the  expedient  is  tried  of 
aggravating  the  symptoms  by  way  of  intensifying  their  significance, 
and  thus  rendering  them  more  intelligible.  This  has  been  sought  by 
requiring  the  patient  to  travel  on  hard  or  very  soft  ground  and 
compelling  him  to  turn  on  the  sound  leg  as  a  pivot,  with  other 
motions  calculated  to  betray  the  locality  of  the  pain. 

Treatment. — It  is  our  conviction  that  lameness  of  the  shoulder  will 
in  many  cases  disappear  with  no  other  prescription  than  that  of  rest. 
Provided  the  lesions  occasioning  it  are  not  too  severe,  time  is  all  that 
is  required.  But  the  negation  of  letting  alone  is  seldom  accepted  as 
a  means  of  doing  good,  in  the  place  of  the  active  and  the  positive 
forms  of  treatment.  This  is  in  accordance  with  a  trait  of  human 
nature  which  is  universal,  and  is  unlimited  in  its  applications. 
Hence  there  must  be  something  done.  In  mild  cases  of  shoulder 
lameness,  then,  the  indications  are  water,  either  in  the  cold  douche 
or  by  showering,  or  by  warm  fomentations.  Warm  wet  blankets  are 
of  great  service;  and  in  addition,  or  as  alternative,  anodyne  lini- 
ments, camphor,  belladonna,  either  in  the  form  of  tincture  or  the 
oils,  are  of  benefit,  and  at  a  later  period  stimulating  friction  with 
suitable  mixtures,  sweating  liniments,  blistering  compounds,  sub- 
cutaneous injections  over  the  region  of  the  muscle  of  1^  grains  of 


SPRAIN    OF   ELBOW    MUSCLES.  343 

veratrin  (the  variety  insoluble  in  water)  mixed  in  2  drams  of  water, 
etc.,  will  find  their  place,  and  finally,  when  necessity  demands  it,  the 
firing  iron  and  the  seton. 

The  duration  of  the  treatment  must  be  determined  by  its  effects  and 
the  evidence  that  may  be  offered  of  the  results  following  the  action  of 
the  reparative  process.  But  the  great  essential  condition  of  cure,  and 
the  one  without  which  the  possibility  of  relapse  will  always  remain  as 
a  menace,  is,  as  we  have  often  reiterated  in  analogous  cases,  rest, 
imperatively  rest,  irrespective  of  any  other  prescriptions  with  which 
it  may  be  associated. 

SPRAIN    OF   THE   ELBOW    MUSCUIS. 

Causes. — This  injury,  which  fortunately  is  not  very  common,  is 
mostly  encountered  in  cities,  among  heavy  draft  horses  or  rapidly 
driven  animals  which  are  obliged  to  travel,  often  smooth  shod,  upon 
slippery,  icy,  or  greasy  pavements,  where  they  are  easily  liable  to  lose 
their  foothold.  The  region  of  the  strain  is  the  posterior  part  of  the 
shoulder,  and  the  muscles  which  are  affected  are  those  which  occupy 
the  space  between  the  posterior  border  of  the  scapula  and  the  pos- 
terior face  of  the  arm.  It  is  the  muscles  of  the  olecranon  which  give 
way. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  easily  recognized,  especially  when 
the  animal  is  in  action.  While  at  rest  the  attitude  may  be  normal,  or 
by  close  scrutiny  a  peculiarity  may  perhaps  be  detected.  The  leg  may 
seem  to  drop ;  the  elbow  may  appear  to  be  lower  than  its  fellow,  with 
the  knee  and  lower  part  of  the  leg  flexed  and  the  foot  resting  on 
the  toe,  with  the  heel  raised.  Such  an  attitude,  however,  may  be 
occasionally  assumed  by  an  animal  without  having  any  special  signifi- 
cance. But  when  it  becomes  more  pronounced  on  putting  him  in 
motion  the  fact  acquires  a  symptomatic  value,  and  this  is  the  case  in 
the  present  instance.  A  rapid  gait  becomes  quite  impossible,  and  the 
walk,  as  in  some  few  other  diseases,  becomes  sufficiently  characteristic 
to  warrant  a  diagnosis  even  when  observed  from  a  distance.  An 
entire  dropping  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk  becomes  manifest, 
and  no  weight  is  carried  on  the  disabled  side,  in  consequence  of  the 
loss  of  action  in  the  suspensory  muscles.  There  are  often  heat,  pain, 
and  swelling  in  the  muscular  mass  at  the  elbow,  though  at  times  a 
hollow,  or  depression,  may  be  observed  near  the  posterior  border  of 
the  scapula,  which  is  probably  the  seat  of  injury. 

These  hurts  are  of  various  degrees  of  importance,  varying  from 
mere  minor  casualties  of  quick  recovery  to  lesions  which  are  of  suffi- 
cient severity  to  render  an  animal  useless  and  valueless  for  life. 

Treatment. — The  prime  elements  of  treatment,  which  should  be 
strictly  observed,  are  rest  and  quiet.  Prescriptions  of  all  kinds,  of 
course,  have  their  advocates.     Among  them  are  ether,  chloroform, 


344  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

camphor,  alcoholic  frictions,  warm  fomentations,  blisters,  setons,  etc. 
But  imless  the  conclusions  of  experience  are  to  be  ignored,  my  own 
judgment  is  decisive  in  favor  of  rest,  judiciously  applied;  and  my 
view  of  what  constitutes  a  judicious  application  of  rest  has  been  more 
than  once  presented  in  these  pages.  There  are  degrees  of  this  rest. 
One  contemplates  simple  immobility  in  a  narrow  stall.  Another 
means  the  enforced  mobility  of  the  slings  and  a  narrow  stall  as  well. 
Another  a  box  stall,  with  ample  latitude  as  to  posture  and  space,  and 
option  to  stand  up  or  lie  down.  As  wide  as  this  range  may  appear  to 
be,  radical  recovery  has  occurred  under  all  of  these  modified  forms  of 
letting  our  patients  alone. 

niP    LAMENESS. 

The  etiology  of  injuries  and  diseases  of  the  hip  is  one  and  the  same 
with  that  of  the  shoulder.  The  same  causes  operate  and  the  same 
results  follow.  The  only  essential  change,  with  an  important  excep- 
tion, which  would  be  necessary  in  passing  from  one  region  to  the 
other  in  a  description  of  its  anatomy,  its  physiology,  and  its  pathol- 
ogy, would  be  a  substitution  of  anatomical  names  in  reference  to 
certain  bones,  articulations,  muscles,  ligaments,  and  membranes  con- 
cerned in  the  injuries  and  diseases  described.  It  would  be  only  a  use- 
less repetition  to  cover  again  the  ground  over  which  we  have  so 
recently  passed  in  recital  of  the  manner  in  which  certain  forms  of 
external  violence  (falls,  blows,  kicks,  etc.)  result  in  other  certain 
forms  of  lesion  (luxation,  fracture,  periostitis,  ostitis,  etc.),  and  to 
recapitulate  the  items  of  treatment  and  the  names  of  the  medicaments 
proper  to  use.  The  same  rules  of  diagnosis  and  the  same  indications 
and  prognosis  are  applicable  equally  to  every  portion  of  the  organ- 
ism, with  only  such  modifications  in  applying  dressings  and  appa- 
ratus as  may  be  required  by  differences  of  conformation  and  other 
minor  circumstances,  which  must  suggest  themselves  to  the  judgment 
of  every  experienced  observer  when  the  occasion  arrives  for  its 
exercise. 

There  is  an  exception  to  be  made,  while  considering  the  subject  in 
connection  with  the  region  now  under  advisement,  in  respect  to  the 
formidable  affection  known  as  morbus  coxarius,  or  hip- joint  disea.se; 
and  leaving  the  detail  of  other  lesions  to  take  their  place  under  other 
heads,  that  relating  to  the  .shoulder,  for  instance,  we  turn  to  the  hip 
joint  and  its  ailments  as  the  chief  subject  of  our  present  con.sid- 
eration. 

^^ymptoms. — In  investigating  for  morbus  coxarius,  let  the  ob- 
server first  examine  the  lame  animal  by  scanning  critically  the  out- 
lines of  the  joint  and  the  region  adjacent  for  any  difference  of  size 
or  disturbance  of  symmetry  in  the  parts,  any  prominence  or  rotundity, 
and  on  lx)th  .sides.  The  lame  side  will  probably  be  warmer,  more 
developed  and  fuller,  both  to  the  touch  and  to  the  eye.     I^t  him  then 


SPRAIN   OF   LIGAMENTS    OF   FEET.  345 

grasp  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  (as  he  would  in  examining  a  case  of 
shoulder  lameness)  and  endeavor  to  produce  excessive  passive  mo- 
tion. This  will  probably  cause  pain  when  the  leg  is  made  to  assume 
a  given  position.  Let  him  push  the  thigh  forcibly  against  the  hip 
bone,  and  the  contact  will  again  probably  cause  a  manifestation  of 
pain.  If  the  horse  is  trotted,  the  limited  action  of  the  hip  joint 
proper  and  the  excessive  dropping  and  rising  of  the  hip  of  the  oppo- 
site side  will  be  easily  recognized.  Usually  the  animal  does  not 
extend  the  foot  as  far  as  customarily  and  picks  it  up  much  sooner. 

The  abductive  or  circumflex  niotion  observed  in  shoulder  lameness 
is  also  present  in  hip  lameness,  but  under  special  conditions,  and 
the  test  of  the  difficulty,  either  by  traveling  on  soft  ground  or  in 
turning  the  horse  in  a  circle,  may  here  also  contribute  to  the  diag- 
nosis, as  in  testing  for  lameness  in  the  anterior  extremity. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  of  hip  lameness  is  at  times  quite  seri- 
ous, not  only  on  account  of  the  long  duration  of  treatment  required 
to  effect  good  results,  and  because  of  the  character  which  may  be 
assumed  by  the  disease,  but  of  the  permanence  of  the  disability  re- 
sulting from  it.  Exostosis  and  ulcerative  arthritis  are  sequelae  which 
often  resist  every  form  of  treatment. 

Treatment. — As  before  intimated,  this  is  little  more  than  a  repetition 
of  the  remarks  upon  the  lameness  of  the  shoulder,  with  slight  modifi- 
cations occasioned  by  the  muscular  structure  of  the  hip,  and  we  are 
limited  to  the  same  recommendations  of  treatment.  The  advantages 
of  rest  must  be  reaffirmed,  with  local  applications,  of  which,  however, 
it  may  be  said  that  they  are  more  distinctly  indicated  and  likely  to  be 
more  effective  in  their  results  than  in  shoulder  lameness,  and  may  be 
more  freely  employed,  whether  in  the  form  of  liniments,  blisters 
(singly  or  repeated),  firing,  or  setoning. 

SPRAINS  OF  SUSPENSORY  LIGAMENTS  AND  OF  THE  FLEXOR  TENDONS  OR  THEIR  SHEATH, 

The  fibrous  structure  situated  behind  the  cannon  bones,  both  in  the 
fore  and  hind  legs,  is  often  the  seat.of  lacerations  or  sprains  resulting 
from  violent  efforts  or  sudden  jerks. 

Cause. — The  injury  may  be  considered  serious  or  trifling,  according 
to  the  circumstances  of  each  case  as  judged  by  its  own  history.  Among 
the  predisposing  causes  are  a  long  thin  fetlock  and  a  narrow  knee  or 
hock  as  viewed  from  the  side,  with  the  flexor  muscles  tied  in  just  below 
the  joint.  The  longer  and  more  oblique  the  pastern  the  greater  is  the 
strain  on  the  flexor  tendons  and  suspensory  ligaments,  hence  a  low 
quarter,  a  toe  calk,  and  no  heel  calks,  or  a  thin  calk  placed  at  the  tip 
under  the  toe,  and  leaving  the  quarters  long  abnormally  stretches  the 
back  tendons  and  causes  a  great  strain  upon  them  just  before  the 
weight  is  shifted  from  the  foot  in  locomotion.  In  runners  and  hunters 
the  disease  is  apt  to  be  periodic.     In  driving  horses  it  is  most  common 


346  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

in  well-bred  animals  of  nervous  temperament.  Draft  horses  suffer 
most  frequently  in  the  hind  legs. 

Symptoms. — The  injury  is  readily  recognized  by  the  changed  aspect 
of  the  region  and  the  accompanying  local  symptoms.  The  parts, 
which  in  health  are  well  defined,  with  the  outlines  of  the  tendons  and 
ligaments  well  marked,  become  the  seat  of  a  swelling,  more  or  less 
developed,  from  a  small  spot  on  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  tendon 
to  a  tumefaction  reaching  from  the  knee  down  to  and  even  involving 
the  fetlock  itself.  It  is  always  characterized  by  heat,  and  it  is  vari- 
ously sensitive,  ranging  from  a  mere  tenderness  to  a  degree  of  soreness 
which  shrinks  from  the  lightest  touch.  The  degree  of  the  lameness 
varies,  and  it  has  a  corresponding  range  with  the  soreness,  sometimes 
showing  only  a  slight  halting  and  at  others  the  extreme  of  lameness 
on  three  legs,  with  intermediate  degrees. 

The  lameness  is  always  worse  when  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the 
foot,  and  is  most  marked  toward  the  end  of  the  phase  of  contact  with 
the  ground.  Either  passive  irritation  of  the  leg  or  turning  the  ani- 
mal in  a  circle  causes  pain  as  in  diseases  of  the  joints.  Sometimes  the 
horse  likes  to  get  the  heels  on  a  stone  or  some  elevation  so  as  to  relieve 
the  weight  from  the  flexor  tendons.  Finally,  in  cases  of  long  stand- 
ing, a  shortening  of  the  tendons  occurs,  resulting  in  the  abnormal 
flexion  of  the  foot  known  by  horsemen  as  "  broken  down,"  or  a  more 
upright  position  of  the  foot  may  follow,  producing  perhaps  knuck- 
ling or  the  so-called  clubfoot. 

Prognosis. — It  may  be  safely  assumed  on  general  principles  that  a 
leg  which  has  received  such  injuries  very  seldom  returns  to  a  perfect 
condition  of  efficiency  and  soundness,  and  that  as  a  fact  a  certain  abso- 
lute amount  of  thickening  and  deformity  will  remain  permanent,  even 
when  the  lameness  has  entirely  disappeared. 

Treatment. — The  injured  member  should  receive  the  earliest  atten- 
tion possible,  not  only  when  the  inflammatory  condition  is  present,  but 
when  it  is  subsiding  and  there  is  only  the  thickening  of  the  ligaments, 
the  tendons,  or  the  sheath. 

The  most  important  remedy  is  rest,  and  the  shoes  should  always  be 
removed.  During  the  first  three  days  cold  in  the  form  of  immersion 
or  continuous  irrigation  is  indicated.  Then  warm  moisture  and  con- 
tinuous pressure  are  advised.  The  latter  is  best  applied  by  placing 
two  padded  splints  about  the  thickness  of  the  thumb  along  the  two 
sides  of  the  tendon  and  binding  them  in  place  with  even  pressure  by 
bandage.  Frequent  bathing  with  warm  soap  suds  is  also  beneficial. 
The  absorption  of  the  exudate  may  be  promoted  and  the  work  of 
restoration  effected  by  frictions  with  alcohol,  tincture  of  soap,  spirits 
of  camphor,  mild  liniments,  strong  sweating  liniments,  and  blisters. 
An  excellent  ointment  to  apply  with  massage  consists  of  equal  parts 
of  blue  ointment  and  green  soap,  with  double  the  quantity  of  vaseline. 


KNUCKLING   OF   FETLOCK.  347 

The  action  of  blisters  in  these  cases  depends  chiefly  upon  the  massage 
used  in  applying  them  and  upon  the  continuous  pressure  of  the  swol- 
len skin  on  the  inflamed  tendons.  In  old  cases  more  beneficial  results 
will  follow  line  firing.  In  these  cases  shoeing  is  very  important. 
Leave  the  quarters  long,  shorten  the  toe,  give  the  shoe  rolling  motion, 
and  either  put  short  heel  calks  on  the  branches  or  thicken  the 
branches.  Although  this  line  of  treatment  is  eflEicacious  in  many  cases, 
there  are  others  in  which  the  thickening  of  the  tendons  refuses  to 
yield  and  the  changed  tissues  remain  firmly  organized,  leaving  them 
in  the  form  of  a  thick  mass  resting  upon  the  back  part  of  the  cannon 
bone. 

KNUCKLING   OF   FETLOCK. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  last-mentioned  lesion  of  the  tendons,  a  new 
condition  presents  itself  in  the  articular  disposition,  constituting  the 
deformity  known  as  the  knuckling  fetlock.     (See  also  page  374.) 

By  this  is  meant  a  deformity  of  the  fetlock  joint  by  which  the  nat- 
ural angle  is  changed  from  that  which  pertains  to  the  healthy  articu- 
lation. The  first  pastern,  or  suffraginis,  loses  its  oblique  direction  and 
assumes  another,  which  varies  from  the  upright  to  the  oblique,  from 
before  backward,  and  from  above  downward;  in  other  words,  form- 
mg  an  angle  with  its  apex  in  front. 

Causes. — This  condition,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  the  result  of 
chronic  disease  producing  structural  changes  in  the  tendons,  and  it 
may  also  occur  as  the  result  of  other  a  flections  or  some  peculiarity 
independent  of  this  and  situated  below  the  fetlock,  such  as  ringbones, 
sidebones,  or  traumatic  disease  of  the  foot  proper.  Animals  are 
sometimes  predisposed  to  knuckling,  such,  for  example,  as  are  natur- 
ally straight  in  their  pasterns,  or  animals  which  are  compelled  to 
labor  when  too  young.  The  hind  legs  ,are  more  predisposed  than  the 
fore  to  this  deformity,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  amount  of  labor 
they  are  required  to  perform  as  the  propelling  levers  of  the  body. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  knuckling  are  easily  recognized. 
The  changes  in  the  direction  of  the  bones  vary  more  or  less  with  the 
degree  of  the  lesion,  sometimes  assuming  such  a  direction  that  it 
almost  becomes  a  true  dislocation  of  the  pastern. 

The  effect  of  knuckling  upon  the  gait  also  varies  according  to  the 
degree  of  the  deformity.  As  the  different  degrees  of  the  shortening 
of  the  leg  affect  the  motion  of  the  fetlock,  the  lameness  may  be  very 
slight  or  quite  extreme.  Another  consequence  of  this  shortening  is 
such  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  foot  that  the  heels  cease  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  ground  and  assume  a  greater  elevation,  and  the 
final  result  of  this  is  soon  witnessed  in  the  development  of  a  cluhfoot. 

Treatment. — To  whatever  cause  the  knuckling  may  be  ascribed,  it  is 
always  a  severe  infirmity,  and  there  is  but  little  room  for  hoping  to 
overcome  it  unless  it  be  during  the  very  first  stages  of  the  trouble. 


348  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

and  the  hope  dwindles  to  still  smaller  dimensions  when  it  is  secondaiy 
to  other  diseases  below  the  fetlock.  If  it  is  caused  by  overworking 
the  animal,  the  first  indication  will,  of  course,  be  rest.  Line  firing  has 
proved  very  efficacious  in  these  cases.  The  animal  must  be  turned 
loose  and  left  unemployed.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
condition  of  his  feet  and  to  the  manner  of  shoeing,  while  time  is 
allowed  for  the  tendons  to  become  restored  to  their  normal  state  and 
the  irritation  caused  by  excessive  stretching  has  subsided.  A  shoe 
with  a  thick  heel  will  contribute  to  this.  But  if  no  improvement  can 
be  obtained  and  the  tendons  though  retracted  have  yet  been  relieved 
of  much  of  their  thickening,  the  case  is  not  a  desperate  one,  and  may 
yet  be  benefited  by  the  operation  of  tenotomy,  single  or  double — an 
operative  expedient  which  must  be  committed  to  the  experienced 
surgeon  for  its  performance. 

SPBUNG  KNEES. 

Though  not  positively  the  result  of  diseases  of  the  tendons  acting 
upon  the  knees,  we  venture  to  consider  this  deformity  in  connection 
with  that  which  we  have  just  described.  It  consists  in  such  an  alter- 
ation in  the  direction  and  articulation  of  the  bones  which  form  the 
various  carpal  joints  that  instead  of  forming  a  vertical  line  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  forearm  to  the  cannon  bone  they  are  so  united  that 
the  knee  is  more  or  less  bent  forward,  presenting  a  condition  due  to 
the  retraction  of  two  of  the  principal  muscles  by  which  the  cannon 
bone  is  flexed. 

Cause. — This  flexion  of  the  knee  may  be  a  congenital  deformity  and 
have  continued  from  the  foaling  of  the  animal ;  or,  like  clubfoot,  it 
may  be  the  result  of  heavy  labor  which  the  animal  has  been  compelled 
to  perform  at  too  early  an  age.  It  may  also  be  due  to  other  diseases 
existing  in  parts  below  the  kneejoint. 

Symptoms. — This  change  of  direction  largely  influences  the  move- 
ment of  the  animal  by  detracting  from  its  firmness  and  practically 
weakening  the  entire  frame,  even  to  the  extent  of  rendering  him  inse- 
cure on  his  feet  and  liable  to  fall.  This  condition  of  weakness  is  some- 
times so  pronounced  that  ho  is  exposed  to  fall  even  when  standing  at 
rest  and  unmolested,  the  knees  l^eing  unable  even  to  bear  the  portion 
of  the  mere  weight  of  the  frame  which  belongs  to  them.  This  results 
in  another  trouble — that  of  being  unable  to  keep  permanently  upright. 
He  is  apt  to  fall  on  his  knees,  and  by  this  act  becomes  presently  a 
sufferer  from  the  lesion  known  by  the  term  of  hroken  knees. 

Treatment. — AVhatever  may  be  the  originating  cause  of  this  imper- 
fection, it  detracts  very  largely  from  the  usefulness  and  value  of  a 
horse,  disqualifying  him  for  ordinary  labor  and  wholly  unfitting  him 
for  service  under  the  saddle  without  jeopardizing  the  safety  of  his 
rider.  If,  however,  the  trouble  is  known  from  the  start,  and  is  not 
the  result  of  congenital  deformity  or  weakness  of  the  kneejoint,  or 


CX7BB.  349 

secondary  to  other  diseases,  rest,  with  fortifying  frictions,  may  some- 
times aid  in  strengthening  the  joints;  and  the  application  of  blisters 
on  the  posterior  part  of  the  knee,  from  a  short  distance  above  to  a 
point  a  little  below  the  joint,  may  be  followed  by  some  satisfactory 
results;  but  with  this  trouble,  as  with  knuckling  fetlocks,  the  danger 
of  relapse  must  be  kept  in  mind  as  a  contingency  always  liable  to 
occur. 

CURB. 

This  lesion  is  the  bulging  backward  of  the  posterior  part  of  the 
hock,  where  in  the  normal  state  there  should  be  a  straight  line,  extend- 
ing from  the  upper  end  of  the  point  of  the  hock  down  to  the  fetlock. 

Cause. — The  cause  may  be  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  which  passes  on 
the  posterior  part  of  the  hock,  or  of  one  of  its  sheaths,  or  of  the  strong 
ligament  situated  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  os  calcis. 

Hocks  of  a  certain  conformation  seem  to  possess  a  greater  liability 
to  curb  than  others.  They  are  overbent,  coarse,  and  thick  in  appear- 
ance, or  may  be  too  narrow  from  front  to  back  across  the  lower  por- 
tion. This  condition  may  therefore  result  as  a  sequence  to  congeni- 
tal malformation,  as  in  the  case  of  horses  that  are  saber-legged.  It 
often  occurs,  also,  as  the  result  of  violent  efforts,  of  heavy  pulling,  of 
high  jumping,  or  of  slipping;  in  a  word,  it  may  result  from  any  of 
the  causes  heretofore  considered  as  instrumental  in  producing  lacera- 
tions of  muscular,  tendinous,  or  ligamentous  structure. 

Symptoms. — A  hock  affected  with  curb  will,  at  the  outset,  present 
a  swelling  more  or  less  diffuse  on  its  posterior  portion,  with  varying 
degrees  of  heat  and  soreness,  and  these  will  be  accompanied  by  lame- 
ness of  a  permanent  character.  At  a  later  period,  however,  the  swell- 
ing will  become  better  defined,  the  deformity  more  characteristic,  the 
prominent  curved  line  readily  detected,  and  the  thickness  of  the  infil- 
trated tissue  easily  determined  by  the  fingers.  At  this  time,  also, 
there  may  be  a  condition  of  lameness,  varying  in  degree,  while  at 
others,  again,  the  irregularity  of  action  at  the  hock  Avill  be  so  slight 
as  to  escape  detection,  the  animal  betraying  no  appearance  of  its 
existence. 

A  curb  constitutes,  by  a  strict  construction  of  the  term,  an  '*  un- 
soundness," since  the  hock  thus  affected  is  less  able  to  endure  severe 
labor,  and  is  more  liable  to  give  way  with  the  slightest  effort.  And 
yet  the  prognosis  of  a  curb  can  not  be  considered  to  be  serious,  since  it 
generally  yields  to  treatment,  or  at  least  the  lameness  it  may  occasion 
is  generally  easily  relieved,  though  the  loss  of  contour  caused  by  the 
bulging  will  always  constitute  a  blemish. 

Treatment. — On  the  first  appearance  of  a  curb,  when  it  exhibits 
the  signs  of  an  acute  inflammation,  the  first  indication  is  to  subdue 
this  by  the  use  of  cold  applications  as  intermittent  or  constant  irriga- 
tion or  an  ice  poultice;  but  when  these  have  exhausted  their  effect 


350  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

and  the  swelling  has  assumed  better  defined  boundaries,  and  the  infil- 
tration of  the  tendons  or  of  the  ligaments  is  all  that  remains  of  a 
morbid  state,  then  every  effort  must  be  directed  to  the  object  of  effect- 
ing its  absorption  and  reducing  its  dimensions  by  pressure  and  other 
methods.  The  medicaments  most  to  be  trusted  are  blisters  of  can- 
tharides  and  frictions  with  ointments  of  iodine,  or,  preferably, 
biniodide  of  mercury.  Mercurial  agents  alone,  by  their  therapeutic 
properties  or  by  means  of  the  artificial  bandages  which  they  furnish 
by  their  incrustations  when  their  vesicatory  effects  are  exhausted, 
will  give  good  results  in  some  instances  by  a  single  application,  and 
often  by  repeated  applications.  The  use  of  the  firing  iron  must, 
however,  be  frequently  resorted  to,  either  to  remove  the  lameness  or 
to  stimulate  the  absorption.  We  believe  that  its  early  application 
ought  to  be  resorted  to  in  preference  to  waiting  until  the  exudation 
is  firmly  organized.  Firing  in  dull  points  or  in  lines  will  prove  as 
beneficial  in  curb  as  in  any  other  disease  of  a  similar  nature. 

LACEBATED   TENDONS. 

This  form  of  injury,  whether  of  a  simple  or  of  a  compound  char- 
acter, may  become  a  lesion  of  a  very  serious  nature,  and  will  usually 
require  long  and  careful  treatment,  which  may  yet  prove  unavailing 
in  consequence  either  of  the  intrinsically  fatal  character  of  the  wound 
itself  or  the  complications  which  have  rendered  it  incurable. 

Cause. — Like  all  similar  injuries,  these  are  the  result  of  traumatic 
violence,  such  as  contact  with  objects  both  blunt  and  sharp;  a  curb- 
stone in  the  city;  in  the  country,  a  tree  stump  or  a  fence,  especially 
one  of  wire.  It  may  easily  occur  to  a  runaway  horse  when  he  is 
"  whipped  "  with  fragments  of  harness  or  "  flogged  "  by  fragments  of 
splintered  shafts  "  thrashing  "  his  legs,  or  by  the  contact  of  his  legs 
with  the  wagon  he  has  overturned  and  shattered  with  his  heels  while 
disengaging  himself  from  its  wreck. 

Symptoms. — It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  skin  should  be 
involved  in  this  form  of  injury.  On  the  contrary,  the  tegument  is 
frequently  left  entirely  intact,  especially  when  the  injury  follows 
infectious  diseases  or  occurs  during  light  exercise  after  long  periods 
of  rest  in  the  stable.  Yet,  again,  the  skin  may  be  cut  through  and 
the  tendons  nearly  severed.  A  point  a  little  above  the  fetlock  is 
usually  the  seat  of  the  injury.  But  irrespective  of  this,  and  whether 
the  skin  is  or  is  not  implicated,  the  symptoms  very  much  resemble 
those  of  a  fracture.  There  is  excessive  mobility,  at  least  more  than 
in  a  normal  state,  with  more  or  less  inability  to  carry  weight.  There 
may  be  swelling  of  the  parts,  and  on  passing  the  hands  carefully 
along  the  tendon  to  the  point  of  division  the  stumps  of  the  divided 
structure  will  be  felt  more  or  less  separated,  perhaps  wholly  divided. 
The  position  of  the  animal  while  at  rest  and  standing  is  peculiar  and 
characteristic.     While  the  heels  are  well  placed  on  the  ground,  the 


LACEBATED    TENDONS.  351. 

toe  is  correspondingly  elevated,  with  a  tendency  to  turn  up — a  form, 
of  breaking  down  which  was  described  when  speaking  of  the  fracture 
of  the  sesamoids.  Carrying  weight  is  done  only  with  considerable 
difficulty,  but  with  comparatively  little  pain,  and  the  animal  will 
unconsciously  continue  to  move  the  leg  as  if  in  great  suffering,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  his  general  condition  may  be  very  good 
and  his  appetite  unimpaired. 

The  effect  upon  the  general  organism  of  compound  lacerated 
wounds  of  tendinous  structures,  or  those  which  are  associated  with 
injuries  of  the  skin,  are  different.  The  wound  becomes  in  a  short  time 
the  seat  of  a  high  degree  of  inflammation  with  abundant  suppuration, 
filling  it  from  the  bottom;  and  the  tendon,  Wxiether  as  the  result  of 
the  bruise  or  of  the  laceration,  or  of  maceration  in  the  accumulated 
pus,  undergoes  a  process  of  softening,  and  necrosis  and  sloughing 
ensue.  This  complicates  the  case,  and  probably  some  form  of  tendi- 
nous synovitis  follows,  running  into  suppurative  arthritis,  to  end,  if 
close  to  a  joint,  with  a  fatal  result. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  of  lacerated  tendons  should  be  very  con- 
servative. Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  a  period  of  from 
six  weeks  to  two  months  will  be  necessary  for  the  treatment,  before 
the  formation  of  the  cicatricial  callus  and  the  establishment  of  a  firm 
union  between  the  tendinous  stumps. 

Treatment. — As  with  fractures,  and  even  in  a  greater  degree,  the 
necessity  is  imperative,  in  the  treatment  of  lacerated  tendons,  to  se- 
cure as  perfect  a  state  of  immobility  as  can  be  obtained  compatibly 
with  the  disposition  of  the  patient;  the  natural  opposition  of  the 
animal,  sometimes  ill-tempered  and  fractious  at  best,  under  the  neces- 
sary restraint,  causing  at  times  much  embarrassment  to  the  practi- 
tioner in  applying  the  necessary  treatment.  Without  the  necessary 
immobility  no  close  connection  of  the  ends  of  the  tendons  can  be 
secured.  To  fulfill  this  necessary  condition  the  posterior  part  of  the 
foot  and  the  fetlock  must  be  supported  and  the  traction  performed 
by  them  relieved,  an  object  which  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the 
high-heeled  and  bar  shoe,  or  possibly  better  accomplished  with  a 
shoe  of  the  same  kind  extending  about  2  or  2|  inches  back  of  the 
heels.  The  perfect  immobility  of  the  legs  is  obtained  in  the  same  way 
as  in  the  treatment  of  fracture,  with  splints,  bandages,  iron  appa- 
ratus, plaster  of  adhesive  mixtures,  and  similar  iheans.  So  long  as 
the  dressings  remain  in  place  undisturbed,  and  no  chafing  or  other 
evidence  of  pain  is  present,  the  dressings  may  be  continued  without 
changing,  the  patient  being  kept  in  the  slings  for  a  period  sufficient  to 
insure  the  perfect  union  of  the  tendons.  But  for  a  compound  lesion, 
when  there  is  laceration  of  the  skin,  some  special  care  is  necessary. 
The  wound  must  be  carefully  watched  and  the  dressings  removed 
at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  or  as  often  as  may  be  needful,  all  of  which 


352  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

additional  manipulation  and  extra  nursing,  however  indispensable, 
still  adds  to  the  gravity  of  the  case  and  renders  the  prognosis  more 
and  more  serious.  When  the  tendons  have  sloughed  in  threads  of 
various  dimensions,  or  if  in  the  absence  of  this  process  of  mortification 
healthy  granulations  should  form  and  fill  up  the  wound,  still  very 
careful  attention  will  be  required,  the  granulating  ends  of  the  tendons 
having  a  tendency  to  bulge  between  the  edges  of  the  skin  and  to 
assume  large  dimensions,  forming  bulky  excrescences  or  growths  of  a 
warty  or  cauliflower  appearance,  the  removal  of  which  becomes  a 
troublesome  matter. 

The  union  of  the  tendons  will  at  times  leave  a  thickening  of  vary- 
ing degree  near  the  point  of  cicatrization,  the  absorption  of  which 
becomes  an  object  of  difficult  and  doubtful  accomplishment,  but 
which  may  be  promoted  by  moderate  blistering  and  the  use  of  alter- 
ative and  absorbent  mixtures  or  perhaps  the  fire  iron.  A  shoe  with 
heels  somewhat  higher  than  usual  will  prove  a  comfort  to  the  animal 
and  aid  in  moderating  and  relieving  the  tension  of  the  tendons. 

BUPTUBE    OF    THE    FLEXOB    META.TAB8I. 

This  is  a  muscle  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  shank.  It  is  situated 
in  front  of  the  tibia,  and  is  of  peculiar  formation,  being  composed  of 
a  muscular  portion  with  a  very  powerful  tendon,  which  are  at  first 
distinct  and  separate,  to  be  intimately  united  lower  down,  and  termi- 
nating at  the  lower  end  by  a  division  into  four  tendinous  bands.  It 
is  a  powerful  muscle  of  the  hinder  shank  bone,  and  also  acts  as  a 
strong  means  of  support  for  the  stifle  joint,  that  is,  of  the  articulation 
of  the  thigh  and  shank  bone,  in  front  and  outside  of  which  it  passes. 
Its  situation  and  its  use  cause  it  to  be  liable  to  severe  stretching 
and  straining,  and  a  rupture  of  some  of  its  fibers  is  sometimes  the 
consequence. 

Cause. — This  injury  may  be  the  result  of  a  violent  eflfort  of  the 
animal  in  leaping  over  a  high  obstacle;  in  missing  his  foothold  and 
suddenly  slipping  backward  while  powerfully  grasping  the  ground 
with  the  feet  in  striving  to  start  a  heavily  loaded  vehicle;  or  in  mak- 
ing a  violent  effort  to  prevent  a  probable  fall;  or  in  attempting  to 
lift  the  feet  from  miry  ground. 

Symptoms. — The  accident  is  immediately  followed  by  disability 
which  will  vary  according  to  the  true  seat  of  the  injury  and  the 
period  of  its  duration.  This  rupture  will  not  prevent  tlie  horse  from 
standing  perfectly  and  firmly  on  his  feet  when  kept  at  rest,  and 
while  no  muscular  efforts  are  required  from  him  there  is  no  appear- 
ance of  any  lesion  or  unsoundness.  An  attempt  to  move  him  back- 
ward, however,  will  cause  him  to  throw  all  his  weight  upon  his  hind 
quarters,  and  he  will  refuse  to  raise  his  foot  from  the  ground.  If 
compelled  to  do  so,  or  required  to  move  forward,  the  hock  being  no 
longer  capable  of  flexion,  the  muscle  which  effects  that  movement 


LACERATED    TENDONS.  363 

being  the  injured  one,  the  opposite  muscles,  the  extensors,  acting 
freely,  the  entire  lower  part  of  the  leg,  from  the  hock  down,  will 
be  suddenly,  with  a  jerk,  extended  on  the  tibia  or  shank  bone,  and 
simultaneously  with  this  the  tendo-Achillis,  the  cord  of  the  hock,  the 
tendons  of  the  extensors  of  the  hock  will  be  put  in  a  wrinkled  and 
relaxed  condition.  The  leg  is  behind  the  animal  and  the  toe  rests 
on  the  ground.  Examination  of  the  fore  part  of  the  shank  from  the 
stifle  down  to  the  hock  may  reveal  soreness,  and  possibly  some 
swelling  and  heat  at  the  seat  of  the  lesion. 

Treatment. — Our  experience  with  injuries  of  this  form  satisfies  u9 
that,  generally  speaking,  they  are  amenable  to  treatment.  Very  few 
instances  have  come  to  our  knowledge  in  which  radical  recovery  has 
not  been  obtained,  provided  a  sufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for 
union  to  take  place.  The  more  flexed  the  leg  can  be  kept,  the  quicker 
will  it  heal. 

In  these  cases,  as  in  those  already  considered  of  simple  laceration  of 
tendons,  the  indications  resemble  those  which  apply  in  the  treatment 
of  fractures;  as  near  as  coaptation  of  the  lacerated  ends  is  possible, 
with  immobility,  being  the  necessary  conditions  to  secure.  The  first 
is  a  matter  of  very  difficult  accomplishment,  by  bandaging  alone,  and 
some  have  recommended  instead  the  application  of  charges  or  blisters 
in  order  to  compel  the  animal  to  keep  more  quiet. 

To  secure  the  necessary  immobility  the  animal  should  be  placed  in 
slings  snugly  applied,  and  kept  in  a  narrow  stall.  He  should  also  be 
tied  short,  and  restrained  from  any  backward  movement  by  ropes  or 
boards,  and  he  should,  moreover,  be  kept  in  as  quiet  a  temper  as  pos- 
sible by  the  exclusion  of  all  causes  of  irritation  or  excitement.  Weeks 
must  then  elapse,  not  less,  but  frequently  more  than  six,  often  eight, 
before  he  can  be  considered  out  of  danger  and  able  to  return  to  his 
labor,  which  should  for  a  time  be  light  and  easy,  and  gradually,  if 
ever,  increased  to  the  measure  of  a  thoroughly  sound  and  strong  ani- 
mal. If  he  is  used  too  soon  the  newly  formed  tissue  between  the  ends 
of  the  muscle  will  be  apt  to  stretch  and  leave  the  flexor  muscle  too 
long  and  permanently  displaced. 

SUNDRY    ADDITIONAL    AFFECTIONS    OF    THE    EXTREIMITIES. 

Among  these  there  are  three  which  will  principally  occupy  our 
attention,  and  these  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  single  group.  In 
some  parts  of  the  legs  may  be  found  certain  peculiar  little  structures 
of  a  saclike  formation,  containing  an  oily  substance  designed  for  the 
lubrication  of  the  parts  upon  which  they  are  placed  for  the  purpose 
of  facilitating  the  movements  of  the  tendons  which  pass  over  them. 
These  little  sacs  or  muco-synovial  capsules  are  liable  under  peculiar 
conditions  of  traumatism  to  become  subject  to  a  diseased  process, 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 23 


354  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

which  consists  principally  in  a  hypersecretion  of  their  contents  and 
an  increase  in  dimensions,  and  they  may  undergo  peculiar  patho- 
logical changes  of  such  a  character  as  to  disable  an  animal,  and  in 
many  instances  to  cause  serious  blemishes  which  can  not  but  depre- 
ciate his  value.  These  growths,  which  are  known  as  hygromata,  may 
result  from  external  violence,  as  blows  or  bruises,  and  may  appear  in 
the  form  of  small,  soft  tumors,  painless  and  not  inflammatory  in 
character,  but,  by  a  repetition  of  the  cause  or  renewal  of  violence, 
likely  to  acquire  increased  severity.  Severe  inflammation,  with  sup- 
puration, may  follow,  which,  filling  up  the  cavity,  the  walls  will 
become  thickened  and  hard,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a  tumor. 

The  elbow,  the  knee,  and  the  hock  are  the  parts  of  the  body  where 
these  lesions  are  ordinarily  found,  and  on  account  of  their  peculiar 
shape  and  the  position  they  occupy  they  have  received  the  denomina- 
tion of  "  capped.''''    They  will  be  considered  in  their  peculiar  aspect. 

CAPPED  ELBOW. 

Capped  elbow,  or  "  shoe  boil,"  is  a  term  applied  to  an  enlargement 
often  found  at  the  point  of  the  elbow. 

Cause. — This  lesion  is  due  to  injury  or  pressure  of  the  part 
while  it  is  resting  on  the  ground.  The  horse,  unlike  the  cow,  does  not 
rest  directly  on  the  under  surface  of  the  sternum,  or  breastbone,  on 
account  of  its  sharp,  ridgelike  formation.  He  rests  more  on  the  side 
of  the  breastbone  and  chest,  and  consequently  the  leg  which  is  flexed 
under  the  body  is  subject  to  considerable  pressure.  If  the  leg  is  flexed 
under  the  body  so  that  the  hoof  or  shoe  is  directly  in  contact  with  the 
elbow,  which  may  occur  in  horses  having  an  extremely  long  cannon 
bone  or  excassive  length  in  the  shoes,  the  greater  part  of  the  weight 
of  the  chest  is  concentrated  at  this  point  and  the  pressure  may  cause  a 
bruise  or  an  inflammation. 

Symptoms. — Under  these  conditions  the  point  of  the  elbow  may 
become  swollen  and  tender  and  exhibit  heat  and  pain.  This  swelling 
may  not  only  cover  the  point  of  the  elbow,  but  sometimes  reaches  the 
axilla  and  assumes  such  proportions  that  there  is  great  difficulty  in 
using  the  leg,  the  animal  showing  signs  of  lameness  even  to  the  extent 
of  the  circumflex  step,  as  in  shoulder  lameness.  This  edematous  con- 
dition, however,  does  not  remain  stationary.  It  may  by  degrees 
subside  or  perhaps  disappear.  In  the  first  instance  it  will  become 
more  distinctly  defined,  with  better  marked  boundaries,  until  it  is 
reduced  to  a  soft,  round,  fluctuating  tumor,  with  or  without  heat  or 
pain.  There  is  then  either  a  bloody  or  serous  tumor  or  a  purulent 
collection,  and  following  the  puncture  of  its  walls  with  the  knife 
there  will  be  an  escape  of  blood,  of  serum,  or  of  pus,  as  the  case  may 
be,  in  variable  quantities.  In  either  case,  but  principally  in  that  of 
the  cystic  form,  the  tumor  will  be  found  to  be  subdivided  by  septa,  or 
bands  running  in  various  directions. 


CAPPED   ELBOW.  355 

Various  changes  will  follow  the  opening  of  the  tumor  and  the 
escape  of  its  contents.  In  a  majority  of  cases  the  process  of  cica- 
trization will  take  place,  and  the  cavity  fill  up  by  granulation,  the 
discharge,  at  first  abundant,  gradually  diminishing  and  the  wound 
.closing,  usually  without  leaving  any  mark.  At  times,  however,  and 
especially  if  the  disease  has  several  times  repeated  its  course,  there 
may  remain  a  pendulous  sac,  partly  obliterated,  which  a  sufficient 
amount  of  excitement  or  irritation  may  soon  restore  to  its  previous 
dimensions  and  condition. 

In  other  cases  an  entirely  different  process  takes  place.  The  walls 
of  the  cavity,  cyst,  or  abscess  become  ulcerated  and  thickened,  the 
granulations  of  the  sac  become  fibrous  in  their  structure  and  fill  up 
the  cavity,  and  it  assumes  the  character  of  a  hard  tumor  on  the  back 
of  the  elbow,  sometimes  partly  and  sometimes  entirely  covered  by  the 
skin.  It  is  fibrous  in  its  nature,  painless  to  the  touch,  well  defined 
in  its  contour,  and  may  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  small  apple  to 
that  of  a  child's  head. 

This  last  form  of  capped  elbow  is  the  most  serious  of  any,  resisting 
all  known  forms  of  mild  treatment,  and  removable  by  the  knife  only. 
The  other  forms,  even  that  with  the  inflammatory  aspect  and  its  large 
edematous  swelling  which  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  animal, 
may  justify  a  much  milder  prognosis,  and,  aside  from  their  liability 
to  recur,  may  be  ranked  with  the  comparatively  harmless  affections. 

Treatment. — So  long  as  the  danger  of  recurrence  is  the  principal 
bad  feature  of  capped  elbow  the  most  important  consideration  is  that 
of  devising  a  means  for  its  prevention.  To  prevent  the  animal  from 
lying  down  is  evidently  the  simplest  method  of  keeping  the  heels  and 
the  elbow  apart;  but  the  impracticability  of  this  prescription  is 
apparent,  since  a  majority  of  animals  are  obliged  to  lie  down  when 
they  sleep,  though  it  is  true  that  a  few  take  their  sleep  on  their  feet. 
The  question  of  shoeing  here  enters  into  the  discussion.  The  shorten- 
ing of  the  inside  branch  of  the  shoe,  which  is  the  one  with  which  the 
pressure  is  made,  may  be  of  advantage,  and  especially  if  the  truncated 
end  of  the  shoe  is  smooth  and  filed  over  to  remove  all  possibility  of 
pressure  and  contusion  upon  the  skin.  The  protection  of  the  skin  of 
the  elbow  by  interposing  soft  tissues  between  that  and  the  shoe,  or  by 
bandaging  the  heel  with  bags  or  covering  it  with  boots,  is  considered 
by  many  the  best  of  the  preventive  methods,  and  the  advantage  to  be 
secured  by  resorting  to  it  can  not  be  overlooked  when  the  number  of 
horses  which  develop  shoe  boil  whenever  the  use  of  the  boot  is  inter- 
mitted is  considered.  In  order  to  prevent  the  animal  from  assuming 
the  sternal  decubitus,  many  give  preference  to  the  plan  of  fastening 
a  piece  of  wood  across  the  stall  at  some  distance  from  the  front  wall 
or  manger.  It  is  a  simple  expedient,  primitive,  perhaps,  but  never- 
theless practical  and  followed  by  good  results. 


356  DISEASES    OF   THE   H0B8E. 

The  therapeutic  treatment  is  also  important.  The  edematous  swell- 
ing, when  recoojnized  by  its  external  appearance  and  the  existing 
inflammation,  should  be  treated  without  delay.  Warm  fomentations, 
repeated  several  times  daily,  are  then  indicated,  tlie  degi-ee  of  warmth 
being  as  high  as  can  be  borne  comfortably.  They  are  easily  applied, 
and  often  yield  decided  relief  in  a  few  hours.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, astringents  are  used  in  preference,  in  the  form  of  poultices  or 
pastes,  which  are  made  to  cover  the  entire  swelling  and  allowed  to 
remain,  drying  after  a  short  time,  it  is  true,  and  perhaps  falling  off, 
but  easily  renewed  and  reapplied.  An  excellent  astringent  for  these 
cases  is  a  putty  made  of  powdered  chalk  and  vinegar  (acetate  of 
lime),  and  the  whole  swelling  is  then  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of 
soft  clay  made  into  a  mass  with  water. 

These  simple  remedies  are  often  all  that  is  required.  Under  their 
use  the  swelling  passes  off  by  degrees  and  after  a  short  interval  the 
animal  is  fit  for  work  again;  but  not  uncommonly  instead  of  this  a 
swelling  develops,  puffy,  not  painful,  and  perhaps  giving  a  sensation 
of  crepitation  when  pressure  is  applied  with  the  finger.  It  is  soft 
and  evidently  contains  a  liquid,  and  when  freely  opened,  with  a  good- 
sized  incision,  discharges  a  certain  amount  of  blood,  partly  liquid 
and  partly  coagulated,  and  perhaps  a  little  hemorrhage  will  follow. 
The  cavity  should  then  be  well  washed  out  and  a  plug  of  oakum 
introduced,  leaving  a  small  portion  protruding  through  the  cut  to 
prevent  it  from  closing  prematurely.  It  may  be  taken  off  the  next 
day,  and  a  daily  cleansing  will  then  be  all  that  is  necessary.  In 
another  case  the  tumor  becomes  very  soft  in  its  whole  extent,  with 
evident  fluctuation  and  a  well-defined  form.  The  discharge  of  the 
fluid  is  then  indicated,  and  a  free  incision  will  be  followed  by  the 
escape  of  a  quantity  of  thin,  yellowish  liquid  from  a  single  sac.  The 
wound  should  be  kept  clean  and  dressed  frequently  in  order  to  insure 
prompt  healing.  But  if  the  cavity  is  found  to  be  subdivided  in  its 
interior  by  numerous  bands,  and  the  cyst  proves  to  be  multilocular, 
the  partitions  should  be  torn  out  with  the  fingers,  and  the  cavity 
then  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  unilocular  sac.  In  still 
another  case  the  swelling  may  be  wann  and  painful  with  indistinct 
fluctuation,  or  fluctuation  only  at  a  certain  point;  This  indicates  an 
abscess,  and  necessitates  an  incision  to  drain  the  pus,  followed  by  the 
careful  cleansing  and  dressing  of  the  wound. 

But  ca.ses  occur  in  which  all  the  treatment  that  has  been  described 
fails  to  effect  a  full  recovery,  and  instead  a  fibrous  tumor  begins  to 
develop.  A  change  of  treatment  is,  of  course,  then  in  order.  The 
inflammation  being  chronic  will  necessitate  stimulating  treatment  of 
the  part  in  order  to  increase  the  process  of  absorption.  We  must 
again  draw  upon  the  resources  of  experience  in  the  form  of  blisters, 
the  fomentations,  the  iodine,  and  the  mercurial  ointments  as  hereto- 


CAPPED    KNEE.  357 

fore  mentioned.  Good  results  may  always  be  insured  from  their 
judicious  and  timely  administration.  In  applying  the  powerful  min- 
eral inunctions  much  patience  and  wisdom  are  required.  It  should  be 
done  by  carefully  and  perseveringly  rubbing  in  small  quantities 
daily;  it  should  be  done  softly  and  gently,  not  with  force  of  arms, 
nor  with  the  expectation  of  producing  an  astonishing  effect  by  heavy 
dosing  and  main  strength  in  a  few  hours;  it  should  be  after  the 
manner  of  a  siege  rather  than  that  of  a  charge.  The  object  is  to 
induce  the  drugs  to  permeate  the  affected  part  until  the  entire  mass  is 
penetrated.  Of  course  cases  will  be  encountered  which  resist  all 
forms  of  medical  treatment.  The  tumor  remains  as  a  fixed  fact;  it 
continues  to  grow ;  it  is  large  and  pendulous  at  the  elbow ;  its  weight 
is  estimated  in  pounds ;  it  is  not  an  eyesore  merely,  but  an  uncomfort- 
able, burdensome  mass,  excoriating  all  the  surrounding  parts  and 
being  itself  excoriated  in  turn;  mild  treatment  has  failed  and  is  no 
longer  to  be  relied  on. 

Resort  must  now  be  made  to  surgical  methods,  and  here  again  we 
must  choose  between  the  ligature,  the  cautery,  and  the  knife.  Each 
has  its  advocates  among  practitioners.  In  a  case  like  the  present,  one 
of  the  difficulties  arises  in  connection  with  the  application  and  reten- 
tion of  bandages  and  other  dressings  after  the  amputation  has  been 
performed.  It  is  a  somewhat  difficult  problem,  owing  to  the  con- 
formation and  proportions  of  the  body  of  the  patient,  and  involves 
the  exercise  of  a  considerable  amount  of  practical  ingenuity  to  adjust 
and  retain  the  appliances  necessary  to  insure  a  good  final  result. 

In  the  long  description  of  the  treatment  of  the  varieties  of  capped 
elbow  I  have  thus  far  omitted  any  mention  of  one  method  which  is 
practiced  and  commended  by  not  a  few.  I  refer  to  the  use  of  setons, 
introduced  through  the  tumor.  My  own  experience  and  the  observa- 
tion of  many  failures  from  this  method  led  me  to  abandon  it. 

CAPPED  KNEE. 

The  passage  of  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  muscle  of  the  cannon,  as 
it  glides  in  front  of  the  kneejoint,  is  assisted  by  one  of  the  little  burste 
before  mentioned,  and  when  this  becomes  the  seat  of  a  dropsical  col- 
lection a  hygroma  is  formed  and  the  knee  is  "  capped."  Though 
somewhat  analogous  in  its  history  to  the  capped  elbow,  there  are 
points  of  difference  between  them.  Their  development  may  prove  a 
source  of  great  annoyance  from  the  fact  of  the  blemish  which  they 
constitute. 

Cause. — The  capped  knee  presents  itself  under  various  conditions. 
It  is  sometimes  the  result  of  a  bruise  or  contusion,  often  repeated, 
inflicted  upon  himself  by  a  horse  addicted  to  the  habit  of  pawing 
while  in  the  stable  and  striking  the  front  of  the  stall  with  his  knees. 
Another  class  of  patients  is  formed  of  those  weak-kneod  animals 
which  are  subject  to  falling  and  bruining  the  front  of  the  joint  against 
the  ground,  the  results  not  being  always  of  the  same  character. 


358  DISEASES    OF   THE    HOBSE. 

Symptoms. — The  lesion  may  be  a  simple  bruise,  or  it  may  be  a 
severe  contusion  with  swelling,  edema,  heat,  and  pain.  The  joint 
becomes  so  stiff  and  rigid  that  it  interferes  with  locomotion  and  yet 
under  careful  simple  treatment  the  trouble  may  disappear. 

Or,  again,  instead  of  altogether  passing  off,  the  edema  may  dimin- 
ish in  extent,  becoming  more  defined  in  form  and  remain  as  a  swelling 
on  the  front  part  of  the  knee.  Resulting  from  the  crushing  of  small 
blood  vessels,  this  is  necessarily  full  of  blood.  The  swelling  is  some-' 
what  soft,  diffuse,  not  painful,  more  or  less  fluctuating,  and  after  a 
few  days  becomes  crepitant  under  the  pressure  of  the  hand. 

Instead  of  being  filled  with  blood  the  swelling  may  be  full  of  serum, 
as  often  occurs  when  violence,  though  perhaps  slight,  has  been  fre- 
quently repeated.  In  that  case  the  swelling  is  generally  well  defined, 
soft,  and  painless,  with  more  or  less  fluctuation,  and  it  may  even 
become  pendulous.  In  other  cases  the  swelling  may  be.  of  an  acute 
inflammatory  nature  with  heat  and  pain",  accompanied  by  stiffness  of 
the  .joint.  This  leads  to  the  formation  of  an  abscess.  Whatever  the 
nature  of  these  swellings  may  be,  either  full  of  blood,  serum,  or  pus, 
some  blemish  usually  remains  after  treatment. 

Prognosis. — Though  simple  bruises  of  the  knee  without  extensive 
lesions  are  usually  of  trifling  account,  a  different  prognosis  must  be 
pronounced  when  the  lesion  assumes  more  important  dimensions;  and 
though  a  capped  knee  may  be  comparatively  an  affair  of  little  impor- 
tance we  have  seen  cases  where  not  only  extensive  blemishes  were  left 
to  disfigure  the  patient,  but  where  the  animals  had  become  worthless 
in  consequence  of  the  extension  of  the  diseased  process  to  the  various 
elements  of  structure  composing  the  joint,  and  giving  rise  to  the  most 
complicated  cases  of  carpitis. 

Treatment. — Usually  the  first  symptom  of  trouble  is  the  edematous 
swelling  on  the  front  of  the  "  knee."  The  prevention  of  the  inflam- 
mation and  consequently  of  the  abscess,  is  the  prime  object  in  view, 
and  it  may  be  realized  by  the  use  of  warm  water  fomentations  or 
compresses  applied  over  the  swelling,  which  may  be  used  either  in  a 
simple  form  or  combined  with  astringents,  such  as  Goulard's  extract, 
alum,  or  sulphate  of  zinc.  The  application  of  warm  poultices  of  oil 
meal  or  ground  flaxseed,  enveloping  the  whole  joint  and  kept  in  place 
by  bandages,  is  often  followed  by  absorption  of  the  swelling,  or,  if 
the  abscess  is  in  process  of  formation,  by  the  active  excretion  of  pus. 
If  an  abscess  forms  in  spite  of  these  precautions  it  may  be  treated 
surgically  in  several  ways. 

In  one  it  should  be  done  by  a  careful  incision,  which  will  allow  the 
escape*bf  the  blood  or  the  serum,  or  of  the  pus  which  is  inclosed  in 
the  sac;  in  another  it  may  be  by  means  of  a  seton,  in  order  that  the 
discharge  may  be  maintained  and  allowed  to  escape;  and  for  another 
the  more  cautious  mode  may  be  adopted  of  emptying  the  cavity  by 


CAPPED   HOCK.  359 

means  of  punctures  with  small  trocars  or  aspirators.  The  danger 
attending  this  last  method  arises  from  the  possible  sloughing  of  large 
portions  of  the  skin,  while  that  attending  the  first  is  the  hazard  of  the 
possibility  of  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  capsular  liga- 
ment of  the  knee,  with  the  possibility  of  an  open  joint  in  prospect. 

As  we  have  remarked,  the  cavity  after  being  emptied  may  rapidly 
close  and  leave  in  a  short  time  but  slight  traces  of  its  previous  exist- 
ence. But  in  many,  if  not  in  a  majority,  of  cases  there  will  remain 
after  the  cicatrization  is  complete  a  thickening  or  organized  exuda- 
tion at  one  time  round  and  well  defined,  at  another  spreading  by  a 
diffused  infiltration,  to  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  immediate 
attention,  from  the  fact  of  its  tendency  to  form  into  an  organized  and 
permanent  body.  To  stimulate  inflammation  in  this  diseased  struc- 
ture, blisters  are  recommended,  but  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  promot- 
ing the  process  of  absorption. 

If  this  treatment  fails,  the  use  of  iodine  and  mercurial  preparations 
is  recommended. 

Plain  mercurial  or  plain  iodine  ointment,  or  both  in  combination  as 
iodide  of  mercury,  are  commonly  used,  and  may  either  be  applied 
moderately  and  by  gentle  degrees,  as  we  have  suggested,  or  more 
freely  and  vigorously  with  a  view  to  more  immediate  effects,  which, 
however,  will  also  be  more  superficial.  The  use  of  the  firing  iron 
applied  deeply  with  fine  points  is  then  to  be  strongly  recommended,  to 
be  followed  by  blisters  and  various  liniments.  This  course  may  gen- 
erally be  relied  on  as  quite  sure  to  be  followed  by  satisfactory  results. 

While  the  treatment  is  in  progress  it  will,  of  course,  be  necessary  to 
secure  the  animal  in  such  a  manner  that  a  recurrence  of  the  injury 
will  be  impossible  from  similar  causes  to  those  which  were  previously 
responsible. 

CAPPED   HOCK. 

A  bad  habit  prevails  among  some  horses  of  rubbing  or  striking  the 
partitions  of  their  stalls  with  their  hocks,  with  the  result  of  an  injury 
which  shows  itself  on  the  upper  point  of  that  bone,  the  summit  of  the 
08  calcis.  From  its  analogy  to  the  condition  of  capped  elbow  the 
designation  of  capped  hock  has  been  applied  to  this  condition. 

SymptoTTis. — A  capped  hock  is  therefore  but  the  development  of  a 
bruise  at  the  point  of  the  hock,  which  if  many  times  repeated  may 
excite  an  inflammatory  process,  with  all  its  usual  external  symptoms 
of  swelling,  heat,  soreness,  and  the  rest  of  the  now  familiar  phenom- 
ena. The  swelling  is  at  first  diffused,  extending  more  or  less  on  the 
exterior  part  of  the  hock,  and  in  a  few  instances  running  up  along 
the  tendons  and  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  shank.  Soon,  however, 
unless  the  irritating  causes  are  continued  and  repeated,  the  edema 
diminishes,  and,  becoming  more  defined  in  its  external  outlines,  leaves 
the  hock  capped  with  a  hygroma.    The  hygroma,  at  the  very  begin- 


360  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

ning  of  the  trouble,  contains  a  bloody  serosity  which  soon  becomes 
strictly  serum,  and  this,  through  the  influence  of  an  acute  inflamma- 
tory action,  is  liable  to  undergo  a  change  which  converts  it  into  the 
usual  purulent  product  of  suppuration. 

The  external  appearance  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  determine  the 
diagnosis,  but  there  are  a  few  signs  which  may  contribute  toward  a 
nicer  identification  of  the  lesion.  The  capped  hock,  whether  under 
the  appearance  of  an  acute  edematous  swelling,  or  as  a  bloody  serous 
collection,  or  as  a  simple  serous  cyst,  does  not  give  rise  to  any  remark- 
able local  manifestation  other  than  such  as  have  already  passed  under 
our  survey  in  considering  similar  cases,  nor  will  it  be  likely  to  inter- 
fere with  the  functions  which  belong  to  the  member  in  question,  unless 
it  assumes  very  large  dimensions  and  on  each  side  of  the  tendons,  as 
well  as  on  the  summit  of  the  bone.  But  if  the  inflammation  is  quite 
high,  if  suppuration  is  developing,  if  there  is  a  true  abscess,  or — and 
this  is  a  common  complication — especially  when  the  kicking  or  rub- 
bing of  the  animal  is  frequently  recurring,  then,  besides  the  local 
trouble  of  the  cyst  or  of  the  abscess,  the  bones  become  diseased  and 
the  periosteum  inflamed;  perhaps  the  superior  ends  of  the  bone 
and  its  fibro-cartilage  become  affected,  and  a  simple  lesion  or  bruise, 
whatever  it  may  have  been,  becomes  complicated  with  periostitis  and 
ostitis,  and  is  naturally  accompanied  with  lameness,  developed  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  which  in  some  cases  may  be  permanent  and 
in  others  increased  by  work.  But  these  complications  are  not  common 
or  frequent. 

Treatment. — Capped  hocks  are  in  many  cases  amenable  to  treat- 
ment, and  yet  they  often  become  the  opprobrium  of  the  practitioner 
by  remaining,  as  they  frequently  do,  an  eyesore  on  the  top  of  the  hock ; 
not  interfering,  it  is  true,  with  the  work  of  the  horse,  but  fixing  upon 
him  the  stigma  of  what,  in  human  estimation,  is  a  most  unreliable  and 
objectionable  reputation,  to  wit,  that  of  being  an  habitual  "  kicker," 
and,  worse  than  all,  one  that  kicks  when  he  receives  his  provender. 

The  maxim  that  "  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure  " 
fits  the  present  case  very  neatly.  A  horse  whose  hocks  have  a  some- 
what puffy  look  and  whose  skin  on  the  front  of  the  hock  is  loose  and 
flabby,  justly  subjects  himself  to  a  suspicion  of  his  addictedness  to 
this  bad  habit.  But  he  may  easily  be  either  convicted  or  exonerated — 
a  little  watching  will  soon  establish  the  truth.  If,  then,  the  verdict 
is  one  of  conviction,  precautions  should  Ije  immediately  adopted 
against  a  continuance  of  the  evil.  The  padding  of  the  sides  of  the 
stall  with  straw  mats  or  mattresses  and  covering  the  posts  with  similar 
material,  in  such  a  manner  that  no  hard  surface  shall  be  exposed  with 
which  to  come  in  contact,  will  reduce  the  evil  to  its  minimum.  He 
may  jar  his  frame  when  he  kicks,  but  even  then  there  will  be  less 


CAPPED   HOCK.  361 

force  in  the  concussion  than  if  it  impinged  upon  the  solid  plank,  and 
cuts  and  abrasions  can  not  be  inflicted  by  a  properly  made  cushion. 
Hobbles  are  also  rightly  recommended  with  a  view  to  the  required 
restraint  of  motion,  so  applied  as  to  secure  the  leg  with  which  the 
kicking  is  performed,  or  even  both  hind  legs,  in  such  a  manner  as 
shall  not  interfere  with  the  movements  of  lying  down  and  rising 
again  and  yet  preventing  that  of  kicking  backward.  Boots  similar  in 
pattern  to  those  which  are  used  for  the  prevention  of  shoe  boil  are 
also  prescribed.  These  are  placed  above  the  hock  and  retained  by 
straps  tightly  fastened.  But  we  apprehend  that  the  difficulty  of 
retaining  them  in  the  proper  place  without  the  danger  of  chafing 
from  the  tightness  of  the  straps  might  form  an  objection  to  their  use. 
Notwithstanding  all  precautions,  hocks  will  be  capped  in  the  future  as 
in  the  past,  and  the  study  of  their  treatment  will  always  be  in  order. 
The  mode  of  dealing  with  them  will,  of  course,  be  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  condition  of  the  parts.  When  the  inflammation  is 
excessive  and  the  swelling  large,  hot,  and  painful  to  the  touch,  the 
application  of  warm  water  will  be  very  beneficial.  The  leg  should  be 
well  fomented  several  times  a  day,  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes 
each  time,  a  strong  decoction  of  marsh-mallow  leaves  being  added  to 
the  water,  and  after  each  application  swathed  with  flannel  bandages 
soaked  in  the  same  warm  mixture.  A  few  days  of  this  treatment  will 
usually  effect  a  resolution  of  the  inflammation,  if  not  complete,  at 
least  sufficiently  so  to  disclose  the  correct  outlines  of  the  hygroma  and 
exhibit  its  peculiar  and  specific  symptoms.  The  expediency  of  its 
removal  and  the  method  of  accomplishing  it  are  then  to  be  considered, 
with  the  question  of  opening  it  to  give  exit  to  its  contents.  If  the 
fluid  is  of  a  jjurulent  character  the  indication  is  in  favor  of  its  imme- 
diate discharge — no  time  should  be  lost,  and  it  should  be  by  means  of 
a  small  opening  made  with  a  narrow  bistoury.  If,  however,  the  fluid 
is  a  serosity,  we  prefer  to  remove  it  by  punctures  with  a  very  small 
trocar.  Our  reason  for  special  caution  in  these  cases  is  our  fear 
of  the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  diseased  conditions  of  a  severe 
character  in  the  pseudo  joint.  For  the  same  reason  we  prefer  the 
treatment  of  those  growths  by  external  applications.  In  the  first 
stages  of  the  disease  a  severe  and  stiff  blister,  such  as  the  cantharidate 
of  collodium,  entirely  covering  the  cyst,  perhaps  not  yet  completely 
formed,  when  the  inflannnation  has  subsided,  will  be  of  great  benefit 
by  its  stimulating  effect,  the  absorption  it  may  excite,  and  the  pressure 
which,  when  dry,  it  will  maintain  upon  the  tumor.  If,  however,  the 
thickening  of  the  growth  fails  to  diminish,  it  should  be  treated  with 
some  of  the  iodine  preparations  in  the  form  of  ointments,  pure  or  in 
combination  with  potassium,  mercury,  etc.,  of  various  strengths  and 
in  various  proportions.  My  opinion  of  setons  is  not  favorable,  but 
the  actual  cautery,  by  deep  and  fine  firing,  in  points — needle  cauteri- 


362  DISEASES    OF   THE    HOBSE. 

zation — I  believe  to  be  the  best  mode  of  treatment,  and  especially 
when  applied  early. 

A  very  satisfactory  way  to  treat  these  cases  is  to  burst  the  swelling 
by  pressure  from  without.  A  strap  or  strong  linen  bandage  is  placed 
about  the  hock  pressing  on  the  bursa  while  the  affected  leg  is  on  the 
ground,  the  other  hind  foot  being  lifted  up.  When  the  bandage  is  in 
place  release  the  leg  and  the  horse  will  Ariolently  flex  the  bandaged 
limb  and  produce  pressure  on  the  bursa  with  consequent  bursting  and 
discharging  of  its  contents. 

Whatever  treatment  may  be  adopted  for  capped  hock,  patience 
must  be  one  of  the  ingredients.  In  these  parts  absorption  is  slow  and 
the  skin  is  very  thick,  and  its  return  to  a  soft,  pliable,  natural  condi- 
tion, if  effected  at  all,  will  only  take  place  after  weeks  added  to  other 
weeks  of  medical  treatment  and  patient  waiting. 

INTEBFEBING,   AND   SPEEDY   CtJTS. 

These  designations  belong  to  certain  special  injuries  of  the  ex- 
tremities, produced  by  similar  causes,  giving  rise  to  kindred  patho- 
logical lesions  with  allied  phenomena,  requiring  about  the  same 
treatment  and  often  followed  by  the  same  results,  to  wit,  a  blemish 
which  may  not  only  subject  the  animal  to  a  suspicion  of  unsoundness, 
but  in  some  special  circumstances  interfere  with  his  ability  to  labor. 
It  is  known  as  "  interfering  "  when  the  location  of  the  trouble  is  the 
inside  of  the  fetlock  of  either  the  fore  or  hind  leg.  It  is  called 
"  speedy  cut "  when  it  occurs  on  the  inside  of  the  fore  leg,  a  little 
below  the  knee,  at  the  point  of  contact  of  that  joint  with  the  cannon. 
It  is  always  the  result  of  a  blow,  self-inflicted,  of  varying  severity, 
and  giving  rise  to  various  lesions.     (See  also  page  373.) 

Symptoms. — ^At  times  the  injury  is  too  slight  to  be  seriously 
noticed,  the  hair  being  scarcely  cut  and  the  skin  unmarked.  At  other 
times  the  skin  will  be  cut  through,  partly  or  wholly,  and  it  may  for 
the  time  cause  a  sufficient  amount  of  pain  to  check  the  motion  of  the 
animal  and  induce  him  to  suspend  his  labor  through  his  inability  to 
use  the  wounded  limb,  traveling  meanwhile  for  a  short  space  on  three 
legs  only.  Sometimes  a  single  blow  will  suffice,  or  again  there  will  be 
a  repetition  of  lighter  strokes.  In  the  latter  case  the  parts  will  be- 
come much  swollen,  hot,  and  so  painful  to  the  touch  that  the  motion 
of  the  knee  or  the  fetlock  will  be  sufficiently  disturbed  to  cause  lame- 
ness of  a  degree  of  severity  corresponding  with  that  of  the  lesion. 
Following  the  subsidence  of  this  diffused  and  edematous  swelling  is 
sometimes  the  formation  of  a  tumor,  either  at  the  knee  or  the  fetlock. 
This  may  be  soft  at  first  or  become  so  by  degrees,  with  fluctuation, 
its  contents  being  at  first  extravasated  blood,  and  later  a  serosity ;  or, 
if  there  has  been  a  sufficient  degree  of  inflammation,  it  may  become 
suppurative.     The  result  of  the  fault  of  interfering  may  thus  be 


INTERFERING.  363 

exhibited,  whether  at  the  knee  or  at  the  fetlock,  as  characterized  by 
all  the  pathological  conditions  which  have  appeared  as  accompani- 
ments of  capped  knee  or  capped  hock.  If,  in  consequence  of  the  force 
of  the  blow  or  blows,  the  inflammation  has  been  unusually  severe, 
a  mortification  of  the  skin  may  become  one  of  the  consequences,  a 
slough  taking  place,  succeeded  by  a  cutaneous  ulcer  on  the  inside  of 
the  fetlock  or  where  the  greater  number  of  the  original  wounds  are 
inflicted.  If  the  interfering  has  been  often  repeated  it  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  another  condition,  which  has  been  considered  in  our  remarks 
upon  other  affections.  It  is  a  plastic  exudation  or  thickening  of  the 
parts,  which  are  commonly  said  to  have  become  "  callous,"  and  the 
effect  of  it  is  to  destroy  the  regularity  of  the  outlines  of  the  joint  to  an 
extent  which  constitutes  a  serious  blemish,  which  will  be  permanent, 
and  according  to  the  degree  of  the  aberration  from  the  natural  and 
symmetrical  lines  will  inevitably  depreciate  the  commercial  value  of 
the  animal. 

An  animal  in  interfering  may  thus  exhibit  a  range  of  symptoms 
which,  from  the  simplest  form  of  a  mere  "  touching,"  may  succes- 
sively assume  the  serious  characters  of  an  ugly  cicatrix,  a  hard, 
plastic  swelling,  or  perhaps,  as  witnessed  at  the  knee,  of  periostitis 
with  its  sequelae. 

If  a  single  and  constantly  recurring  cause — a  blow — be  the  starting 
point  in  interfering,  we  may  now  consider  the  subject  of  the  predispo- 
sition which  brings  such  serious  results  upon  the  suffering  animal, 
and  the  conditions  which  lead  to  and  accompany  it.  These  are 
numerous,  but  the  first  in  frequency  and  importance  is  peculiarity  of 
conformation  in  the  animals  addicted  to  it.  The  first  class  will  include 
horses  whose  chests  are  narrow  and  whose  legs  do  not  stand  straight 
and  upright,  but  are  crooked  and  pigeon-toed  in  and  out.  The  second 
class  includes  those  whose  legs  are  weak,  either  from  youth  or  hard 
labor,  or  from  severe  attacks  of  sickness.  Another  class  is  made  up 
of  those  having  abnormally  developed  feet,  or  which  have  been  badly 
shod  with  unnecessarily  wide  or  heavy  shoes.  Another  class  consists 
of  those  that  are  affected  with  swollen  fetlocks  or  chronic  edematous 
swelling  of  the  leg.  Another  is  formed  of  animals  with  a  peculiar 
action,  as  those  whose  knee  action  is  very  high,  and  it  is  these  that 
furnish  most  of  the  cases  of  speedy  cut. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  of  interfering  is  never  a  very  serious 
one.  However  violent  the  blow  may  be  it  is  rarely  that  subsequent 
complications  of  a  troublesome  nature  occur.  The  principal  evil 
attending  it  is  a  liability  to  be  followed  by  a  thickened  or  callous 
deposit  which  is  not  only  an  eyesore  and  a  blemish,  but  constitutes  a 
new  and  increased  predisposition.  The  remark  that  "  an  animal 
which  has  interfered  once  is  always  liable  to  interfere,"  is  often  con- 
firmed and  sanctioned  by  a  recurrence  of  the  trouble. 


364  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

Treatment. — Another  point  in  which  there  is  a  resemblance  between 
this  lesion  and  others  which  we  have  considered  is  in  its  responsive- 
ness to  the  same  treatment  with  them.  Indeed,  the  prescription  of 
warm  fomentations,  soothing  applications,  and  astringent  and  resolv- 
ent mixtures,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  is  the  first  that  occurs  all  through 
the  list.  If  the  swelling  assumes  the  character  of  a  serous  collection, 
pressure,  cold  water,  and  bandages  will  contribute  to  its  removal.  If 
suppuration  seems  to  be  established,  and  the  swelling  assumes  the 
character  of  a  developing  abscess,  the  hot  poultices  of  flaxseed  or  of 
boiled  vegetables  and  the  embrocations  of  sedative  ointments,  those 
of  basilicon,  or  vaseline,  impregnated  with  preparations  of  opium  or 
belladonna — all  these  recommehd  themselves  by  their  general  adapta- 
tion and  the  beneficial  results  which  have  followed  their  administra- 
tion, not  lass  in  one  case  than  in  another.  ^Vhen  an  abscess  has 
formed  and  is  fluctuating,  it  should  be  carefully  but  fully  opened  to 
evacuate  the  pus.  If  it  is  a  serous  cyst,  some  care  is  necessary  in 
emptying  it,  and  the  possibility  of  the  extension  of  the  inflammation 
to  the  joint  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  AMien  the  cavities 
have  been  emptied  and  have  closed  by  filling  up  with  granulations, 
or  if,  not  being  opened,  the  contents  have  been  reabsorbed,  and  there 
remains  in  either  case  a  plastic  exudation  and  a  tendency  to  the  cal- 
lous organization  that  may  yet  exist,  blisters  under  their  various 
forms,  including  those  of  cantharides,  of  mercury,  and  of  iodine,  are 
then  indicated,  principally  in  the  early  stages,  as  it  is  then  that  their 
effects  will  prove  most  satisfactory.  The  use  of  the  actual  cautery, 
with  fine  points,  penetrating  deeply  throughout  the  enlargement,  has 
in  our  hands,  when  employed  in  the  very  early  stages  of  its  forma- 
tion, nearly  always  brought  on  a  radical  recovery  with  complete 
absorption  of  the  thickening. 

STBINOHALT. 

This  is  an  involuntary  movement  of  one  or  both  hind  legs,  in  which 
the  foot  is  suddenly  and  spasmodically  lifted  from  the  ground  much 
higher  than  it  is  normally  carried,  with  excessive  flexion  of  one  bone 
upon  the  other.  This  peculiarity  is  usually  prominent,  although  it 
may  disappear  with  work,  only  to  reappear  after  a  short  rest.  Some- 
times it  is  most  apparent  at  a  trot,  sometimes  at  a  walk,  and  other 
times  only  when  turned  around ;  or  it  may  not  be  affected  by  the  gait 
of  the  horse.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  influenced  by  the  horse's  age, 
young  and  old  being  alike  affected.  Its  first  manifestations  are  some- 
times very  slight.  It  has  been  noticed  as  occurring  in  an  animal  when 
backing  out  of  his  stable  and  ceasing  immediately  after.  In  some 
animals  it  is  best  seen  when  the  animal  is  turning  nronnd  on  the 
affected  leg,  and  it  is  not  noticed  when  he  moves  straight  forward. 
That  this  peculiar  action  interferes  with  facility  of  locomotion  and 


THROMBOSIS.  365 

detracts  from  a  horse'fe  claim  to  soundness  can  not  for  a  moment  be 
denied. 

Cause. — Veterinarians  and  pathologists  are  yet  in  doubt  in  respect 
to  the  cause  of  this  affection,  as  well  as  to  its  essential  nature. 
Whether  it  results  from  disease  of  the  hock,  of  an  ulcerative  charac- 
ter; whether  it  springs  from  a  malformation;  whether  it  is  a  short- 
ening of  the  ligaments,  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  sciatic  nerve,  or 
a  disease  of  the  spinal  cord ;  whether  it  is  purely  a  muscular  or  purely 
a  nervous  lesion,  or  a  compound  of  both — it  still  continues,  if  an 
etiologist  is  bound  to  possess  universal  knowledge  within  the  scope  of 
his  special  studies,  to  be  his  opprobrium  and  his  puzzle. 

Treatment. — When  there  is  a  known  or  suspected  cause  the  treat- 
ment should  be  directed  toward  this  factor.  If  due  to  local  inflamma- 
tion of  the  hock  or  foot,  only  this  local  lesion  should  be  treated.  If 
it  remains  after  the  local  lesion  has  healed,  or  if  we  have  no  assignable 
cause,  the  best  results  have  followed  the  sectioning  of  the  lateral 
extensor  of  the  foot.  A  competent  veterinarian  alone  should  under- 
take this  operation. 

THROMBOSIS. 

There  are  certain  forms  of  lameness  which  are  very  peculiar  in  their 
manifestation,  and  which  to  the  nonprofessional  mind  must  appear  to 
belong  to  the  domain  of  mystery  or  theory  instead  of  occupying  a 
well-established  position  among  the  subjects  of  equine  pathology. 
Yet  they  are  no  less  susceptible  of  actual  demonstration  and  of  pos- 
itive comprehension  than  many  facts  which,  plain  and  familiar  to  the 
general  understanding  now,  were  once  ranked  among  things  occult 
and  unsearchable.  A  thrombus,  considered  as  a  cause  of  lameness, 
may  find  a  place  among  these  understood  mysteries. 

Cause. — Under  certain  peculiar  conditions  of  inflammation  of  the 
blood  vessels,  and  also  in  aneurisms,  clots  of  blood  are  sometimes 
formed  in  the  arteries  and  find  their  way  in  the  general  circulation. 
At  first,  while  very  small,  or  sufficiently  so  to  pass  from  one  vessel  to 
another,  they  move  from  a  small  vessel  to  a  larger,  and  from  that  to 
one  still  larger,  constantly  increasing  in  size  until  at  some  given  point, 
from  their  inability  to  enter  smaller  vessels,  their  movement  is 
finally  arrested.  The  artery  is  thus  effectually  dammed,  and  the  clot 
in  a  short  time  cuts  off  completely  the  supply  of  blood  from  the  parts 
beyond.  This  is  thrombosis,  and  it  often  gives  rise  to  sudden  and 
excessive  lameness  of  a  very  painful  character. 

Symptoms. — Thrombi  may  form  in  any  of  the  arteries  of  the  body, 
and  doubtless  have  been  the  cause  of  many  cases  of  lameness  which 
could  never  be  accounted  for.  If  they  exist  in  small  arteries  their 
diagnosis  will  probably  fail  to  be  made  out  with  certainty,  but  when 
situated  in  the  larger  trunks  a  strong  suspicion  of  their  presence  may 
be  excited.     In  some  cases  they  may  even  be  recognized  with  posi- 


366  DISEASES   OF   THE    HOBSE. 

tive  accuracy,  as  when  the  vessels  which  supply  the  posterior  extremi- 
ties are  affected  by  the  blocking  up  of  the  posterior  aorta  or  its 
ramifications. 

The  existence  of  thrombosis  of  the  arteries  of  the  hind  leg  may 
always  be  suspected  when  the  following  history  is  known:  The  gen- 
eral health  of  the  animal  is  good,  but  symptoms  of  lameness  in  one  of 
the  legs  have  been  developed,  becoming  more  marked  as  he  is  worked, 
and  especially  when  driven  at  a  fast  gait.  But  the  disturbance  is  not 
permanent,  and  the  lameness  disappears  almost  immediately  upon  his 
being  permitted  to  rest.  There  is  an  increase  of  the  difficulty,  how- 
ever, and,  though  he  may  walk  normally,  he  will,  when  made  to  trot, 
very  soon  begin  to  slacken  his  pace  and  to  show  signs  of  the  trouble, 
and  if  urged  to  increase  his  speed  will  become  lamer  and  lamer;  an 
abundant  perspiration  will  break  out;  he  will  refuse  to  go,  and  if 
forced  he  shows  weakness  behind,  seems  ready  to  fall,  and  perhaps 
does  fall.  While  on  his  feet  the  leg  is  kept  in  constant  motion,  up 
and  down,  and  is  kept  from  the  ground  as  if  the  contact  was  too  pain- 
ful to  bear.  If  undisturbed  this  series  of  symptoms  will  gradually 
subside,  sometimes  very  soon,  and  occasionally  after  a  few  hours  he 
will  return  to  an  apparently  perfect  condition.  A  return  to  labor 
will  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  same  incidents. 

A  history  like  this  suggests  a  strong  suspicion  of  a  thrombus  in  an 
artery  of  the  hind  leg,  and  this  suspicion  will  be  confirmed  by  the 
external  symptoms  exhibited  by  the  animal.  The  total  absence  of 
any  other  disease  which  might  account  for  the  lameness,  and  a  mani- 
fest diminution  of  heat  over  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  extremity, 
when  compared  with  the  opposite  side  or  with  any  other  portion  of 
the  body;  a  sensation  of  cold  attendant  on  the  pain,  but  gradually 
subsiding  as  the  pain  subsides,  and  the  circulation,  quickened  by  the 
rest,  has  been  reestablished  throughout  the  extremity;  all  these  are 
confirmatory  circumstances.  Still,  it  is  thus  far  only  a  suspicion,  and 
absolute  certainty  is  yet  wanting.  To  establish  the  truth  of  the  case 
the  rectal  exploration  must  be  resorted  to.  The  hands  then,  well  pre- 
pared and  carefully  introduced  into  the  rectum,  must  explore  for  the 
truth,  first  feeling  for  the  large  blood  vessels  which,  divided  at  the 
aorta,  separate  to  supply  the  right  and  left  legs.  These  must  be  com- 
pared in  respect  to  the  pulsation  and  other  particulars.  The  artery 
which  is  healthy  will,  of  course,  exhibit  all  the  proper  conditions  of 
that  state.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vessel  appears  to  the  feel  hard, 
more  or  less  cordy,  and  pulseless,  or  giving  a  sensation  of  fluttering, 
as  of  a  small  volume  of  blood  with  a  trickling  motion  passing  through 
a  confined  space,  the  difference  between  the  sides  will  make  the  case 
plain.  The  first  will  be  the  full  flow  of  the  circulation  through  an 
unobstructed  channel,  the  other  a  forced  passage  of  the  fluid  between 
the  thrombus  and  the  coats  of  the  artery.     In  such  a  case  the  prog- 


SPRAINS   OP   THE   LOINS.  367 

nosis  is  necessarily  a  grave  one  and  the  disease  is  more  liable  to  grow 
worse  than  better. 

Treatment. — No  form  of  treatment  can  be  advised ;  and  the  suffer- 
ing of  a  helpless  and  useless  animal  can  only  be  terminated  by  that 
which  ends  all. 

Cases  occur,  however,  where  this  condition  of  the  blood  vessels 
exists  in  a  much  less  degree,  arid  the  diseased  condition  is  not  suf- 
ficiently pronounced  for  final  condemnation.  There  may  even  be 
a  possibility  of  the  absorption  of  the  clot,  or  that  an  increase  of  the 
collateral  circulation  may  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  parts  with  blood. 
In  such  cases  spontaneous  recovery  may  follow  moderate  exercise 
in  the  pasture,  field,  or  stable,  or  continuous  light  work  may  be 
given,  but  too  much  hope  should  not  be  placed  in  such  treatment. 

SPRAINS    OF    THE    LOINS. 

This  is  an  affection  which  suggests  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  mus- 
cular injury,  and  is  difficult  to  dis£inguish  from  many  similar  cases. 
If  the  animal  shrinks  from  the  slightest  pressure  or  pinching  of  the 
spine  in  the  region  of  the  loins,  he  is  by  many  pronounced  to  be 
"  lame  in  the  loins,"  or  "  sprained  in  the  loins,"  or  "  weak  in  the 
kidneys."  This  is  a  grave  error,  as  in  fact  this  simple  and  gentle 
yielding  to  such  a  pressure  is  not  a  pathological  sign,  but  is  normal 
and  significant  of  health.  Yet  there  are  several  conditions  to  which 
the  definition  of  "  sprains  of  the  loins  "  may  apply  which  are  not 
strictly  normal. 

Cause. — The  muscles  of  the  back  and  those  of  the  loins  proper,  as 
the  psoas,  may  have  been  injured,  or  again  there  may  be  trouble  of  a 
rheumatic  nature,  perhaps  suggestive  of  lumbago.  Diseases  of  the 
bones  of  the  vertebral  column,  or  even  those  of  the  organs  of  circula- 
tion, may  give  rise  to  an  exhibition  of  similar  symptoms. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  characteristic  of  a  loss  of  rigidity 
or  firmness  of  the  vertebral  column,  both  when  the  animal  is  at  rest 
and  in  action.  In  the  former  condition,  or  when  at  rest,  there  is  an 
arched  condition  of  the  back  and  a  constrained  posture  in  standing, 
with  the  hind  legs  separated.  In  the  latter  there  is  a  lateral,  balan- 
cing movement  at  the  loins,  principally  noticeable  while  the  animal  is 
in  the  act  of  trotting — a  peculiar  motion,  sometimes  referred  to  as  a 
"  crick  in  the  back,"  or  what  the  French  call  a  tour  de  hateau.  If, 
while.in  action,  the  animal  is  suddenly  made  to  halt,  the  act  is  accom- 
panied with  much  pain,  the  back  suddenly  arching  or  bending  later- 
ally, and  perhaps  the  hind  legs  thrown  under  the  body,  as  if  unable 
to  perform  their  functions  in  stopping,  and  sometimes  it  is  only 
accomplished  at  the  cost  of  a  sudden  and  severe  fall.  This  manifes- 
tation is  also  exhibited  when  the  animal  is  called  upon  to  back,  when 
a  repetition  of  the  same  symptoms  will  also  occur. 


368  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

If  a  slight  pressure  on  the  back  or  the  loins  is  followed  by  a  mod- 
erate yielding  of  the  animal,  it  is,  as  before  remarked,  a  good  sign 
of  health.  With  a  sprain  of  the  loins  pressure  of  any  kind  is  painful, 
and  will  cause  the  animal  to  bend  or  to  crouch  under  it  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  pressure.  Heavy  loads,  and  even 
heavy  harnessing,  will  develop  this  tenderness.  In  lying  down  he 
seems  to  suffer  much  discomfort,  and  often  accompanies  the  act  with 
groaning,  and  when  compelled  to  rise  does  so  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty and  seldom  succeeds  without  repeated  efforts. 

Sprains  of  muscles  proper,  when  recent,  will  always  be  accom- 
panied by  this  series  of  symptoms,  and  the  fact  of  their  exhibition, 
with  an  excessive  sensibility  of  the  parts,  and  possibly  with  a  degree 
of  swelling,  will  always  justify  a  diagnosis  of  acute  muscular  lesion; 
and  especially  so  if  accompanied  by  a  history  of  violent  efforts, 
powerful  muscular  strains,  falls,  heavy  loading,  etc.,  connected  with 
the  case.  But  if  the  symptoms  have  been  of  slow  development  and 
gradual  increase,  it  becomes  a  more  difficult  task  to  determine  whether 
the  diagnosis  points  to  pathological  changes  in  the  structure  of  the 
muscles  or  of  the  bones,  the  nervous  centers,  or  the  blood  v&ssels  of 
the  region.  And  yet  it  is  important  to  decide  as  to  which  particular 
structure  is  affected  in  reference  to  the  question  of  prognosis,  since 
the  degree  of  the  gravity  of  the  lesion  will  depend  largely  upon 
whether  the  disabled  condition  of  the  animal  is  due  to  an  acute  or  a 
chronic  disease. 

Treatment. — The  prescription  which  will  necessarily  first  of  all 
suggest  itself  for  sprains  of  the  loins  is  rest.  An  animal  so  affected 
should  be  immediately  placed  in  slings  and  none  of  his  efforts  to 
release  himself  should  be  allowed  to  succeed.  Hot  compresses,  cold 
water  douches,  sweating  applications,  stimulating  frictions,  strength- 
ening charges,  blistering  ointments  of  cantharides  and  the  actual  cau- 
tery, all  have  their  advocates;  but  in  no  case  can  the  immobility 
obtained  by  the  slings  be  dispensed  with.  In  many  cases  electricity 
has  also  yielded  good  results,  where  the  weakness  of  the  hind  quarters 
was  caused  by  disease  of  the  nervous  centers. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  FETLOCK,  ANKLE,  AND  FOOT. 

By  A.  A.  HoLCOMBE,  D.  V.  S., 
Inspector,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

[Revised  In  1903  by  the  author.] 

ANATOMICAL  REVIEW   OF    THE   FOOT. 

In  a  description  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  it  is  customary  to  include 
only  the  hoof  and  its  contents,  yet,  from  a  zoological  standpoint,  the 
foot  includes  all  the  leg  from  the  knee  and  the  hock  down. 

The  foot  of  the  horse  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  part  of 
the  animal,  in  so  far  as  veterinary  surgery  is  concerned,  for  the  reason 
that  this  member  is  subject  to  so  many  injuries  and  diseases,  which, 
in  part  or  in  whole,  render  the  patient  unfit  for  the  labor  demanded 
of  him.  The  old  aphorism,  "  no  foot  no  horse,"  is  as  true  to-day  as 
when  jfirst  expressed ;  in  fact,  domestication,  coupled  with  the  multi- 
plied uses  to  which  the  animal  is  put,  and  the  constant  reproduction 
of  hereditary  defects  and  tendencies,  have  largely  transformed  the 
ancient  "  companion  of  the  wind "  into  a  very  common  piece  of 
machinery  which  is  often  out  of  repair,  and,  at  best,  is  but  short- 
lived in  its  usefulness. 

Since  the  value  of  the  horse  depends  largely,  or  even  entirely,  upon 
his  ability  to  labor,  it  is  essential  that  his  organs  of  locomotion  should 
be  kept  sound ;  and  to  accomplish  this  end  it  is  necessary  not  only  to 
know  how  to  cure  all  diseases  to  which  these  organs  are  liable,  but, 
better  still,  how  to  prevent  them. 

An  important  prerequisite  to  the  detection  and  cure  of  disease  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  construction  and  function  of  the  parts  which  may 
be  involved  in  the  diseased  process;  hence,  first  of  all,  the  anatomical 
structures  must  be  understood.     (See  also  page  565.) 

The  bones  of  the  fetlock  and  foot  constitute  the  skeleton  on  whicli 
the  other  structures  are  built,  and  comprise  the  lower  end  of  the  can- 
non bone  (the  metacarpus  in  the  fore  leg,  the  metatarsus  in  the  hind 
leg),  the  two  sesamoids,  the  large  pastern  or  suffraginis.  the  small  pas- 
tern or  coronet,  the  small  sesamoid  or  navicular  bone,  and  the  coffin 
bone  or  os  pedis.     (Plate  XXXIV,  fig.  3.) 

The  cannon  bone  extends  from  the  knee  or  hock  to  the  fetlock,  is 
cylindrical  in  shape,  and  stands  nearly  or  quite  perpendicular. 

The  sesamoids  occur  in  pairs,  are  small,  sliaped  like  a  three-faced 
pyramid,  and  are  set  behind  the  fetlock  joint,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
suffraginis,  with  the  base  of  the  pyramid  down. 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 ^24  369 


370  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

The  suffraginh  is  a  very  compact  bone,  set  in  an  oblique  direction 
downward  and  forward,  and  extends  from  the  cannon  bone  to  the 
coronet. 

The  coronet  is  a  short,  cube-shaped  bone,  set  between  the  suffraginis 
and  coflinbone,  in  the  same  oblique  direction. 

The  navicular  hone  is  short,  flattened  above  and  below,  and  is 
attached  to  the  coflSn  bone  behind. 

The  co-ffin  hone  forms  the  end  of  the  foot  and  is  shaped  like  the 
homy  box  in  which  it  is  inclosed. 

All  of  these  bones  are  covered  on  the  surfaces  which  go  to  make  up 
the  joints  with  a  cartilage  of  incrustation,  while  the  portions  between 
are  covered  with  a  fibrous  membrane  called  the  periosteum. 

The  joints  of  the  legs  are  of  especial  importance,  since  any  inter- 
ference with  their  function  very  largely  impairs  the  value  of  the 
animal  for  most  purposes.  As  the  joints  of  the  foot  and  ankle  are  at 
the  point  of  greatest  concussion  they  are  the  ones  most  subject  to 
injury  and  disease. 

There  are  three  of  these  joints — the  fetlock,  pastern,  and  coflSn. 
They  are  made  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  bones,  held  together  by 
ligaments  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  are  lubricated  by  a  thick,  viscid  fluid, 
called  synovia,  which  is  secreted  by  a  special  membrane  inclosing  the 
joints. 

The  fetlock  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  lower  end  of  the  can- 
non and  the  upper  end  of  the  large  pastern  bones,  supplemented  by 
the  two  sesamoids,  so  placed  behind  the  upper  end  of  the  pastern  that 
the  joint  is  capable  of  a  very  extensive  motion.  These  bones  are  held 
together  by  ligaments,  only  one  of  which — the  suspensory — demands 
special  mention. 

The  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  starts  from  the  knee,  ex- 
tends down  behind  the  cannon,  lying  behind  the  two  splint  bones, 
until  near  the  fetlock,  where  it  divides  and  sends  a  branch  on  either 
side  of  the  joint,  downward  and  forward,  to  become  attached  on  the 
sides  of  the  extensor  tendon  at  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern  bone.  As 
it  crosses  the  sesamoids,  on  the  posterior  borders  of  the  fetlock,  it 
throws  out  fibers  which  hold  it  fast  to  these  bones.  (Plate  XXXIV, 
fig.  2.) 

The  partem  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  two  pastern  bones. 

The  co-ffin  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  small  pastern,  coffin, 
and  small  sesamoid,  or  navicular  bones,  the  latter  being  set  behind 
and  beneath  the  joint  surface  of  the  coffin  bone  in  such  a  way  as  to 
receive  largely  the  weight  of  the  small  pastern. 

Three  tendons  serve  to  move  the  bones  of  the  foot  one  on  another. 
Two  of  these  flex,  or  bend,  the  joints,  while  the  other  extends,  or 
straightens,  the  column  of  bones.     (Plate  XXX,  fig.  5.) 

The  flexor  pedis  perforans^  or  deep  flexor  of  the  foot,  passes  down 


ANATOMY   OF   THE    FOOT.  371 

behind  the  cannon  bone,  lying  against  the  suspensory  ligament  in 
front,  crosses  the  fetlock  joint  in  the  groove  made  by  the  union  of 
the  two  sesamoids,  and  is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  coffin  bone, 
after  covering  the  navicular,  by  a  wide  expansion  of  its  fibers.  It  is 
the  function  of  this  tendon  to  flex  the  coffin  bone  and,  with  it,  the 
horny  box. 

The  -flexor  pedis  perforatus^  or  superficial  flexor  of  the  foot,  follows 
the  course  of  the  preceding  tendon  and  is  attached  to  the  middle  of 
the  ankle.  The  function  of  this  tendon  is  to  flex  the  foot  at  the 
fetlock. 

The  extensor  pedis  runs  down  in  front  of  the  leg,  is  attached  on 
the  most  prominent  point  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  has  for  function  the 
straightening  of  the  bones  of  the  ankle  and  foot. 

The  bones,  ligaments,  and  tendons  are  covered  by  a  loose  connect- 
ive tissue,  which  gives  a  symmetry  to  the  parts  by  filling  up  and 
rounding  off,  and  all  are  protected  by  the  skin  and  hoof. 

The  skin  of  the  fetlock  and  ankle  is  generally  characterized  by  its 
thickness  and  the  length  of  its  hairs,  especially  around  the  hind  parts 
of  the  fetlock  joint  in  certain  breeds  of  horses.  The  most  important 
part  of  this  envelope  is  that  known  as  the  coronary  band. 

The  coronary  hand  is  that  portion  of  the  skin  which  secretes  the 
horn  of  which  the  wall  of  the  hoof  is  made.  This  horn  much  resem- 
bles the  nail  which  grows  on  the  fingers  and  toes  of  man.  It  is  com- 
posed of  cylindrical  tubes,  which  are  held  together  by  a  tenacious 
opaque  matter.  The  horn  extends  from  the  coronary  band  to  the 
lower  border  of  the  hoof.     (Plate  XXIX,  fig.  1.) 

The  hoof  is  a  box  of  horn,  consisting  of  a  wall,  sole,  and  frog,  and 
contains,  besides  the  coffin,  navicular,  and  part  of  the  small  pastern 
bones,  the  sensitive  laminae,  plantar  cushion,  and  the  lateral  cartilages. 
(Plate  XXX,  fig.  4.) 

The  sole  of  the  foot  incloses  the  box  on  the  gi'ound  surface,  is  shaped 
like  the  circumference  of  the  foot,  except  that  a  V-shaped  opening  is 
left  behind  for  the  reception  of  the  frog,  and  is  concave  on  the  lower 
surface.  The  sole  is  produced  by  the  velvety  tissue,  a  thin  membrane 
covering  the  plantar  cushion  and  other  soft  tissues  beneath  the  coffin- 
bone.  The  horn  of  the  sole  differs  from  the  horn  of  the  wall  in  that 
its  tubes  are  not  straight  and  from  the  fact  that  it  scales  off  in  pieces 
over  the  whole  surface. 

The  frog  is  a  triangular-shaped  body,  divided  into  two  equal  parts 
by  a  deep  fissure,  extending  from  its  apex  in  front  to  the  base.  It 
fills  the  triangular  space  in  the  sole,  to  which  it  is  intimately  attached 
by  its  borders.  The  horn  of  the  frog  is  produced  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  sole ;  but  it  differs  from  both  the  wall  and  sole  in  that  the  horn 
is  soft,  moist,  and  elastic  to  a  remarkable  degree.  It  is  the  function 
of  the  frog  to  destroy  shock  and  to  prevent  slipping. 


372  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

The  sensitive  lamince  are  thin  plates  of  soft  tissue,  covering  the 
entire  anterior  surface  of  the  coffin  bone.  They  are  present  in  great 
numbers,  and  by  fitting  into  corresponding  grooves  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  horn  of  the  wall  the  union  of  the  soft  and  homy  tissues  is 
made  complete.     (Plate  XXIX,  fig.  1.) 

The  plantar  cushion  is  a  thick  pad  of  fibrous  tissue  placed  behind 
and  under  the  navicular  and  coffin  bones,  and  resting  on  the  sole  and 
frog,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  downward  pressure  of  the 
column  of  bones  and  to  destroy  shock.     (Plate  XXIX,  fig.  4.) 

The  lateral  cartilages  are  attached,  one  on  either  side,  to  the  wings 
of  the  coffin  bone  by  their  inferior  borders.  They  are  thin  plates  of 
fibro-cartilage,  and  their  function  is  to  assist  the  frog  and  adjacent 
structures  to  regain  their  proper  position  after  having  been  displaced 
by  the  weight  of  the  bodv  while  the  foot  rested  on  the  ground.  (Plate 
XXIX,  fig.  2.) 

FAULTS   or   CONFORMATION. 

A  large  percentage  of  horses  have  feet  which  are  not  perfect  in 
conformation,  and  as  a  consequence  of  these  imperfections  they  are 
especially  predisposed  to  certain  injuries  and  diseases. 

Flatfoot  is  that  condition  in  which  the  sole  has  little  or  no  con- 
vexity. It  is  a  peculiarity  common  to  some  breeds,  especially  heavy, 
lymphatic  animals  raised  on  low,  marshy  soils.  It  is  confined  to  the 
fore  feet,  which  are  generally  broad,  low  heeled,  and  with  a  wall  less 
upright  than  is  seen  in  the  perfect  foot. 

In  flatfoot  there  can  be  little  or  no  elasticity  in  the  sole,  for  the 
reason  that  it  has  no  arch,  and  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  received 
on  the  entire  plantar  surface,  as  it  rests  upon  the  ground  instead  of  on 
the  wall.  For  these  reasons  such  feet  are  particularly  liable  to  bruises 
of  the  sole,  corns,  pumiced  sole,  and  exceasive  suppuration  when  the 
process  is  once  established.  Horses  with  flatfoot  should  be  shod  with 
a  shoe  having  a  wide  web,  pressing  on  the  wall  only,  while  the  heels 
and  frog  are  never  to  be  pared.  Flatfoot  generally  has  weak  walls, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  the  nails  of  the  shoe  are  readily  loosened  and 
the  shoe  cast. 

Clubfoot  is  a  term  applied  to  such  feet  as  have  the  wall  set  nearly 
perpendicular.  When  this  condition  is  present  the  heels  are  high, 
the  fetlock  joint  is  thrown  forward,  or  knuckles,  and  the  weight  of 
the  animal  is  received  on  the  toes.  Many  mules  are  clubfooted, 
esp)ecially  behind,  where  it  seems  to  cause  little  or  no  inconvenience. 
Clubfoot  may  be  cured  by  cutting  the  tendons  in  severe  rases;  but,  as 
a  rule,  special  shoeing  is  the  only  measure  of  relief  that  can  be 
adopted.  The  toe  should  not  be  pared,  but  the  heels  are  to  be  lowered 
as  much  as  possible,  and  a  shoe  put  on  with  a  long  projecting  toe 
piece,  slightly  turned  up,  while  the  heels  of  the  shoe  are  to  be  made 
thin. 


PJLATK   XXX  [ 


H..       % 


.   fe     o.,...r. 


Ar.tJKil,  thick/ u:ss 
of"  walls  of  hoof- 


A^- 


QiKirft'r-  rrnri;   u  I'J/i   r^-nss-rut^ 


77ir  iliijiip  a/I, I  /ini/  ir/tifdic.';  it/)//lic</ . 


I  '/'or  crack.  !V(t// rrntuvcd  to  show 

\  iihso/ptif)/i  of  ri>rTt/i    hunt:. 


(rarA-c,/  na/Zs.  "'<<'  r/f'rcl  af  (liuir/c/-    Crark 

(U'AH'ri':H-cHA(n<  axd  H}-:MKniKs. 


P  '  r  N  A  €iD  N  - 


INTERFERING.  373 

Crookedfoot  is  that  condition  in  which  one  side  of  the  wall  is  higher 
than  the  other.  If  the  inside  wall  is  the  higher,  the  ankle  is  thrown 
outward,  so  that  the  fetlock  joints  are  abnormally  wide  apart  and  the 
toes  close  together.  Animals  with  this  deformity  are  "  pigeon-toed," 
and  are  prone  to  interfere,  the  inside  toe  striking  the  opposite  fetlock. 
If  but  one  foot  is  affected,  the  liability  to  interfere  is  still  greater,  for 
the  reason  that  the  fetlock  of  the  perfect  leg  is  more  near  the  center 
plane. 

When  the  outside  heel  is  the  higher  the  ankle  is  thrown  in  and  the 
toe  turns  out.  Horses  with  such  feet  interfere  with  the  heel.  If  but 
one  foot  is  so  affected,  the  liability  to  interfere  is  less  than  where  both 
feet  are  affected,  for  the  reason  that  the  ankle  of  the  perfect  leg  is 
not  so  near  to  the  center  plane.  Such  animals  are  especially  liable  to 
stumbling  and  to  lameness  from  injury  to  the  ligaments  of  the  fetlock 
joints.  The  deformity  is  to  be  overcome  by  such  shoeing  as  will 
equalize  the  disparity  in  length  of  walls,  and  by  proper  boots  to 
protect  the  fetlocks  from  interfering. 

INTERFERING. 

An  animal  is  said  to  interfere  when  one  foot  strikes  the  opposite 
leg,  as  it  passes  by,  during  locomotion.  The  inner  surface  of  the 
fetlock  joint  is  the  part  most  subject  to  this  injury,  although,  under 
certain  conditions,  it  may  happen  to  any  part  of  the  ankle.  It  is 
seen  more  often  in  the  hind  than  in  the  fore  legs.  Interfering  causes 
a  bruise  of  the  skin  and  deeper  tissues,  generally  accompanied  by  an 
abrasion  of  the  surface.  It  may  cause  lameness,  dangerous  tripping, 
and  thickening  of  the  injured  parts.     (See  also  page  362.) 

Causes. — Faulty  conformation  is  the  most  prolific  cause  of  inter- 
fering. When  the  bones  of  the  leg  are  so  united  that  the  toe  of  the 
foot  turns  in  (pigeon-toed),  or  when  the  fetlock  joints  are  close 
together  and  the  toe  turns  out,  when  the  leg  is  so  deformed  that  the 
whole  foot  and  ankle  turn  either  in  or  out,  interfering  is  almost  sure 
to  follow.  It  may  happen,  also,  when  the  feet  grow  too  long,  from 
defective  shoeing,  rough  or  slippery  roads,  from  the  exhaustion  of 
labor  or  sickness,  swelling  of  the  leg,  high  knee  action,  fast  work, 
and  because  the  chest  or  hips  are  too  narrow. 

Symptoms. — Generally,  the  evidences  of  interfering  are  easily 
detected,  for  the  parts  are  tender,  swollen,  and  the  skin  broken.  But 
very  often,  especially  in  trotters,  the  flat  surface  of  the  hoof  strikes 
the  fetlock  without  evident  injur3\  and  attention  is  directed  to  these 
parts  only  by  the  occasional  tripping  and  unsteady  gait.  In  such 
cases  proof  of  the  cause  may  be  had  by  walking  and  trotting  the 
animal,  after  first  painting  the  inside  toe  and  quarter  of  the  suspected 
foot  with  a  thin  coating  of  chalk,  charcoal,  mud,  or  paint. 


374  DISEASES   OP  THE   HORSE. 

Treatment. — When  the  trouble  is  due  to  deformity  or  faulty  con- 
formation, it  may  not  be  possible  to  overcome  the  defect. 

In  such  cases,  and  as  well  in  those  due  to  exhaustion  or  fatigue,  the 
fetlock,  or  ankle,  boot  must  be  used.  In  many  instances  interfering 
may  be  prevented  by  proper  shoeing.  The  outside  heel  and  quarter 
of  the  foot  on  the  injured  leg  should  be  lowered  sufficiently  to  change 
the  relative  position  of  the  fetlock  joint,  by  bringing  it  farther  away 
from  the  center  plane  of  the  body,  thereby  permitting  the  other  foot 
to  pass  by  without  striking. 

A  very  slight  change  is  often  sufficient  to  effect  this  result.  At 
the  same  time  the  offending  foot  should  be  so  shod  that  the  shoe  may 
set  well  under  the  hoof  at  the  point  responsible  for  the  injury.  The 
shoe  should  be  reset  every  three  or  four  weeks. 

^Vhen  the  cause  has  been  removed,  cold-water  bandages  to  the 
injured  parts  will  soon  remove  the  soreness  and  swelling,  especially 
in  recent  cases.  If,  however,  the  fetlock  has  become  calloused  from 
long-continued  bruising,  a  Spanish-fly  blister  over  the  parts,  repeated 
in  two  or  three  weeks  if  necessary,  will  aid  in  reducing  the  leg  to  its 
natural  condition. 

KNUCKLING,   OR   COCKED    ANKLES. 

Knuckling  is  a  partial  dislocation  of  the  fetlock  joint,  in  which  the 
relative  position  of  the  pastern  bone  to  the  cannon  and  coronet  bones 
is  changed,  the  pastern  becoming  more  nearly  perpendicular,  with 
the  lower  end  of  the  cannon  bone  resting  behind  the  center  line  of  the 
suffraginis,  while  the  lower  end  of  this  bone  rests  behind  the  center 
line  of  the  coronet.  While  knuckling  is  not  always  an  unsoundness,  it 
nevertheless  predisposes  to  stumbling  and  to  fracture  of  the  pastern. 

Causes. — Young  foals  are  quite  subject  to  this  condition,  but  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  it  is  only  temporary.  It  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that,  before  birth,  the  legs  were  flexed ;  and  time  is  required, 
after  birth,  for  the  ligaments,  tendons,  and  muscles  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  function  of  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Horses  with  erect  pasterns  are  very  prone  to  knuckle  as  they  grow 
old,  especially  in  the  hind  legs.  All  kinds  of  heavy  work,  particu- 
larly in  hilly  districts,  and  fast  work  on  hard  race  tracks  or  roads  are 
exciting  causes  of  knuckling.  It  is  also  commonly  seen  as  an  accom- 
paniment to  that  faulty  conformation  called  clubfoot,  in  which  the 
toe  of  the  wall  is  perpendicular  and  short,  and  the  heels  high — a 
condition  most  often  seen  in  the  mule,  especially  in  the  hind  feet. 

Lastly,  knuckling  is  produced  by  disease  .of  the  suspensory  liga- 
ment or  of  the  flexor  tendons,  whereby  they  are  shortened,  and  by 
disease  of  the  fetlock  joints.     (See  page  347.) 

Treatment. — In  young  foals  no  treatment  is  necessary,  unless  there 
is  some  deformity  present,  since  the  legs  straighten  up  without  inter- 
ference in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.     When  knuckling  has  com- 


WINDGALL.  375 

menced,  the  indications  are  to  relieve  the  tendons  and  ligaments  by 
proper  shoeing.  The  foot  is  to  be  prepared  for  the  shoe  by  shorten- 
ing the  toe  as  much  as  possible,  leaving  the  heels  high ;  or  if  the  foot 
is  prepared  in  the  usual  way  the  shoe  should  be  thin  in  front,  with 
thick  heels  or  high  calks.  For  the  hind  feet  a  long-heeled  shoe  with 
calks  seems  to  do  best.  Of  course,  when  possible,  the  causes  of  knuck- 
ling are  to  be  removed;  but  since  this  can  not  always  be  done,  the 
time  may  come  when  the  patient  can  no  longer  perform  any  service, 
particularly  in  those  cases  where  both  fore  legs  are  affected,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  either  to  destroy  the  animal  or  secure  relief  by 
surgical  interference.  In  such  cases  the  tendons  between  the  fetlock 
and  knee  may  be  divided  for  the  purpose  of  securing  temporary  relief. 
Firing  and  blistering  the  parts  responsible  for  the  knuckling  may,  in 
some  instances,  effect  a  cure;  but  a  consideration  of  these  measures 
properly  belongs  to  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  in  which  knuckling 
simply  appears  as  a  sequel. 

WINDGALL. 

Joints  and  tendons  are  furnished  with  sacs  containing  a  lubricating 
fluid  called  synovia.  When  these  sacs  are  overdistended  by  reason 
of  an  excessive  secretion  of  synovia,  they  are  called  windgalls.  They 
form  a  soft,  puffy  tumor  about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut,  and  are 
most  often  found  in  the  fore  leg,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  fetlock  joint, 
between  the  tendon  and  the  shin  bone.  When  they  develop  in  the 
hind  leg  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  them  reach  the  size  of  a  walnut. 
Occasionally  they  appear  in  front  of  the  fetlock  on  the  border  of  the 
tendon.  The  majority  of  horses  are  not  subject  to  them  after  colt- 
hood  has  passed.     (See  also  page  330.) 

Causes. — Windgalls  are  often  seen  in  young,  overgrown  horses, 
where  the  body  seems  to  have  outgrown  the  ability  of  the  joints  to 
sustain  the  weight.  In  cart  and  other  horses  used  to  hard  work,  in 
trotters  with  excessive  knee  action,  in  hurdle  racers  and  hunters,  and 
in  most  cow  ponies  there  is  a  predisposition  to  windgalls.  Street-car 
horses  and  others  used  to  start  heavy  loads  on  slippery  streets  are  the 
ones  most  apt  to  develop  windgalls  in  the  hind  legs. 

Symptoms. — The  tumor  is  more  or  less  firm  and  tense  when  the  foot 
is  on  the  ground,  but  is  soft  and  compressible  when  the  foot  is  off  the 
ground.  In  old  horses  windgalls  generally  develop  slowly  and  cause 
no  inconvenience.  If  they  are  caused  by  excessive  tension  of  the  joint 
the  tumor  develops  rapidly,  is  tense,  hot,  and  painful,  and  the  animal 
is  exceedingly  lame.  The  patient  stands  with  the  joint  flexed,  and 
walks  with  short  steps,  the  toe  only  being  placed  on  the  ground. 
When  the  tumor  is  large  and  situated  upon  the  inside  of  the  leg  it 
may  be  injured  by  interfering,  causing  stumbling  and  inflammation 
of  the  sac.  Rest  generally  causes  the  tumor  to  diminish  in  size,  only 
to  fill  up  again  after  renewed  labor.     In  old  cases  the  tumors  are 


376  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

hardened,  and  may  become  converted  into  bone  by  a  deposit  of  the 
lime  salts. 

Treatment. — The  Jarge,  puffy  joints  of  suckling  colts,  as  a  rule, 
require  no  treatment,  for  as  the  animal  grows  older  the  parts  clean 
up  and  after  a  time  the  swelling  entirely  disappears. 

When  the  trouble  is  due  to  an  injury,  entire  rest  is  to  be  secured 
by  the  use  of  slings  and  a  high-heeled  shoe.  Cold-water  douches 
should  be  used  once  or  twice  a  day,  followed  by  cold-water  bandages, 
until  the  fever  has  subsided  and  the  soreness  is  largely  removed, 
when  a  blister  is  to  be  applied. 

In  old  windgalls,  which  cause  more  or  less  stiffness,  some  relief 
may  be  had  by  the  use  of  cold  compress  bandages,  elastic  boots,  or  the 
red  iodide  of  mercury  blisters.  Opening  the  sacs,  as  recommended 
by  some  authors,  is  of  doubtful  utility,  and  should  be  adopted  only 
by  the  surgeon  capable  of  treating  the  wound  he  has  made.  Enforced 
rest  until  complete  recovery  is  effected  should  always  be  insisted  upon, 
since  a  too  early  return  to  work  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  relapse. 

SPRAIN   OF   THE   FETLOCK. 

Sprain  of  the  fetlock  joint  is  most  common  in  the  fore  legs,  and,  as 
a  rule,  affects  but  one  at  a  time.  Horses  doing  fast  work,  as  trotters, 
runners,  steeplechasers,  hunters,  cow  ponies,  and  those  that  inter- 
fere, are  particularly  liable  to  this  injury. 

Causes. — ^Horses  knuckling  at  the  fetlock,  and  all  those  with  dis- 
eases which  impair  the  powersof  locomotion,  such  as  navicular  disease, 
contracted  heels,  sidebones,  chronic  laminitis,  etc.,  are  predisposed  to 
sprains  of  the  fetlock.  It  generally  happens  from  a  misstep,  stum- 
bling, or  slipping,  which  results  in  the  joint  being  extended  or  flexed 
to  excess.  The  same  result  may  happen  where  the  foot  is  caught  in  a 
rut,  hole  in  a  bridge,  or  in  a  car  track,  and  the  animal  falls  or  strug- 
gles violently.  Direct  blows  and  punctured  wounds  may  also  set  up 
inflammation  of  the  joint. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  sprain  of  the  fetlock  vary  with  the 
severity  of  the  injury.  If  slight,  there  may  be  no  lameness,  but  simply 
a  little  soreness,  especially  when  the  foot  strikes  on  uneven  ground 
and  the  joint  is  twisted  a  little.  In  cases  more  severe  the  joint  swells, 
is  hot  and  puffy,  and  the  lameness  may  be  so  intense  as  to  compel  the 
animal  to  hobble  on  three  legs.  While  at  rest  the  leg  is  flexed  at  the 
joint  affected,  and  the  toe  rasts  on  the  ground. 

Treatment. — If  the  injury  is  slight,  cold-water  bandages  and  a  few 
days'  rest  are  sufficient  to  effect  recovery.  Where  there  is  an  intense 
lameness,  swelling,  etc.,  the  leg  should  be  placed  under  a  constant 
stream  of  cold  water,  as  descril>ed  in  the  treatment  for  quittor. 
When  the  inflammation  has  subsided,  a  blister  to  the  joint  should  be 
applied. 


BUPTURE   OF   SUSPENSORY   LIGAMENT.  377 

In  some  cases,  especially  in  old  horses  long  accustomed  to  fast 
work,  the  ligaments  of  the  joints  are  ruptured,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
and  the  lameness  may  last  a  long  time.  In  these  cases  the  joint 
should  be  kept  completely  at  rest ;  and  this  condition  is  best  secured 
by  the  application  of  the  plaster  of  Paris  bandages,  as  in  cases  of 
fracture.  As  a  rule,  patients  take  kindly  to  this  bandage,  and  may 
be  given  the  freedom  of  a  roomy  box  or  yard  while  wearing  it.  If 
they  are  disposed  to  tear  it  off,  or  if  sufficient  rest  can  not  otherwise  be 
secured,  the  patient  must  be  kept  in  slings. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  plaster  bandage  should  remain  on 
from  two  to  four  weeks.  If  the  lameness  returns  when  the  bandage 
is  removed,  a  new  one  should  be  put  on.  The  swelling,  which  always 
remains  after  the  other  evidences  of  the  disease  have  disappeared, 
may  be  largely  dissipated  and  the  joint  strengthened  by  the  use  of  the 
firing  iron  and  blisters. 

A  joint  once  injured  by  a  severe  sprain  never  entirely  regains  its 
original  strength,  and  is  ever  after  particularly  liable  to  a  repetition 
of  the  injur3^ 

RUPTURE  OF  THE  SUSPENSORY  LIGAMENT. 

Sprain  with  or  without  rupture  of  the  suspensory  ligament  may 
happen  in  either  the  fore  or  hind  legs,  and  is  occasionally  seen  in 
horses  of  all  classes  and  at  all  ages.  Old  animals,  however,  and  espe- 
cially hunters,  runners,  and  trotters,  are  the  most  subject  to  this 
injury,  and  with  these  classes  the  seat  of  the  trouble  is  nearly  always 
in  one  or  both  the  fore  legs.  Horses  used  for  heavy  draft  are  more 
liable  to  have  the  ligament  of  the  hind  legs  affected. 

When  the  strain  upon  the  suspensory  ligament  becomes  too  great, 
one  or  both  of  the  branches  may  be  torn  from  the  sesamoid  bones,  one 
or  both  of  the  branches  may  be  torn  completely  across,  or  the  liga- 
ment may  rupture  above  the  point  of  division. 

Symptoms. — The  most  common  injury  to  the  suspensory  ligament 
is  sprain  of  the  internal  branch  in  one  of  the  fore  legs.  The  trouble 
is  proclaimed  by  lameness,  heat,  swelling,  and  tenderness  of  the 
affected  branch,  beginning  just  above  the  sesamoid  bone  and  extend- 
ing obliquely  downward  and  forward  to  the  front  of  the  ankle.  If 
the  whole  ligament  is  involved,  the  swelling  comes  on  gradually,  and 
is  found  above  the  fetlock  and  in  front  of  the  flexor  tendons.  The 
patient  stands  or  walks  upon  the  toe  as  much  as  possible,  keeping  the 
fetlock  joint  flexed  so  as  to  relieve  the  ligament  of  tension. 

When  both  branches  are  torn  from  their  attachments  to  the  sesa- 
moids, or  both  are  torn  across,  the  lameness  comes  on  suddenly  and 
is  most  intense;  the  fetlock  descends,  the  toe  turns  up,  and,  as  the 
animal  attempts  to  walk,  the  leg  has  the  appearance  of  being  broken 
off  at  the  fetlock.     These  symptoms,  followed  by  heat,  pain,  and 


378  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

swelling  of  the  parts  at  the  point  of  injury,  will  enable  anyone  to 
make  a  diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Sprain  of  the  suspensory  ligament,  no  matter  how 
mild  it  may  be,  should  always  be  treated  by  enforced  rest  of  at  least  a 
month,  and  the  application  of  cold  douches  and  cold-water  bandages, 
firmly  applied  until  the  fever  has  subsided,  when  a  cantharides  blister 
should  be  put  on  and  repeated  in  two  or  three  weeks  if  necessary. 
When  rupture  has  taken  place,  the  patient  should  be  put  in  slings,  and 
a  constant  stream  of  cold  water  allowed  to  trickle  over  the  seat  of 
injury  until  the  fever  is  reduced.  In  the  course  of  a  week  or  ten 
days  a  plaster  of  Paris  splint,  such  as  is  used  in  fractures,  is  to  be 
applied  and  left  on  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  When  this  is  taken  off, 
blisters  may  be  used  to  remove  the  remaining  soreness ;  but  it  is  use- 
less to  expect  a  removal  of  all  the  thickening;  for,  in  the  process  of 
repair,  new  tissue  has  been  formed  which  will  always  remain. 

In  old  cases  of  sprain  the  firing  iron  may  often  be  used  with  good 
results.  As  a  rule,  severe  injuries  to  the  suspensory  ligament  inca- 
pacitate the  subject  for  anything  but  slow,  light  work. 

OVERREACH. 

An  overreach  is  where  the  shoe  of  the  hind  foot  strikes  and  injures 
the  heel  or  quarter  of  the  fore  foot.  It  rarely  happens  except  when 
the  animal  is  going  fast,  hence  is  most  common  in  trotting  and  run- 
ning horses.  In  trotters  the  accident  generally  happens  when  the 
animal  breaks  from  a  trot  to  a  run.  The  outside  heels  and  quarters 
are  most  liable  to  the  injury. 

Symptoms. — The  coronet  at  the  heel  or  quarter  is  bruised  or  cut, 
the  injury  in  some  instances  involving  the  horn  as  well.  Where  the 
hind  foot  strikes  well  back  on  the  heel  of  the  fore  foot — an  accident 
known  among  horsemen  as  "  grabbing  " — the  shoe  may  be  torn  from 
the  fore  foot  or  the  animal  may  fall  to  its  knees.  Horses  accustomed 
to  overreaching  are  often  "  bad  breakers,"  for  the  reason  that  the 
pain  of  the  injury  so  excites  them  that  they  can  not  readily  be  brought 
back  to  the  trotting  gait. 

Treatment. — If  the  injury  is  but  a  slight  bruise,  cold-water  bandages 
applied  for  a  few  days  will  remove  all  of  the  soreness.  If  the  parts 
are  deeply  cut,  more  or  less  suppuration  will  follow,  and,  as  a  rule,  it 
is  well  to  poultice  the  parts  for  a  day  or  two,  after  which  cold  baths 
may  be  used,  or  the  wounds  dressed  with  tincture  of  aloes,  oakum, 
and  a  roller  bandage. 

When  an  animal  is  known  to  be  subject  to  overreaching,  he  should 
never  be  driven  fast  without  quarter  boots,  which  are  specially  made 
for  the  protection  of  the  heels  and  quarters. 

If  there  is  a  disposition  to  "  grab  "  the  forward  shoes,  the  trouble 
may  be  remedied  by  having  the  heels  of  these  shoes  made  as  short  as 


CALK   WOUNDS   AND   FEOSTBITES.  379 

possible,  while  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  should  project  well  over  the 
hind  shoe.  When  circumstances  will  permit  of  their  use,  the  fore  feet 
may  be  shod  with  the  "  tips  "  instead  of  the  common  shoe,  as  described 
in  treatment  for  contracted  heels. 

CALK   WOUNDS. 

Horses  wearing  shoes  with  sharp  calks  are  liable  to  wounds  of  the 
coronary  region,  either  from  trampling  on  themselves  or  on  each 
other.  These  injuries  are  most  common  in  heavy  draft  horses, 
especially  on  rough  roads  and  slippery  streets.  The  fore  feet  are 
more  liable  than  the  hind  ones,  and  the  seat  of  injury  is  commonly 
on  the  quarters.  In  the  hind  feet  the  wound  often  results  from  the 
animal  resting  with  the  heel  of  one  foot  set  directly  over  the  front  of 
the  other.  In  these  cases  the  injury  is  generally  close  to  the  horn, 
and  often  involves  the  coronary  band,  the  sensitive  laminae,  the 
extensor  tendon,  and  even  the  coffin  bone. 

Treatment. — Preventive  measures  include  the  use  of  boots  to  pro- 
tect the  coronet  of  the  hind  foot,  and  the  use  of  a  blunt  calk  on  the 
outside  heel  of  the  fore  shoe,  since  this  is  generally  the  offending 
instrument  where  the  fore  feet  are  injured.  If  the  wound  is  not  deep, 
and  the  soreness  slight,  cold-water  bandages  and  a  light  protective 
dressing,  such  as  carbolized  cosmoline,  will  be  all  that  is  needed. 
"Wliere  the  injury  is  deep,  followed  by  inflammation  and  suppuration 
of  the  coronary  band,  lateral  cartilages,  sensitive  laminae,  etc.,  active 
measures  must  be  resorted  to.  Cold,  astringent  baths,  made  by 
adding  2  ounces  of  sulphate  of  iron  to  1  gallon  of  water,  should  be 
used,  followed  by  poultices  if  it  is  necessary  to  hasten  the  cleansing 
of  the  wound  by  stimulating  the  sloughing  process.  Where  the 
wound  is  deep  between  the  horn  and  skin,  especially  over  the  anterior 
tendon,  the  horn  should  be  cut  away  so  that  the  injured  tissues  may 
be  exposed.  The  subsequent  treatment  in  these  cases  should  follow 
the  directions  laid  down  in  the  article  on  toe  cracks. 

FROSTBITES. 

Excepting  the  ears,  the  feet  and  legs  are  about  the  only  parts  of 
the  horse  liable  to  become  frostbitten.  The  cases  most  commonly  seen 
are  fovmd  in  cities,  especiall}^  among  car  horses,  where  salt  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  melting  the  snow  on  curves  and  switches.  This 
mixture  of  snow  and  salt  is  splashed  over  the  feet  and  legs,  rapidly 
lowering  the  temperature  of  the  parts  to  the  freezing  point.  In 
mountainous  districts,  where  the  snowfall  is  heavy  and  the  cold  often 
intense,  frostbites  are  not  uncommon  even  among  animals  running  at 
large. 

Symptoms. — When  the  frosting  is  slight  the  skin  becomes  pale  and 
bloodless,  followed  soon  after  by  intense  redness,  heat,  pain,  and 


380  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

swelling.  In  these  cases  the  hair  may  fall  out  and  the  epidermis  peel 
off,  but  the  inflammation  soon  subsides,  the  swelling  disappears,  and 
only  an  increased  sensitiveness  to  cold  remains. 

In  cases  more  severe  irregular  patches  of  skin  are  destroyed  and 
after  a  few  days  slough  away,  leaving  slow-healing  ulcers  behind.  In 
the  cases  produced  by  low  temperatures  and  deep  snow  the  coronary 
band  is  the  part  most  often  affected. 

In  many  instances  there  is  no  destruction  of  the  skin  but  simply  a 
temporary  susjiension  of  the  horn-producing  function  of  the  coronary 
band.  The  fore  feet  are  more  often  affected  than  the  hind  ones,  and 
the  heels  and  quarters  are  less  often  involved  than  the  front  part  of 
the  foot.  The  coronary  band  becomes  hot,  swollen,  and  painful,  and 
after  two  or  three  days  the  horn  separates  from  the  band  and  slight 
suppuration  follows.  For  a  few  days  the  animal  is  lame,  but  as  the 
suppuration  disappears  the  lameness  subsides.  New  horn,  often  of  an 
inferior  quality,  is  produced  by  the  coronary  band,  and  in  time  the 
cleft  is  grown  off  and  complete  recovery  is  effected.  The  frog  is 
occasionally  frostbitten  and  may  slough  off,  exposing  the  soft  tissues 
beneath  and  causing  severe  lameness  for  a  time. 

Treatment. — Simple  frostbites  are  best  treated  by  cold  fomentations 
followed  by  applications  of  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolized  oil. 
When  portions  of  the  skin  are  destroyed,  their  early  separation  should 
be  hastened  b}'  warm  fomentations  and  poultices.  Ulcers  are  to  be 
treated  by  the  application  of  stimulating  dressings,  such  as  carbolized 
oil,  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  or  of  chloride  of  zinc, 
with  pads  of  oakum  and  flannel  bandages.  In  many  of  these  cases 
recovery  is  exceedingly  slow.  The  new  tissue  by  which  the  destroyed 
skin  is  replaced  always  shrinks  in  healing,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
unsightly  scars  are  unavoidable.  A\Tiere  the  coronary  band  is  in- 
volved it  is  generally  advisable  to  blister  the  coronet  over  the  seat  of 
injury  as  soon  as  the  suppuration  ceases,  for  the  purpose  of  stimulat- 
ing the  gro\»  th  of  now  horn.  ^Miere  a  crevasse  is  formed  between  the 
old  and  new  horn  no  serious  trouble  is  likely  to  be  met  with  until  the 
cleft  is  nearly  grown  out,  when  the  soft  tissues  may  be  exposed  by  a 
breaking  off  of  the  partly  detached  horn.  But  even  where  this  acci- 
dent happens  final  recovery  is  secured  by  poulticing  the  foot  until  a 
sufficient  growth  of  horn  protects  the  parts  from  injury. 

QUITTOR. 

Quittor  is  a  term  applied  to  various  affections  of  the  foot  wherein 
the  tissues  which  are  involved  undergo  a  process  of  defeneration  that 
results  in  the  formation  of  a  slough  followed  by  the  elimination  of  the 
diseased  structures  by  means  of  a  more  or  less  extensive  suppuration. 

For  convenience  of  consideration  quittors  may  be  divided  into  four 


QUTTTOB.  381 

classes,  as  suggested  by  Girard:  (1)  Cutaneous  quittor,  which  is 
known  also  as  simple  quittor,  skin  quittor,  and  carbuncle  of  the  coro- 
net; (2)  tendinous  quittor :  (3)  subhorny  quittor;  and  (4)  cartilagi- 
nous quittor. 

CUTANE»U8   QUmOB. 

Simple  quittor  consists  in  a  local  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  sub- 
cutaneous connective  tissue  on  some  part  of  the  coronet,  followed  by  a 
slough  and  the  formation  of  an  ulcer  which  heals  by  suppuration. 

It  is  an  extremely  painful  disease,  owing  to  the  dense  character  of 
the  tissues  involved;  for  in  all  dense  structures  the  swelling  which 
accompanies  inflammation  always  produces  intense  pressure.  This 
pressure  not  only  adds  to  the  patient's  suffering  but  may  at  the  same 
time  endanger  the  life  of  the  affected  parts  by  strangulating  the  blood 
vessels.  It  is  held  by  some  writers  that  simple  quittor  is  most  often 
met  with  in  the  hind  feet,  but  in  my  experience  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  cases  have  developed  in  the  fore  feet.  While  any  part 
of  the  coronet  may  become  the  seat  of  attack,  the  heels  and  quarters 
are  undoubtedly  most  liable. 

Cavses. — Bruises  and  other  wounds  of  the  coronet  are  often  the 
cause  of  cutaneous  quittor;  yet  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases  the  disease  develops  without  any  known 
cause.  For  some  reason,  not  yet  satisfactorily  explained,  most  cases 
happen  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  One  explanation  of  this  fact  has 
been  attempted  in  the  statement  that  the  disease  is  due  to  the  injuri- 
ous action  of  cold  and  mud.  This  claim,  however,  seems  to  lose 
force  when  it  is  remembered  that  in  many  parts  of  this  country 
the  most  mud,  accompanied  by  freezing  and  thawing  weather,  is 
seen  in  the  early  springtime  without  a  corresponding  increase  of 
quittor.  Furthermore,  the  serious  outbreaks  of  this  disease  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana  are  seen 
in  the  fall  and  winter  seasons,  when  the  weather  is  the  driast.  It 
may  be  claimed,  and  perhaps  with  justice,  that  during  these  seasons, 
when  the  water  is  low,  animals  are  compelled  to  wade  through  more 
mud  to  drink  from  lakes  and  pools  than  is  necessary  at  other  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  when  these  lakes  and  pools  are  full.  Add  to  these 
conditions  the  further  fact  that  much  of  this  mud  is  impregnated 
with  alkaline  salts,  which,  like  the  mineral  substances  always  foun^ 
in  the  mud  of  cities,  are  more  or  less  irritating,  and  it  seems  fair  to 
conclude  that  under  certain  circumstances  mud  may  become  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  production  of  quittor." 

oA  recent  outl^reak  of  quittor  near  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  which  came  under  the 
author's  observation,  was  caused  by  the  mud  through  which  the  horses  had  to 
wade  to  reach  the  watering  troughs.  These  troughs  were  furnished  with  water 
by  windmills,  and  the  mud  holes  were  caused  by  the  waste  water.  More 
than  fifty  cases  developed  inside  of  two  months,  or  during   September  and 


382  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

While  this  disease  attacks  any  and  all  classes  of  horses,  it  is  the 
large,  common  breeds,  with  thick  skins,  heavy  coats,  and  coarse  legs 
that  are  most  often  affected.  Horses  well  groomed  and  cared  for  in 
stables  seem  to  be  less  liable  to  the  disease  than  those  running  at  large 
or  than  those  which  are  kept  and  worked  under  adverse  circumstances. 

SymptoTThs. — Lameness,  lasting  from  one  to  three  or  four  days, 
nearly  always  precedes  the  development  of  the  strictly  local  evidences 
of  quittor.  The  next  sign  is  the  appearance  of  a  small,  tense,  hot, 
and  painful  tumor  in  the  skin  of  the  coronary  region.  If  the  skin  of 
the  affected  foot  is  white,  the  inflamed  portion  will  present  a  dark-red 
or  even  a  purplish  appearance  near  the  center.  Within  a  few  hours 
the  ankle,  or  even  the  whole  leg  as  high  as  the  knee  or  hock,  becomes 
much  swollen.  The  lameness  is  now  so  great  that  the  patient  refuses 
to  use  the  foot  at  all,  but  carries  it  in  the  air  if  compelled  to  move. 
As  a  consequence,  the  opposite  leg  is  required  to  do  the  work  of  both, 
and  if  the  animal  persists  in  standing  a  greater  part  of  the  time  it, 
too,  becomes  swollen.  In  many  of  these  cases  the  suffering  is  so  in- 
tense during  the  first  few  days  as  to  cause  general  fever,  dullness, 
loss  of  appetite,  and  increased  thirst.  Generally  the  tumor  shows 
signs  of  suppuration  within  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  hours  after  its 
first  appearance;  the  summit  softens,  a  fluctuating  fluid  is  felt  be- 
neath the  skin,  which  soon  ulcerates  completely  through,  causing  the 
discharge  of  a  thick,  yellow,  bloody  pus,  containing  shreds  of  dead 
tissue  which  have  sloughed  away.  The  sore  is  now  converted  into  an 
open  ulcer,  generally  deep,  nearly  or  quite  circular  in  outline,  and 
with  hardened  base  and  edges.  In  exceptional  cases  large  patches  of 
skin,  varying  from  1  to  2^  inches  in  diameter,  slough  aAvay  at  once, 
leaving  an  ugly  superficial  ulcer.  These  sores,  especially  when  deep, 
suppurate  freely,  and  if  there  are  no  complications  they  tend  to  heal 
rapidly  as  soon  as  the  degenerated  tissue  has  softened  and  is  entirely 
removed.  When  suppuration  is  fully  established,  the  lameness  and 
general  symptoms  subside.  Where  but  a  single  tumor  and  abscess 
form,  the  disease  progresses  rapidly,  and  recovery,  under  proper 
treatment,  may  be  effected  in  from  two  to  three  weeks ;  but  when  two 
or  more  tumors  are  developed  at  once,  or  where  the  fc.rmation  of  one 
tumor  is  rapidly  succeeded  by  another  for  an  indefinite  time,  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  patient  are  greatly  increased,  the  case  is  more  difficult 
to  treat,  and  recovery  is  more  slow  and  less  certain. 

October.  In  these  fifty  cases  all  forms  of  the  disease  and  all  possible  compli- 
cations were  presented.  During  the  rainy  season  at  Leadvllle,  Colo.,  outbreaks 
of  quittor  are  common,  and  the  disease  is  so  virulent  that  it  has  long  been 
known  as  the  "  Leadvllle  foot  rot."  The  soil  being  rich  in  imneral  matters  is 
no  doubt  the  cause  of  the  outbreaks.  In  the  city  of  Montreal  quittor  Is  said  to 
be  very  common  in  the  early  springtime,  when  the  streets  are  muddy  from  the 
melting  snow  and  Ice. 


QTJITTOR.  383 

This  form  of  quittor  is  often  complicated  with  the  tendinous  and 
subhomy  quittors  by  an  extension  of  the  sloughing  process. 

Treatment. — The  first  step  in  the  treatment  of  an  outbreak  of  quit- 
tor  should  be  the  removal  of  all  exciting  causes.  Crowding  animals 
into  small  corrals  and  stables,  where  injuries  to  the  coronet  are  likely 
to  happen  from  trampling,  especially  among  unbroken  range  horses, 
must  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

Watering  places  accessible  without  having  to  wade  through  mud 
are  to  be  supplied.  In  towns,  where  the  mud  or  dust  is  largely  impreg- 
nated with  mineral  products,  it  is  not  possible  to  adopt  complete  pre- 
ventive measures.  Much  can  be  done,  however,  by  careful  cleans- 
ing of  the  feet  and  legs  as  soon  as  the  animal  returns  from  work. 
Warm  water  should  be  used  to  remove  the  mud  and  dirt,  after  which 
the  parts  are  to  be  thoroughly  dried  with  soft  cloths. 

The  means  which  are  to  be  adopted  for  the  cure  of  cutaneous  quit- 
tor  vary  with  the  stage  of  the  disease  at  the  time  the  case  is  presented 
for  treatment.  If  the  case  is  seen  early — ^that  is,  before  any  of  the 
signs  of  suppuration  have  developed — the  affected  foot  is  to  be  placed 
under  a  constant  stream  of  cold  water,  with  the  object  of  arresting  a 
further  extension  of  the  inflammatory  process.  To  accomplish  this, 
put  the  patient  in  slings  in  a  narrow  stall  having  a  slat  or  open  floor. 
Bandage  the  foot  and  leg  to  the  knee  or  hock,  as  the  case  may  be,  with 
flannel  bandages  loosely  applied.  Set  a  tub  or  barrel  filled  with  cold 
water  above  the  patient,  and  by  the  use  of  a  small  rubber  hose  of  suf- 
ficient length  make  a  siphon  which  will  carry  the  water  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tub  to  the  leg  at  the  top  of  the  bandages.  The  stream  of 
water  should  be  quite  small,  and  is  to  be  continued  until  the  inflamma- 
tion has  entirely  subsided  or  until  the  presence  of  pus  can  be  detected 
in  the  tumor.  When  suppuration  has  commenced,  the  process  should 
be  aided  by  the  use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices  of  linseed  meal  or 
boiled  turnips.  If  the  tumor  is  of  rapid  growth,  accompanied  by 
intense  pain,  relief  is  secured  and  sloughing  largely  limited  by  a  free 
incision  of  the  parts.  The  incision  should  be  vertical  and  deep  into 
the  tumor,  care  being  taken  not  to  entirely  divide  the  coronary  band. 
If  the  tumor  is  large,  more  than  one  incision  may  be  necessary. 

The  foot  should  now  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  for  half  an  hour  or 
longer  and  then  poulticed.  The  hemorrhage  produced  by  the  cutting 
and  encouraged  by  the  warm  bath  is  generally  very  copious  and  soon 
gives  relief  to  the  overtension  of  the  parts. 

In  other  cases  it  will  be  found  that  suppuration  is  well  under  way, 
so  that  the  center  of  the  tumor  is  soft  when  the  patient  is  first  pre- 
sented for  treatment.  It  is  always  good  surgery  to  relieve  the  tumor 
of  pus  whenever  its  presence  can  be  detected;  hence  in  these  cases  a 
free  incision  must  be  made  into  the  softened  parts,  the  pus  evacuated, 
and  the  foot  poulticed. 


384  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

By  surgical  interference  the  tumor  is  now  converted  into  an  open 
sore  or  ulcer,  which,  after  it  has  been  well  cleaned  by  warm  baths 
and  poultices  applied  for  two  or  three  days,  needs  to  be  protected  by 
proper  dressings.  The  best  of  all  protective  dressings  is  made  of 
small  balls,  or  pledgets,  of  oakum,  carefully  packed  into  the  wound 
and  held  in  place  by  a  roller  bandage  4  yards  long,  from  3  to  4  inches 
wide,  made  of  common  bedticking  and  skillfully  applied. 

The  remedies  which  may  be  used  to  stimulate  the  healing  process 
are  many,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  are  applied  in  the  form  of  solutions  or 
tinctures. 

In  my  own  practice  I  prefer  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  1 
part,  water  500  parts,  with  a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid  or  a  few 
grains  of  muriate  of  ammonia  added  to  cause  the  mercury  to  dissolve. 
The  balls  of  oakum  are  wet  with  this  solution  before  they  are  applied 
to  the  wound. 

Among  the  other  remedies  which  may  be  used,  and  perhaps  with 
equally  as  good  results,  will  be  noted  the  sulphate  of  copper,  iron,  and 
zinc,  5  grains  of  either  to  the  ounce  of  water ;  chloride  of  zinc,  5  grains 
to  the  ounce;  carbolic  acid,  20  drops  dissolved  in  an  equal  amount  of 
glycerin  and  added  to  1  ounce  of  water;  nitrate  of  silver,  10  grains  to 
the  ounce  of  water ;  and  creolin,  pure  or  diluted. 

If  the  wound  is  slow  to  heal,  it  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  change 
the  remedies  every  few  days. 

If  the  wound  is  pale  in  color,  the  granulations  transparent  and 
glistening,  the  tincture  of  aloes,  tincture  of  gentian,  or  the  spirits  of 
camphor  may  do  best. 

When  the  sore  is  red  in  color  and  healing  rapidly,  an  ointment 
made  of  1  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  40  parts  of  cosmoline  or  vaseline  is 
all  that  is  needed. 

If  the  granulations  continue  to  grow  until  a  tumor  is  formed  which 
projects  beyond  the  surrounding  skin,  it  should  be  cut  off  with  a 
sharp,  clean  knife,  and  the  foot  poulticed  for  twenty-four  hours, 
after  which  the  wound  is  to  be  well  cauterized  daily  with  lunar 
caustic  and  the  bandages  applied  with  great  firmness. 

The  question  as  to  how  often  the  dressings  should  be  renewed  must 
be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  wound,  etc.  If  the  sore  is  sup- 
purating freely  it  will  be  necessary  to  renew  the  dressing  every 
twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours;  if  the  discharge  is  small  in  quan- 
tity and  the  patient  comfortable,  the  dressing  may  be  left  on  for 
several  days;  in  fact,  the  less  often  the  wound  is  disturbed  the  better, 
in  so  long  as  the  healing  process  is  healthy.  When  the  sore  com- 
mences to  skin  over,  the  edges  should  be  lightly  touched  with  lunar 
caustic  at  each  dressing.  The  patient  may  now  be  given  a  little 
exercise  daily ;  but  the  bandages  must  be  kept  on  until  the  wound  is 
entirely  healed. 


QUITTOE.  385 

TENDINOUS    QUITTOB. 

This  form  of  quittor  differs  from  the  cutaneous  in  that  it  not  only 
affects  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  but  involves,  also,  the  ten- 
dons of  the  leg,  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
bones  of  the  foot  as  well. 

Fortunately  this  form  of  quittor  is  less  common  than  the  preced- 
ing; yet  any  case  beginning  as  simple  cutaneous  quittor  may  at  any 
time  during  its  course  become  complicated  by  the  death  of  some  part 
of  the  tendons,  by  gangrene  of  the  ligaments,  sloughing  of  the  coro- 
nary band,  caries  of  the  bones,  or  inflammation  and  suppuration  of 
the  synovial  sacs  and  joints,  thereby  converting  a  simple  quittor  into 
one  which  will,  in  all  probability,  either  destroy  the  patient's  life  or 
maim  him  for  all  time. 

Causes. — Tendinous  quittor  is  caused  by  the  same  injuries  and  influ- 
ences that  produce  the  simple  form.  Zundel  believes  it  to  be  a  not 
infrequent  accompaniment  of  distemper.  In  my  own  experience  I 
have  seen  nothing  to  verify  this  belief,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  young 
animals  are  more  liable  to  have  tendinous  quittor  than  older  ones, 
and  that  they  are  much  more  likely  to  make  a  good  recovery. 

Symptoms. — ^Vhen  a  case  of  simple  quittor  is  transformed  into  the 
tendinous  variety  the  change  is  announced  by  a  sudden  increase  in 
the  severity  of  all  the  symptoms.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  attack 
primarily  is  one  of  tendinous  quittor,  the  earliest  symptom  seen  is  a 
well-marked  lameness.  In  those  cases  due  to  causes  other  than  in- 
juries this  lameness  is  at  first  very  slight,  and  the  animal  limps  no 
more  in  trotting  than  in  walking;  but  later  on,  generally  during  the 
next  forty-eight  hours,  the  lameness  increases  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  patient  often  refuses  to  use  the  leg  at  all.  An  examination  made 
during  the  first  two  days  rarely  discloses  any  cause  for  this  lameness ; 
it  may  not  be  possible  even  to  say  with  certainty  that  the  foot  is  the 
seat  of  the  trouble.  On  the  third  or  fourth  day,  sometimes  as  late  as 
the  fifth,  a  doughy-feeling  tumor  will  be  found  forming  on  the  heel 
or  quarter.  This  tumor  grows  rapidly,  feels  hot  to  the  touch,  and  is 
extremely  painful.  As  the  tumor  develops,  all  the  other  symptoms 
increase  in  intensity;  the  pulse  is  rapid  and  hard;  the  breathing 
quick;  the  temperature  elevated  three  or  four  degrees;  the  appetite 
is  gone;  thirst  increased,  and  the  lameness  so  great  that  the  foot  is 
carried  in  the  air  if  locomotion  is  attempted.  At  this  stage  of  the 
disease  the  patient  generally  seeks  relief  b}^  lying  upon  the  broad  side, 
with  outstretched  legs;  the  coat  is  bedewed  with  a  clammy  sweat, 
and  every  respiration  is  accompanied  by  a  moan.  The  leg  soon  swells 
to  the  fetlock;  later  this  swelling  gradually  extends  to  the  knee  or 
hock,  and  in  some  cases  reaches  the  body.  As  a  rule,  several  days 
elapse  before  the  disease  develops  a  well-defined  abscess,  for,  owing 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 25 


380  DISEASES   OF   THE    H0B8E. 

to  the  dense  structure  of  the  bones,  ligaments,  and  tendons,  the  sup- 
purative process  is  a  slow  one,  and  the  pus  is  prevented  from  readily 
collecting  in  a  mass. 

Recently  I  made  a  post-mortem  examination  on  a  typical  case  of  this 
disease,  where  the  animal  had  died  on  the  fourth  day  after  being 
found  on  the  range  slightly  lame.  The  suffering  had  been  intense; 
yet  the  only  external  evidences  of  the  disease  consisted  in  the  shed- 
ding of  the  hoof  from  the  right  fore  foot  and  a  limited  swelling  of 
the  leg  to  the  knee.  The  sloughing  of  the  hoof  took  place  two  or 
three  hours  before  death,  and  was  accompanied  with  but  little  suppu- 
ration and  no  hemorrhage.  The  skin  from  the  knee  to  the  foot  was 
thickened  from  watery  infiltration  (edema),  and  on  the  inside  quarter 
three  holes,  each  about  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  were  found.  All 
had  ragged  edges,  while  but  one  had  gone  deep  enough  to  perforate 
the  coronary  band.  The  loose  connective  tissue  beneath  the  skin  was 
distended,  with  a  gelatinous  infiltration  over  the  whole  course  of  the 
flexor  tendons  and  to  the  fetlock  joint  over  the  tendon  in  front.  The 
soft  tissues  covering  the  coffin  bone  were  loosened  in  patches  by  col- 
lections of  pus  which  had  formed  beneath  the  sensitive  laminae.  The 
coffin  and  pastern  joints  were  inflamed,  as  were  also  the  coffin,  navicu- 
lar, and  coronet  bones,  while  the  outside  toe  of  the  coffin  bone  had 
become  softened  from  suppuration  until  it  readily  crumbled  between 
the  fingers.  The  coronary  band  was  largely  destroyed  and  completely 
separated  from  the  other  tissues  of  the  foot.  The  inner  lateral  carti- 
lage was  gangrenous,  as  was  also  a  small  spot  on  the  extensor  tendon 
near  its  point  of  attachment  on  the  coffinbone.  Several  small  collec- 
tions of  pus  were  found  deep  in  the  connective  tissue  of  the  coronary 
region ;  along  the  course  of  the  sesamoid  ligaments ;  in  the  sheath  of 
the  flexor  tendons;  under  the  tendon  just  below  the  fetlock  joint  in 
front,  and  in  the  coffin  joint. 

But  all  cases  of  tendinous  quittor  are  by  no  means  so  complicated 
as  this  one  was.  In  rare  instances  the  swelling  is  slight,  and  after  a 
few  days  the  lameness  and  other  symptoms  subside,  without  any  dis- 
charge of  pus  from  an  external  opening.  In  most  cases,  however, 
from  one  to  half  a  dozen  or  more  soft  points  arise  on  the  skin  of  the 
coronet,  open,  and  discharge  slowly  a  thick,  yellow,  fetid,  and  bloody 
matter.  In  other  cases  the  suppurative  process  is  largely  confined  to 
the  sensitive  laminae  and  plantar  cushion,  when  the  suffering  is 
intense  until  the  pus  finds  an  avenue  of  escape  by  separating  the  hoof 
from  the  coronary  band,  at  or  near  the  heels,  without  causing  a  loss 
of  the  whole  homy  box.  When  the  flexor  tendon  is  involved  deep  in 
the  foot,  the  discharge  of  pus  usually  takes  place  from  an  opening  in 
the  hollow  of  the  heel ;  if  the  sesamoid  ligament  or  the  sheath  of  the 
flexors  are  affected,  the  opening  is  nearer  the  fetlock  joint ;  although 
in  most  of  these  cases  the  suppuration  spreads  along  the  course  of  the 


QUITTOB.        '  387 

tendons  until  the  navicular  joint  is  involved,  and  extensive  sloughing 
of  the  deeper  parts  follows. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  tendinous  quittor  is  to  be  directed 
toward  the  saving  of  the  foot.  First  of  all  an  effort  must  be  made  to 
prevent  suppuration ;  and  if  the  patient  is  seen  at  the  beginning,  cold 
irrigation,  recommended  in  the  treatment  for  cutaneous  quittor,  is  to 
be  resorted  to.  Later  on,  when  the  tumor  is  forming  on  the  coronet, 
,  the  knife  must  be  used,  and  a  free  and  deep  incision  made  into  the 
swelling.  Whenever  openings  appear  from  which  pus  escapes,  they 
should  be  carefully  probed ;  in  all  instances  these  fistulous  tracts  lead 
down  to  dead  tissue  which  nature  is  trying  to  remove  by  the  process 
of  sloughing.  If  a  counter  opening  can  be  made,  which  will  enable  a 
more  ready  escape  of  the  pus,  it  should  be  done  at  once ;  for  instance, 
if  the  probe  shows  that  the  discharge  originates  from  the  bottom  of 
the  foot,  the  sole  must  be  pared  through  over  the  seat  of  trouble. 
Whenever  suppuration  has  commenced  the  process  is  to  be  stimulated 
by  the  use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices.  The  pus  which  accumulates 
in  the  deeper  parts,  especially  along  the  tendons,  around  the  joints, 
and  in  the  hoof,  is  to  be  removed  by  pressure  and  injections  made 
with  a  small  syringe,  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day.  As  soon  as 
the  discharge  assumes  a  healthy  character  and  diminishes  in  quantity, 
stimulating  solutions  are  to  be  injected  into  the  open  wounds.  Where 
the  tendons,  ligaments,  and  other  deeper  parts  are  affected,  a  strong 
solution  of  carbolic  acid — 1  to  4 — should  be  used  at  first.  Or  strong 
solutions  of  tincture  of  iodine,  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper, 
bichloride  of  mercury,  etc.,  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  carbolic ;  after 
which  the  remedies  and  dressings  directed  for  use  in  simple  quittor 
are  to  be  used.  In  those  cases  where  the  fistulous  tracts  refuse  to 
heal  it  is  often  necessary  to  burn  them  out  with  a  saturated  solution 
of  caustic  soda,  equal  parts  of  muriatic  acid  and  water;  or,  better 
still,  with  a  long,  thin  iron,  heated  white  hot. 

But  no  matter  what  treatment  is  adopted,  a  large  percentage  of 
the  cases  of  tendinous  quittor  fail  to  make  good  recoveries.  A\Tiere 
the  entire  hoof  sloughs  away,  the  growth  of  a  new,  but  soft  and  imper- 
fect, hoof  may  be  secured  by  carefully  protecting  the  exposed  tissues 
with  proper  bandages.  When  the  joints  are  opened  by  deep  slough- 
ing, recovery  may  eventually  take  place,  but  the  joint  remains  immov- 
able ever  after.  If  caries  of  a  small  part  of  the  coffin  bone  takes  place, 
it  may  be  removed  by  an  operation ;  but  if  much  of  the  bone  is  affected, 
or  if  the  navicular  and  coronet  bones  are  involved  in  the  carious  proc- 
ess, the  only  hope  for  a  cure  is  in  the  amputation  of  the  foot.  This 
operation  is  advisable  only  where  the  animal  is  valuable  for  breeding 
purposes.  In  all  other  cases  where  there  is  no  hope  for  recovery  the 
patient's  suffering  should  he  relieved  by  death.  In  tendinous  quittor 
much  thickening  of  the  coronary  region,  and  sometimes  of  the  ankle 


388  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

and  fetlock,  remains  after  suppuration  has  ceased  and  the  fistulous 
tracts  have  healed.  To  stimulate  the  reabsorption  of  this  new  and 
unnecessary  tissue,  the  parts  should  be  fired  with  the  hot  iron,  or,  in 
its  absence,  repeated  blistering  with  the  biniodide  of  mercury  oint- 
ment may  largely  accomplish  the  same  result. 

SUBHOBNY    QUITTOB. 

This  is  the  most  common  form  of  the  disease.  It  is  generally  seen 
in  but  one  foot  at  a  time,  and  more  often  in  the  fore  than  in  the  hind 
feet.  It  nearly  always  attacks  the  inside  quarter,  but  may  affect  the 
outside  quarter,  the  band  in  front,  or  the  heel,  where  it  is  of  but  little 
consequence.  It  consists  in  the  inflammation  of  a  small  part  of  the 
coronary  band  and  adjacent  skin,  followed  by  sloughing  and  suppura- 
tion, which  in  most  cases  extends  to  the  neighboring  sensitive  laminae. 

Causes. — Injuries  to  the  coronet,  such  as  bruises,  overreaching,  and 
calk  wounds,  are  considered  as  the  common  causes  of  this  disease. 
Still  cases  occur  in  which  there  appears  to  be  no  existing  cause,  just 
as  in  the  other  forms  of  guittor,  and  it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that 
subhomy  quittor  may  also  be  produced  by  internal  causes. 

Symptoms. — At  the  outset  the  lameness  is  always  severe,  and  the 
patient  often  refuses  to  use  the  affected  foot.  Swelling  of  the  coronet 
close  to  the  top  of  the  hoof  causes  the  quarter  to  protrude  beyond  the 
wall.  This  tumor  is  extremely  sensitive,  and  the  whole  foot  is  hot 
and  painful.  After  a  few  days  a  small  spot  in  the  skin,  over  the 
most  elevated  part  of  the  tumor,  softens  and  opens  or  the  hoof  sepa- 
rates from  the  coronary  band  at  the  quarter  or  well  back  toward  the 
heel.  From  this  opening,  wherever  it  may  be,  a  thin,  watery, 
offensive  discharge  escapes,  often  dark  in  color,  at  times  mixed  with 
blood,  and  always  containing  a  considerable  percentage  of  pus. 

Probing  will  now  disclose  a  fistulous  tract  leading  to  the  bottom  of 
the  diseased  tissues.  If  the  opening  is  small,  there  is  a  tendency  upon 
the  part  of  the  suppurative  process  to  spread  downward ;  the  pus 
gradually  separates  the  hoof  from  the  sensitive  laminae  until  the  solo 
is  reached,  and  even  a  portion  of  this  may  be  undermined. 

As  a  rule,  the  slough  in  this  form  of  quittor  is  not  deep,  and  if  the 
case  receives  early  and  proper  treatment  complications  are  generally 
avoided ;  but  if  the  case  is  neglected,  and,  occasionally,  even  in  spite 
of  the  be&*t  of  treatment,  the  disease  spreads  until  the  tendon  in  front, 
the  lateral  cartilage,  or  the  coffin  bone  and  joint  as  well  are  involved. 

In  all  cases  of  subhomy  quittor  much  relief  is  experienced  when 
the  slough  comes  away,  and  rapid  recovery  is  made.  If,  however, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  days,  the  lameness  remains  and  the  wound 
continues  to  discharge  a  thin  unhealthy  matter,  the  probabilities  are 
that  the  disease  is  spreading,  and  pus  collecting  in  the  deeper  parts  of 
the  foot.     In  Zundel's  opinion,  if  the  use  of  the  probe  now  detects  a 


QUITTOR.  389 

pus  cavity  below  the  opening,  a  cartilaginous  quittor  is  in  the  course 
of  development. 

Treatment. — Hot  baths  and  poultices  are  to  be  used  until  the  pres- 
ence of  pus  can  be  determined,  when  the  tumor  is  to  be  opened  with 
a  knife  or  sharp-pointed  iron  heated  white  hot.  The  hot  baths  and 
poultices  are  now  continued  for  a  few  days  or  until  the  entire  slough 
has  come  away  and  the  discharge  is  diminished,  when  dressings 
recommended  in  the  treatment  for  cutaneous  quittor  are  to  be  used 
until  recovery  is  completed.  In  cases  where  the  discharge  comes 
from  a  cleft  between  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof  and  the  coronary 
band,  always  pare  away  the  loosened  horn,  so  that  the  soft  tissues 
beneath  are  fully  exposed,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  healthy 
parts.  This  operation  permits  of  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  dis- 
eased parts,  the  easy  removal  of  all  gangrenous  tissue,  and  a  better 
application  of  the  necessary  remedies  and  dressings.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  the  operation  is  that  the  patient  is  prevented  from  being  early 
returned  to  work. 

When  the  probe  shows  that  pus  has  collected  under  the  coffin  bone 
the  sole  must  be  pared  through,  and  if  caries  of  the  bone  is  present 
the  dead  parts  cut  away.  After  either  of  these  operations  the  wound 
is  to  be  dressed  with  the  oakum  balls,  saturated  in  the  bichloride  of 
mercury  solution,  as  previously  directed,  and  the  bandages  tightly 
applied.  Generally  the  discharge  for  the  first  two  or  three  days  is  so 
great  that  the  dressings  need  to  be  changed  every  twenty- four  hours; 
but  when  the  discharge  diminishes,  the  dressing  may  be  left  on  from 
one  to  two  weeks.  Before  the  patient  is  returned  to  work,  a  bar  shoe 
should  be  applied,  since  the  removed  quarter  or  heel  can  only  be  made 
perfect  again  by  a  new  growth  from  the  coronary  band. 

Tendinous  or  cartilaginous  complications  are  to  be  treated  as 
directed  under  those  headings. 

,  CABTILAGINOUS    QUITTOR. 

This  form  of  quittor  may  commence  as  a  primary  inflammation  of 
the  lateral  cartilage,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  appears  as  a 
sequel  to  cutaneous  or  subhorny  quittor.  It  may  affect  either  the  fore 
or  hind  feet,  but  is  most  commonly  seen  in  the  former.  As  a  rule,  it 
attacks  but  one  foot  at  a  time,  and  but  one  of  the  cartilages,  generally 
the  inner  one.  It  is  always  a  serious  affection  for  the  reason  that,  in 
many  cases,  it  can  only  be  cured  by  a  surgical  operation,  requiring  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  parts  involved  and  much 
surgical  skill. 

Causes. — Direct  injuries  to  the  coronet,  such  as  trampling,  pricks, 
burns,  and  the  blow  of  some  heavy  falling  object  which  may  puncture, 
bruise,  or  crush  the  cartilage,  are  the  common  direct  causes  of  carti- 
laginous quittor.    Besides  being  a  sequel  to  the  other  forms  of  quittor, 


390  DISEASES    OF   THE    HOBSE. 

it  sometimes  develops  as  a  complication  in  suppurative  corn,  canker, 
grease,  laminitis,  and  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot.  Animals  used 
for  heavy  draft,  and  those  with  flat  feet  and  low  heels,  are  more 
liable  to  the  disease  than  others,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  are 
more  exposed  to  injury.  Eough  roads  also  predispose  to  the  disease 
by  increasing  liability  to  injury. 

Symptoms. — 'V\Tien  the  disease  commences  as  a  primary  inflamma- 
tion of  the  cartilage,  lameness  develops  with  the  formation  of  a  swell- 
ing on  the  side  of  the  coronet  over  the  quarter.  The  severity  of  this 
lameness  depends  largely  upon  the  part  of  the  cartilage  which  is  dis- 
eased, for  if  the  disease  is  situated  in  that  part  of  the  cartilage  nearest 
the  heel,  where  the  surrounding  tissues  are  soft  and  spongy,  the  lame- 
ness may  be  very  slight,  especially  if  the  patient  is  required  to  go  no 
faster  than  a  walk;  but  when  the  middle  and  anterior  parts  of  the 
cartilage  are  diseased,  the  pain  and  consequent  lameness  are  much 
greater,  for  the  tissues  are  less  elastic  and  the  coflSn  joint  is  more 
likely  to  become  affected. 

Except  in  the  cases  to  be  noted  hereafter,  one  or  more  fistulous 
openings  finally  appear  in  the  tumor  on  the  coronet.  These  openings 
are  surrounded  by  a  small  mass  of  granulations  which  are  elevated 
above  the  adjacent  skin  and  bleed  readily  if  handled.  A  probe  shows 
these  fistulous  tracts  to  be  more  or  less  sinuous,  but  always  leading  to 
one  point — the  gangrenous  cartilage.  When  cartilaginous  quittor 
happens  as  a  complication  of  suppurative  corn,  or  from  punctured 
wounds  of  the  foot,  the  fistulous  tract  may  open  alone  at  the  point  of 
injury  on  the  sole. 

The  discharge  in  this  form  of  quittor  is  generally  thin,  watery,  and 
contains  enough  pus  to  give  it  a  pale  yellow  color;  it  is  offensive  to 
the  sense  of  smell,  due  to  the  detachment  of  small  flakes  of  cartilage 
which  have  become  gangrenous  and  are  seen  in  the  discharge  as  small 
greenish  colored  particles.  In  old  cases  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  some 
of  the  fistulous  openings  heal  at  the  surface ;  «this  is  followed  by  the 
gradual  collection  of  pus  in  the  deeper  parts,  forming  an  abscess, 
which  in  a  short  time  opens  at  a  pew  point.  The  wall  of  the  hoof, 
over  the  affected  quarter  and  heel,  in  very  old  cases  becomes  rough 
and  wrinkled  like  the  horn  of  a  ram,  and  generally  it  is  thicker  than 
the  corresponding  quarter,  owing  to  the  stimulating  effect  which  the 
disease  has  upon  the  coronary  band. 

Complications  may  arise  by  an  extension  of  the  disease  to  the  lat- 
eral ligament  of  the  coffin  joint,  to  the  joint  itself,  to  the  plantar 
cushion,  and  by  caries  of  the  coffin  bone. 

Treatment. — Before  recovery  can  take  place  all  of  the  dead  cartilage 
must  be  removed.  In  rare  instances  this  is  effected  by  nature  without 
assistance.  Usually,  however,  the  disease  does  not  tend  to  recovery, 
and  active  curative  measures  must  be  adopted.     The  best  and  sim- 


THRUSH.  391 

plest  treatment,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  is  the  injection  of  strong 
caustic  solutions,  which  destroy  the  diseased  cartilage  and  cause  its 
discharge,  along  with  the  other  products  of  suppuration.  In  favor- 
able cases  these  injections  will  secure  a  healing  of  the  wound  in 
from  two  to  three  weeks.  While  the  saturated  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  or  a  solution  of  10  parts  of  bichloride  of  mercury  to  100 
parts  of  water,  has  given  the  best  results  in  my  hands,  equally  as 
favorable  success  has  been  secured  by  others  from  the  use  of  caustic 
soda,  nitrate  of  silver,  sulphate  of  zinc,  tincture  of  iodine,  etc.  But 
no  matter  which  one  of  these  remedies  may  be  selected,  it  must  be  used 
at  least  twice  a  day  for  a  time.  The  solution  is  injected  into  the  vari- 
ous openings  with  enough  force  to  drive  it  to  the  bottom  of  the 
wound,  after  which  the  foot  is  to  be  dressed  with  a  pad  of  oakum, 
held  in  place  by  a  roller  bandage  tightly  applied.  While  it  is  not 
always  necessary,  it  is  often  of  advantage  to  relieve  the  pressure  on 
the  i)arts  by  rasping  away  the  hoof  over  the  seat  of  the  cartilage ;  the 
coronary  band  and  laminae  should  not  be  injured  in  the  operation. 

If  the  caustic  injections  prove  successful,  the  discharge  will  become 
healthy  and  gradually  diminish,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  second  week 
the  fistulous  tracts  are  closing  up,  and  the  injections  are  made  with 
much  difficulty. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  but  little  or  no  improvement  after 
this  treatment  has  been  used  for  three  weeks,  it  may  reasonably  be 
concluded  that  the  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  lateral  cartilage 
must  be  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  the  trouble.  As  this  operation 
can  be  safely  undertaken  only  by  an  expert  surgeon,  it  will  not  be 
described  in  this  connection. 

THRUSH. 

Thrush  is  characterized  by  an  excessive  secretion  of  unhealthy  mat- 
ter from  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  While  all  classes  of  horses  are  liable 
to  this  affectioil,  it  is  more  often  seen  in  the  common  draft  horse  than 
in  any  other  breed — a  fact  due  to  the  conditions  of  servitude  and  not 
to  the  fault  of  the  breed.  Country  horses  are  much  less  subject  to  the 
disease,  except  in  wet,  marshy  districts,  than  are  the  horses  used  in 
cities  and  towns. 

Causes. — The  most  common  cause  of  thrush  is  the  filthy  condition 
of  the  stable  in  which  the  animal  is  kept.  Mares  are  more  liable  to 
contract  the  disease  in  the  hind  feet  when  the  cause  is  due  to  filth,  while 
the  gelding  and  stallion  are  more  likely  to  develop  it  in  the  fore  feet. 
Hard  work  on  rough  and  stony  roads  may  also  induce  the  disease,  as 
may  a  change  from  dryness  to  excessive  moisture.  The  latter  cause 
is  often  seen  to  operate  in  old  track  horses,  whose  feet  are  constantly 
soaked  in  the  bath  tub  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  soreness.  Muddy 
streets  and  roads,  especially  where  mineral  substances  are  plentiful, 
excite    this    abnormal    condition    of    the    frog.     Contracted    heels. 


392  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

scratches,  and  navicular  disease  predispose  to  thrush,  while  by  some  a 
constitutional  tendency  is  believed  to  exist  among  certain  animals 
which  otherwise  present  a  perfect  frog. 

Symptoms. — At  first  there  is  simply  an  increased  moisture  in  the 
cleft  of  the  frog,  accompanied  by  an  offensive  smell.  After  a  time  a 
considerable  discharge  takes  place — thin,  watery,  and  highly  offen- 
sive, changing  gradually  to  a  thicker  purif  orm  matter,  which  rapidly 
destroys  the  horn  of  the  frog.  Only  in  old  and  severe  cases  is  the 
patient  lame  and  the  foot  feverish — cases  in  which  the  whole  frog  is 
involved  in  the  diseased  process. 

Treatment. — Thrushes  are  to  be  treated  by  cleanliness,  the  removal 
of  all  exciting  causes,  and  a  return  of  the  frog  to  its  normal  condition. 
As  a  rule,  the  diseased  and  ragged  portions  of  horn  are  to  be  pared 
away  and  the  foot  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two  with  boiled  turnips,  to 
which  may  be  added  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  handful  of  pow- 
dered charcoal  to  destroy  the  offensive  smell.  The  cleft  of  the  frog 
and  the  grooves  on  its  edges  are  then  to  be  cleaned  and  well  filled  with 
dry  calomel  and  the  foot  dressed  with  oakum  and  a  roller  bandage. 
If  the  discharge  is  profuse,  the  dressing  should  be  changed  daily; 
otherwise  it  may  be  left  on  two  or  three  days.  Where  a  constitu- 
tional taint  is  supposed  to  exist,  with  swelling  of  the  legs,  grease,  etc., 
a  purgative,  followed  by  dram  doses  of  sulphate  of  iron,  repeated 
daily,  may  be  prescribed.  In  cases  where  the  growth  of  horn  seems 
too  slow  a  Spanish-fly  blister  applied  to  the  heels  is  often  followed  by 
good  results.  Feet  in  which  the  disease  is  readily  induced  may  be 
protected  in  the  stable  with  a  leather  boot.  If  the  thrush  is  but  a 
sequel  to  other  diseases,  a  permanent  cure  may  not  be  possible. 

CANKER. 

Canker  of  the  foot  is  due  to  the  rapid  reproduction  of  a  vegetable 
parasite.  It  not  only  destroys  the  sole  and  frog,  but,  by  setting  up  a 
chronic  inflammation  in  the  deeper  tissues,  prevents  fhe  growth  of  a 
healthy  horn  by  which  the  injury  might  be  repaired.  Heavy  cart 
horses  are  more  often  affect,ed  than  those  of  any  other  class. 

Causes. — The  essential  element  in  the  production  of  canker  is  the 
parasite;  consequently  the  disease  may  be  called  contagious.  But,  as 
in  all  other  diseases  due  to  specific  causes,  the  seeds  of  the  disorder 
must  find  a  suitable  soil  in  which  to  grow  before  they  are  reproduced. 
It  may  be  said,  then,  that  the  conditions  which  favor  the  preparation 
of  the  tissues  for  a  reception  of  the  seeds  of  this  disease  are  simply 
predisposing  causes. 

The  condition  most  favorable  to  the  development  of  canker  is 
dampness — in  fact,  dampness  seems  indispensable  to  the  existence  and 
growth  of  the  parasite ;  for  the  disease  is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  high, 
dry  districts,  and  is  much  more  common  in  rainy  than  in  dry  seasons. 
Filthy  stables  and  muddy  roads  have  been  classed  among  the  causes 


CANKEB.  393 

of  canker ;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  these  conditions  can  do  more  than 
favor  a  preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  reception  of  the  disease  germ. 

All  injuries  to  the  feet  may,  by  exposing  the  soft  tissues,  render  the 
animal  susceptible  to  infection;  but  neither  the  injury  nor  the  irrita- 
tion and  inflammation  of  the  tissues  which  follow  are  sufficient  to 
induce  the  disease. 

For  some  unknown  reason  horses  with  lymphatic  temperaments — 
thick  skins,  flat  feet,  fleshy  frogs,  heavy  hair,  and  particularly  with 
white  feet  and  legs — are  especially  liable  to  canker. 

Symptoms. — Usually,  canker  is  confined  to  one  foot;  but  it  may 
attack  two,  three,  or  all  of  the  feet  at  once ;  or,  as  is  more  commonly 
seen,  the  disease  attacks  first  one  then  another,  until  all  may  have  been 
successively  affected.  When  the  disease  follows  an  injury  which  has 
exposed  the  soft  tissues  of  the  foot,  the  wound  shows  no  tendency  to 
heal,  but  instead  there  is  secreted  from  the  inflamed  parts  a  profuse, 
thin,  fetid,  watery  discharge,  which  gradually  undermines  and  de- 
stroys the  surrounding  horn,  until  a  large  part  of  the  sole  and  frog  is 
diseased.  The  living  tissues  are  swollen,  dark  colored,  and  covered 
at  certain  points  with  particles  of  new,  soft,  yellowish,  thready  horn, 
which  are  constantly  undergoing  maceration  in  the  abundant  liquid 
secretion  by  which  they  are  immersed.  As  this  secretion  escapes  to 
the  surrounding  parts,  it  dries  and  forms  small,  cheesy  masses  com- 
posed of  partly  dried  horny  matter,  exceedingly  offensive  to  the  sense 
of  smell.  When  the  disease  originates  independently  of  an  injury, 
the  first  evidences  of  the  trouble  are  the  offensive  odor  of  the  foot,  the 
liquid  secretion  from  the  cleft  and  sides  of  the  frog,  and  the  rotting 
away  of  the  horn  of  the  frog  and  sole. 

In  the  earlier  stages  there  is  no  interference  with  locomotion,  but 
later  the  foot  becomes  sensitive,  particularly  if  the  animal  is  used  on 
rough  roads,  and,  finally,  when  the  sole  and  frog  are  largely  destroyed 
the  lameness  is  severe. 

Treatment. — Since  canker  does  not  destroy  the  power  of  the  tissues 
to  produce  horn,  but  rather  excites  them  to  an  excessive  production 
of  an  imperfect  horn,  the  indications  for  treatment  are  to  restore  the 
parts  to  a  normal  condition,  when  healthy  horn  may  again  be  secreted. 
In  my  experience,  limited  though  it  has  been,  the  old  practice  of  strip- 
ping off  the  entire  sole  and  deep  cauterization,  with  either  the  hot 
iron  or  strong  acids,  is  not  attended  with  uniformly  good  results. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  recovery  can  generally  be  effected  as  surely 
and  as  speedily  with  measures  which  are  less  heroic  and  much  less 
painful.  True,  the  treatment  of  canker  is  likely  to  exhaust  the 
patience,  and  sometimes  the  resources,  of  the  attendant;  but  after 
all  success  depends  more  on  the  persistent  application  of  simple 
remedies  and  great  cleanliness  than  on  the  special  virtues  of  any 
particular  drug. 


394  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

First,  then,  clean  the  foot  with  warm  baths  and  apply  a  poultice 
containing  powdered  charcoal  or  carbolic  acid.  A  handful  of  the 
charcoal  or  a  tablespoonful  of  the  acid  mixed  with  the  poultice  serves 
to  destroy  much  of  the  oflfensive  odor.  The  diseased  portions  of 
horn  are  to  be  carefully  removed  with  sharp  instruments,  until  only 
healthy  horn  borders  the  affected  parts.  The  edges  of  the  sound  horn 
are  to  be  pared  thin,  so  that  the  swollen  soft  tissues  may  not  overlap 
their  borders.  With  sharp  scissors  cut  off  all  the  prominent  points  on 
the  soft  tissues,  shorten  the  walls  of  the  foot,  and  nail  on  a  broad, 
plain  shoe.  The  foot  is  now  ready  for  the  dressings,  and  any  of  the 
many  stimulating  and  drying  remedies  may  be  used;  but  it  will  be 
necessary  to  change  frequently  from  one  to  another,  until  finally  all 
may  be  tried. 

The  list  from  which  a  selection  may  be  made  comprises  wood  tar, 
gas  tar,  petroleum,  creosote,  phenic  acid;  sulphates  of  iron,  copper, 
and  zinc;  chloride  of  zinc,  bichloride  of  mercury,  calomel,  caustic 
soda,  nitrate  of  silver,  chloride  of  lime ;  carbolic,  nitric,  and  sulphuric 
acids. 

In  practice  I  prefer  to  give  the  newly  shod  foot  a  bath  for  an  hour 
or  two  in  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  iron,  made  by  adding  2  ounces 
of  the  powdered  sulphate  to  a  gallon  of  cold  water.  When  the  foot 
is  removed  it  is  dressed  with  oakum  balls  dipped  in  a  mixture  made 
of  Barbados  tar  1  part,  oil  of  turpentine  8  parts,  to  which  is  slowly 
added  2  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  mixture  well  stirred  and 
cooled.  The  diseased  parts  being  well  covered  with  the  balls,  a  pad 
of  oakum,  sufficiently  thick  to  cause  considerable  pressure,  is  placed 
over  them,  and  all  are  held  in  place  by  pieces  of  heavy  tin  fitted  to 
slip  under  the  shoe.  The  whole  foot  is  now  incased  in  a  boot  or 
folded  gunny  sack,  and  the  patient  turned  into  a  loose,  dry  box.  The 
dressings  are  to  be  changed  daily  or  even  twice  a  day,  at  first. 
When  they  are  removed,  all  pieces  of  new  horny  matter  which  are 
now  firmly  adherent  must  be  rubbed  off  with  the  finger  or  a  tent  of 
oakum.  As  the  secretion  diminishes,  dry  powders  may  prove  of  most 
advantage,  such  as  calomel,  sulphates  of  iron,  copper,  etc.  The  sul- 
phates should  not  be  used  pure,  but  are  to  be  mixed  with  powdered 
animal  charcoal  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  the  former  to  eight  or  ten 
of  the  latter.  When  the  soft  tissues  are  all  horned  over,  the  dress- 
ings should  be  continued  for  a  time,  weak  solutions  being  used  to 
prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  disease.  If  the  patient  is  run  down  in 
condition,  bitter  tonics,  such  as  gentian,  may  be  given  in  2-dram  doses, 
twice  a  day,  and  a  liberal  diet  of  grain  allowed. 

CORNS. 

A  corn  is  an  injury  to  the  living  horn  of  the  foot,  involving  the 
soft  tissues  beneath,  whereby  the  capillary  blood  vessels  are  ruptured 
and  a  small  amount  of  blood  escapes,  which,  by  permeating  the  horn 


coBNs.  395 

in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  stains  it  a  dark  color.  If  the  injury 
is  continuously  repeated,  the  horn  becomes  altered  in  character,  and 
the  .soft  tissues  may  suppurate  or  a  horny  tumor  develop.  Corns 
always  appear  in  the  sole  in  the  angle  between  the  bar  and  the  outside 
wall  of  the  hoof.  In  many  cases  the  laminae  of  the  bar,  of  the  wall, 
or  of  both  are  involved  at  the  same  time. 

Three  kinds  of  corns  are  commonly  recognized — the  dry,  the  moist, 
and  the  suppurative — a  division  based  solely  on  the  character  of  the 
conditions  which  follow  the  primary  injury. 

The  fore  feet  are  almost  exclusively  the  subjects  of  the  disease,  for 
two  reasons :  First,  because  they  support  a  greater  part  of  the  body ; 
secondly,  because  the  heel  of  the  fore  foot  during  progression  is  first 
placed  upon  the  ground,  whereby  it  receives  much  more  concussion 
than  the  heel  of  the  hind  foot,  in  which  the  toe  first  strikes  the 
ground. 

Causes. — It  may  be  said  that  all  feet  are  exposed  to  corns,  and  that 
even  the  best  feet  may  suffer  from  them  when  conditions  necessary  to 
the  production  of  the  peculiar  injury  are  present.  The  heavier  breeds 
of  horses  generally  used  for  heavy  work  on  rough  roads  and  streets 
seem  to  be  most  liable  to  this  trouble.     Mules  rarely  have  corns. 

Among  the  causes  and  conditions  which  predispose  to  corns  may  be 
named  high  heels,  which  change  the  natural  relative  position  of  the 
bones  of  the  foot  and  thereby  increase  the  concussion  to  which  these 
parts  are  subject;  contracted  heels,  which  in  part  destroy  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  foot,  increase  the  pressure  upon  the  soft  tissues  of  the 
heel,  and  render  lacerations  more  easy ;  long  feet,  which  by  removing 
the  frog  and  heels  too  far  from  the  ground  deprive  them  of  necessary 
moisture,  which,  in  turn,  reduces  the  elastic  properties  of  the  horn  and 
diminishes  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  heels;  and  weak  feet,  or 
those  in  which  the  horn  of  the  wall  is  too  thin  to  resist  the  tendency 
to  spread,  whereby  the  soft  tissues  are  easily  lacerated.  Wide  feet 
with  low  heels  are  always  accompanied  by  a  flat  sole  whose  posterior 
wings  either  rest  upon  the  ground  or  the  shoe,  and  as  a  consequence 
are  easily  bruised ;  at  the  same  time  the  arch  of  the  sole  is  so  broad 
and  flat  that  it  can  not  support  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  in  the  dis- 
placement which  happens  when  the  foot  is  rested  upon  the  ground  the 
soft  tissues  are  liable  to  become  bruised  or  torn. 

It  is  universally  conceded  that  shoeing,  either  as  a  direct  or  predis- 
posing cause,  is  most  prolific  in  producing  corns.  One  of  the  most 
serious  as  well  as  the  most  common  of  the  errors  in  slioeing  is  to  be 
found  in  the  preparation  of  the  foot.  Instead  of  seeking  to  maintain 
the  integrity  of  the  arch,  the  first  thing  done  is  to  weaken  it  by  freely 
paring  away  the  sole ;  nor  does  the  mutilation  end  here,  for  the  frog, 
which  is  nature's  main  support  to  the  branches  of  the  sole  and  the 
heels,  is  also  largely  cut  away.    This  not  only  i)ermits  of  an  excessive 


396  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

downward  movement  of  the  contents  of  the  homy  box,  but  it  at  the 
same  time  removes  the  one  great  means  by  which  concussion  of  the 
foot  is  destroyed.  As  adjuncts  to  the  foregoing  errors  must  be  added 
the  faults  of  construction  in  the  shoe  and  in  the  way  it  is  adjusted 
to  the  foot.  An  excess  of  concavity  in  the  shojf ,  extending  it  too  far 
back  on  the  heels,  high  calks,  thin  heels  which  permit  the  shoe  to 
spring,  short  heels  with  a  calk  set  under  the  foot,  and  a  shoe  too  light 
for  the  animal  wearing  it  or  for  the  work  required  of  him,  are  all  to 
be  avoided  as  causes  of  corns.  A  shoe  so  set  as  to  press  upon  the  sole 
or  one  that  has  been  on  so  long  that  the  hoof  has  overgrown  it  until 
the  heels  rest  upon  the  sole  and  bars  becomes  a  direct  cause  of  corns. 
Indirectly  the  shoe  becomes  the  cause  of  corns  when  small  stones, 
hard,  dry  earth,  or  other  objects  collect  between  the  sole  and  shoe. 
Lastly,  a  rapid  gait  and  excessive  knee  action,  especially  on  hard 
roads,  predispose  to  this  disease  of  the  feet. 

Symptoms. — Ordinarily  a  com  induces  sufficient  pain  to  cause  lame- 
ness. It  may  be  intense,  as  seen  in  suppurative  corn,  or  it  may  be  but 
a  slight  soreness,  such  as  that  which  accompanies  dry  corn.  It  is  by 
no  means  unusual  to  see  old  horses  having  chronic  corns  apparently  so 
accustomed  to  the  slight  pain  which  the}'^  suffer  as  not  to  limp  at  all; 
but  these  animals  are  generally  very  restless;  they  paw  their  bedding 
behind  them  at  nighty  and  often  refuse  to  lie  down  for  any  lengthened 
rest.  The  lameness  of  this  disease,  however,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be 
characteristic,  for  the  reason  that  it  varies  so  greatly  in  intensity ;  but 
the  position  of  the  leg  while  the  patient  is  at  rest  is  generally  the  same 
in  all  cases.  The  foot  is  so  advanced  that  it  is  relieved  of  all  weight, 
and  the  fetlock  is  flexed  until  all  pressure  by  the  contents  of  the  hoof 
is  removed  from  the  heels.  In  suppurative  com  the  lameness  subsides 
or  entirely  disappears  as  soon  as  the  abscess  opens.  When  the  injured 
tissues  are  much  inflamed,  as  may  happen  in  ^severe  and  recent  cases, 
the  heel  of  the  affected  side,  or  even  the  whole  foot,  is  hot  and  tender 
to  pressure.  In  dry  corn,  and  in  most  chronic  cases,  all  evidences  of 
local  fever  are  often  Avanting.  It  is  in  these  cases  that  the  patient 
goes  well  when  newly  .shod,  for  the  smith  cuts  away  the  sole  over  the 
seat  of  injury  until  all  pressure  by  the  shoe  is  removed,  and  lowers 
the  heels  so  that  concussion  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

If  a  corn  is  suspected  the  foot  should  be  examined  for  increased 
wmsibility  of  the  inside  heel.  Tapping  the  heel  of  the  shoe  with  a 
hammer  and  grasping  the  wall  and  bar  between  the  jaws  of  pincers, 
with  moderate  pressure,  will  cause  more  or  less  flinching,  if  the  dis- 
ease is  present.  For  further  evidence  the  shoe  is  removed  and  the 
heel  cut  away  with  the  drawing  knife.  As  the  horn  is  pared  out,  not 
only  the  sole  in  the  angle  is  found  discolored,  but  in  many  instances 
the  insensible  lamina;  of  the  bar  and  wall  adjacent  are  also  stained 


CORNS.  397 

with  the  escaped  blood.  In  moist  and  suppurative  corns  this  discolor- 
ation is  less  marked  than  in  dry  corn  and  may  be  entirely  wanting. 
In  these  cases  the  horn  is  soft,  often  white,  and  stringy  or  mealy,  as 
seen  in  pumiced  sole  resulting  from  founder.  When  the  whole  thick- 
ness of  the  sole  is  discolored  and  the  horn  dry  and  brittle,  it  is  gen- 
erally evidence  that  the  corn  is  an  old  one  and  that  the  exciting  cause 
has  existed  continuously.  A  moist  corn  differs  from  the  dry  corn 
in  that  the  injury  is  more  severe;  the  parts  affected  are  more  or  less 
inflamed,  and  the  horn  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  is  undermined  by  a 
citron-colored  fluid,  which  often  permeates  the  injured  sole  and 
laminae,  causing  the  horn  to  become  somewhat  spongy. 

A  suppurative  corn  differs  from  others  in  that  the  inflammation 
ends  in  suppuration.  The  pus  collects  at  the  point  of  injury  and 
finally  escapes  by  working  its  way  between  the  sensitive  and  insensi- 
ble laminae  to  the  top  of  the  hoof,  where  an  opening  is  made  between 
the  wall  and  coronary  band  at  or  near  the  heels.  This  is  the  most 
serious  form  of  corns,  for  the  reason  that  it  may  induce  gangrene  of 
the  plantar  cushion,  cartilaginous  quittor,  or  caries  of  the  coffin  bone. 

Treatment. — Since  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  what  measures 
must  be  adopted  for  the  radical  cure  of  corns,  the  author  will  advise 
the  use  of  those  which  have  proven  most  efficient  in  his  hands. 

As  in  all  other  troubles,  the  cause  must  be  discovered,  if  possible, 
and  removed.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  shoeing  will  be  at 
fault.  While  sudden  changes  in  the  method  of  shoeing  are  not  advis- 
able, it  may  be  said  that  all  errors,  either  in  the  preparation  of  the 
foot,  in  the  construction  of  the  shoe,  or  in  its  application  may  very 
properly  be  corrected  at  any  time.  Circumstances  may  at  times  make 
it  imperative  that  shoes  shall  be  worn  which  are  not  free  from  objec- 
tions; as,  for  instance,  the  shoe  with  a  high  calk;  but  in  such  cases  it 
is  considered  that  the  injuries  liable  to  result  from  the  use  of  calks  are 
less  serious  than  those  which  are  sure  to  happen  for  the  want  of  them. 

For  a  sound  foot  perfectly  formed,  a  flat  shoe,  with  heels  less  thiclc 
than  the  toe,  and  which  rests  evenly  on  the  wall  proper,  is  the  best. 
In  flat  feet  it  is  often  necessary  to  concave  the  shoe  as  much  as  possi- 
ble on  the  upper  surface,  so  that  the  sole  may  not  be  pressed  upon. 
If  the  heels  are  very  low  the  heels  of  the  shoe  may  be  made  tliicker. 
If  the  foot  is  very  broad  and  the  wall  light  toward  the  heels,  a  bar 
shoe  resting  upon  the  frog  will  aid  to  prevent  excessive  tension  upon 
the  soft  tissues  when  the  foot  receives  the  weight  of  the  body.  A 
piece  of  leather  placed  between  the  foot  and  shoe  serves  largely  to 
destroy  concussion,  and  its  use  is  absolutely  necessary  on  some  ani- 
mals to  enable  them  to  work. 

Last  among  the  preventive  measures  may  be  mentioned  those  which 
serve  to  maintain  the  suppleness  of  the  hoof.     The  dead  horn  upon 


398  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOBSE. 

the  surface  of  the  sole  not  only  retains  moisture  for  a  long  time,  but 
protects  the  living  horn  beneath  from  the  eflfects  of  evaporation ;  for 
this  reason  the  sole  should  be  pared  as  little  as  possible.  Stufiing  the 
feet  with  flaxseed  meal,  wet  clay,  or  other  like  substances,  or  damp 
dirt  floors  or  damp  bedding  of  tanbark,  greasy  hoof  ointments,  etc., 
are  all  means  which  may  be  used  to  keep  the  feet  from  becoming  too 
dry  and  hard. 

As  to  the  curative  measures  which  are  to  be  adopted  much  will 
depend  upon  the  extent  of  the  injury.  If  the  case  is  one  of  chronic 
dry  com,  with  but  slight  lameness,  the  foot  should  be  poulticed  for  a 
day  or  two  and  the  discolored  horn  pared  out,  care  being  taken  not  to 
injure  the  soft  tissues.  The  heel  on  the  affected  side  is  to  be  lowered 
until  all  pressure  is  removed  and,  if  the  patient's  labor  is  required, 
the  foot  must  be  shod  with  a  bar  shoe  or  with  one  having  stiff  heels. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  reset  the  shoe  before  the  foot  has  grown  too 
long,  else  the  shoe  will  no  longer  rest  on  the  wall,  but  on  the  sole 
and  bar. 

I  believe  in  cutting  moist  corns  out.  If  there  is  inflammation 
present,  cold  baths  and  poultices  should  be  used ;  when  the  horn  is  well 
softened  and  the  fever  allayed,  pare  out  all  of  the  diseased  horn, 
lightly  cauterize  the  soft  tissues  beneath  and  poultice  the  foot  for  two 
or  three  days.  "When  the  granulations  look  red,  dre&s  the  wound  with 
oakum  balls  saturated  in  a  weak  solution  of  tincture  of  aloes  or  spirits 
of  camphor  and  apply  a  roller  bandage.  Change  the  dressing  every 
two  or  three  days  until  a  firm,  healthy  layer  of  new  horn  covers  the 
wound,  when  the  shoe  may  be  put  on,  as  in  dry  corn,  and  the  patient 
returned  to  work. 

In  suppurative  corns  the  loosened  horn  must  be  removed,  so  that 
the  pus  may  freely  escape.  If  the  pus  has  worked  a  passage  to  the 
coronary  band  and  escapes  from  an  opening  between  the  band  and 
hoof,  an  opening  must  be  made  on  the  sole,  and  cold  baths  made 
astringent  with  a  little  sulphate  of  iron  or  copper  are  to  be  used  for  a 
day  or  two.  ^VTien  the  discharge  becomes  healthy,  the  fistulous  tracts 
may  be  injected  daily  with  a  weak  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury, 
nitrate  of  silver,  etc.,  and  the  foot  dressed  as  after  operation  for  moist 
corns.  ^Vhen  complications  arise,  the  treatment  must  be  varied  to 
meet  the  indications ;  if  gangrene  of  the  lateral  cartilage  takes  place 
it  must  be  treated  as  directed  imder  the  head  of  cartilaginous  quitter; 
if  the  velvety  tissue  is  gangrenous,  it  must  be  cut  away;  if  the  coffin 
bone  is  necrosed,  it  must  be  scraped,  and  the  resulting  wounds  treated 
on  general  principles.  After  any  of  the  operations  for  corns  have 
been  performed,  in  which  the  soft  tissues  have  been  laid  bare,  it  is 
best  to  protect  the  foot  by  a  sole  of  soft  leather  set  beneath  the  shoe 
when  the  animal  is  returned  to  work.  Only  in  rare  instances  are  the 
complications  of  corns  so  serious  as  to  destroy  the  life  or  usefulness  of 


BBTJISB   OP   THE   FEOG.  399 

the  patient.  It  is  the  wide,  flat  foot  with  low  heels  and  thin  wall 
which  is  most  liable  to  resist  all  efforts  toward  effecting  a  complete 
cure. 

BRUISE    OF   THE   FBOG. 

When  the  frog  is  severely  bruised,  the  injury  is  followed  by  suppu- 
ration beneath  the  horn,  and  at  times  by  partial  gangrene  of  the 
plantar  cushion. 

Causes. — A  bruise  of  the  frog  generally  happens  from  stepping  on 
a  rough  stone  or  other  hard  object.  It  is  more  apt  to  take  place  when 
trotting,  running,  or  jumping  than  when  at  a  slower  pace.  A  stone 
wedged  in  the  shoe  and  pressing  on  the  frog  or  between  the  sides  of 
the  frog  and  the  shoe,  if  it  remains  for  a  time,  produces  the  same 
results.  A  cut  through  the  horny  frog  with  some  sharp  instrument 
or  a  punctured  wound  by  a  blunt  pointed  instrument  may  also  cause 
suppuration  and  gangrene  of  the  plantar  cushion.  Broad,  flat  feet 
with  low  heels  and  a  fleshy  frog  are  most  liable  to  these  injuries. 

Symptoms. — Lameness,  severe  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
bruise  and  the  consequent  suppuration,  is  always  an  early  symptom. 
When  the  animal  moves,  the  toe  only  is  placed  to  the  ground  or  the 
foot  is  carried  in  the  air  and  the  patient  hobbles  along  on  three  legs.  * 
When  he  is  at  rest,  the  foot  is  set  forward  with  the  toe  on  the  ground 
and  the  leg  flexed  at  the  fetlock  joint.  As  soon  as  the  pus  finds  its 
way  to  the  surface  the  lameness  improves.  If  the  frog  is  examined 
early  the  injured  spot  may  usually  be  found;  later,  if  no  opening 
exists,  the  pus  may  be  discovered  working  its  way  toward  the  heels. 
The  horn  is  loosened  from  the  deeper  tissues,  and,  if  pared  through, 
a  thin,  yellow,  watery  and  offensive  pus  escapes.  In  other  cases  a 
ragged  opening  is  found  in  the  frog,  leading  down  to  a  mass  of  dead, 
sloughing  tissues,  which  are  pale  green  in  color  if  gangrene  of  the 
plantar  cushion  has  set  in.  In  rare  cases  the  coffin  bone  may  be  in- 
volved in  the  injury  and  a  small  portion  of  it  become  carious. 

Treatment. — If  the  injury  is  seen  at  once,  the  foot  should  be  placed 
in  a  bath  of  cold  water  to  prevent  suppuration.  If  suppuration  has 
already  set  in,  the  horn  of  the  frog,  and  of  the  bars  and  branches  of 
the  sole,  if  necessary,  is  to  be  pared  thin  so  that  all  possible  pressure 
may  be  removed,  and  the  foot  poulticed.  WTien  the  pus  has  loosened 
the  horn,  all  the  detached  portions  are  to  be  cut  awa}'.  If  the  pus  is 
discharging  from  an  opening  near  the  hair,  the  whole  frog,  or  one- 
half  of  it,  will  generally  be  found  separated  from  the  plantar  cushion, 
and  is  to  be  removed  with  the  knife.  After  a  few  days  the  gangre- 
nous portion  of  the  cushion  will  slough  off  from  the  effects  of  the 
poultice;  under  rare  circumstances  only  should  the  dead  parts  be 
removed  by  surgical  interference.  "WTien  the  slough  is  all  detached, 
the  remaining  wound  is  to  be  treated  with  simple  stimulating  dress- 


400  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

ings,  such  as  tincture  of  aloes  or  turpentine,  oakum  balls,  and  band- 
ages as  directed  in  punctured  wounds.  When  the  lameness  has  sub- 
sided, and  a  thin  layer  of  neT7  horn  has  covered  the  exposed  parts,  the 
foot  may  be  shod.  Cover  the  frog  with  a  thick  pad  of  oakum,  held 
in  place  by  pieces  of  tin  fitted  to  slide  under  the  shoe,  and  return  to 
slow  work.  Where  caries  of  the  coffin  bone,  etc.,  follow  the  injury, 
the  treatment  recommended  for  these  complications  in  punctured 
wounds  of  the  foot  must  be  resorted  to. 

PUNCTURED   WOUNDS   OF   THE   FOOT. 

Of  all  the  injuries  to  which  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  liable,  none  are 
more  common  than  punctured  wounds,  and  none  are  more  serious  than 
these  may  be  when  involving  the  more  important  organs  contained 
within  the  hoof.  A  nail  is  the  most  common  instrument  by  which  the 
injury  is  inflicted,  yet  wounds  may  happen  from  sharp  pieces  of  rock, 
glass,  wire,  knives,  etc. 

A  wound  of  the  foot  is  more  serious  when  made  by  a  blunt-pointed 
instrument  than  when  the  point  is  sharp,  and  the  nearer  the  injury  is 
to  the  center  of  the  foot  the  more  likely  are  disastrous  results  to  fol- 
low. Wounds  in  the  heel  and  in  the  posterior  parts  of  the  frog  are 
attended  with  but  little  danger,  unless  they  are  so  deep  as  to  injure 
the  lateral  cartilages,  when  quittor  may  follow.  Punctured  wounds 
of  the  anterior  parts  of  the  sole  are  more  dangerous,  for  the  reason 
that  the  coffin  bone  may  be  injured,  and  the  suppuration,  even  where 
the  wound  is  not  deep,  tends  to  spread  and  always  gives  rise  to  intense 
suffering.  The  most  serious  of  the  punctured  wounds  are  those 
which  happen  to  the  center  of  the  foot,  and  which  involve,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  depth,  the  plantar  cushion,  the  plantar  aponeurosis, 
the  sesamoid  sheath,  the  navicular  bone,  or  the  coffin  joint. 

Punctured  wounds  are  more  likely  to  be  deep  in  flat  or  convex  feet 
than  in  well-made  feet,  and,  as  a  rule,  recovery  is  neither  so  rapid  nor 
so  certain.  These  wounds  are  less  serious  in  animals  used  for  heavy 
draft  than  in  those  required  to  do  faster  work;  for  the  former  may  be 
useful,  even  if  complete  recovery  is  not  effected.  Lastly,  jjunctured 
wounds  of  the  fore  feet  are  more  serious  than  of  the  hind  feet,  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  former  the  instrument  is  apt  to  enter  the  foot  in  a 
nearly  perpendicular  line,  and,  consequently,  is  more  likely  to  injure 
the  deeper  structures  of  the  foot;  in  the  hind  foot,  the  injuiy  is 
generally  near  the  heels  and  the  wound  oblique  and  less  deep. 

Symptoms. — A  nail  or  other  sharp  instrument  may  penetrate  the 
frog  and  remain  for  several  days  without  causing  lameness;  in  fact, 
in  many  cases  of  punctured  wound  of  the  frog  the  first  evidence  of 
the  injury  is  the  finding  of  the  nail  or  the  appearance  of  an  opening 
where  the  skin  and  frog  unite,  from  which  more  or  less  pus  escapes. 
Even  when  the  sole  is  perforated,  if  the  injury  is  not  too  deep,  no 


PUNCTURED   WOUNDS   OF   FOOT.  401 

lameness  develops  until  suppuration  is  established.  In  all  cases  of 
foot  lameness,  especially  if  the  cause  is  obscure,  the  foot  should  be 
examined  for  evidence  of  injury. 

The  lameness  from  punctured  wounds,  accompanied  by  suppura- 
tion, is  generally  severe,  the  patient  often  refusing  to  use  the  affected 
member  at  all.  The  pain  being  lancinating  in  character,  he  stands 
with  the  injured  foot  at  rest  or  constantly  moves  it  back  and  forth. 
In  other  cases  the  patient  lies  down  most  of  the  time  with  the  feet 
outstretched ;  the  breathing  is  rapid,  the  pulse  fast,  the  temperature 
elevated,  and  the  body  covered  with  patches  of  sweat. 

When  the  plantar  aponeurosis  is  injured,  the  pus  escapes  with  diffi- 
culty and  the  wound  shows  no  signs  of  healing ;  the  whole  foot  is  hot 
and  very  painful.  If  the  puncture  involves  the  sesamoid  sheath,  the 
synovial  fluid  escapes.  At  first  this  fluid  is  pure,  like  joint  water,  but 
later  becomes  mixed  with  the  products  of  suppuration  and  loses  its 
clear  amber  color.  Suppuration  generally  extends  up.  the  course  of 
the  flexor  tendon,  an  abscess  forms  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel,  and 
finally  opens  somewhere  below  the  fetlock  joint.  The  whole  coronet 
is  more  or  less  swollen,  the  discharge  is  profuse  and  often  mixed  with 
blood,  yet  the  suffering  is  greatly  relieved  from  the  moment  the 
abscess  opens. 

If  the  puncture  reaches  the  navicular  bone  the  lameness  is  intense 
from  the  beginning;  but  the  only  certain  way  to  determine  the  exist- 
ence of  this  complication  is  by  the  use  of  the  probe,  and  unless  there 
is  a  free  escape  of  synovia  it  must  be  used  with  the  greatest  of  care, 
else  the  coffin  joint  may  be  opened. 

If  the  coffin  joint  has  been  penetrated,  either  by  the  offending  in- 
strument or  by  the  process  of  suppuration,  acute  inflammation  of  the 
joint  follows,  accompanied  by  high  fever,  loss  of  appetite,  etc.  The 
ankle  and  coronet  are  now  greatly  swollen,  and  dropsy  of  the  leg  to 
the  knee  or  hock,  or  even  to  the  body,  often  follows.  If  the  process 
of  suppuration  continues,  small  abscesses  appear  at  intervals  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  coronet,  the  patient  rapidly  loses  flesh,  and  may 
die  from  intense  suffering  and  blood  poisoning.  In  other  cases  the 
suppuration  soon  disappears,  and  recovery  is  effected  by  the  joint 
becoming  stiff  (anchylosis). 

When  the  wound  is  forward,  near  the  toe,  and  deep  enough  to  injure 
the  coffin  bone,  caries  always  results.  The  presence  of  the  dead  pieces 
of  bone  can  be  determined  by  the  use  of  the  probe;  the  bone  feels 
rough  and  gritty.  Furthermore,  there  is  no  disposition  upon  the  part 
of  the  wound  to  heal. 

Besides  the  complications  above  mentioned,  others  equally  as  seri- 
ous may  be  met  with.  The  tendons  may  soften  and  rupture,  the  hoof 
may  slough  off,  quitters  develop,  or  sidebones  and  ringbones  grow. 
H.  Doc.  795,  39-2 26 


402  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

Finally,  laminitis  of  the  opposite  foot  may  happen  if  the  patient  per- 
sists in  standing,  or  lockjaw  may  cause  early  death. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  the  horn  around  the  seat  of  injury  should 
be  thinned  down,  a  free  opening  made  for  the  escape  of  the  products 
of  suppuration,  and  the  foot  placed  in  a  poultice.  If  the  injury  is 
not  serious,  recovery  takes  place  in  a  few  days'  time.  ^Vhere  the 
wound  is  deeper,  it  is  better  to  put  the  foot  in  a  cold  bath  or  under  a 
stream  of  cold  water,  as  advised  in  the  treatment  for  quittor. 

If  the  bone  is  injured,  cold  baths,  containing  about  2  ounces  each 
of  sulphate  of  copper  and  sulphate  of  iron,  may  be  used  until  the 
dead  bone  is  well  softened,  when  it  should  be  removed  by  an  opera- 
tion. The  animal  must  be  cast  for  this  operation.  The  sole  is  pared 
away  until  the  diseased  bone  is  exposed,  when  all  the  dead  particles 
are  to  be  removed  with  a  drawing  knife,  and  the  wound  dressed  with 
creolin  or  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  oakum  balls,  and  a 
roller  bandage. 

Wounds  of  the  bone  which  are  made  by  a  blunt-pointed  instrument, 
like  the  square-pointed  cut  nail,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  surface  is 
driven  into  the  deeper  parts  of  the  bone,  always  progress  slowly,  and 
should  be  operated  upon  as  soon  as  the  conditions  are  favorable. 
Even  wounds  of  the  navicular  bone,  accompanied  by  caries,  may  be 
operated  on  and  the  life  of  the  patient  saved;  but  the  most  skillful 
surgery  is  required  and  only  the  experienced  operator  should  under- 
take their  treatment. 

If  there  is  an  escape  of  pure  synovial  fluid  from  a  wound  of  the 
sole,  without  injury  to  the  bone,  a  small  pencil  of  corrosive  sublimate 
should  be  introduced  to  the  bottom  of  the  wound  and  the  foot  dressed 
as  directed  above. 

The  other  complications  are  to  be  treated  as  directed  under  their 
proper  headings. 

After  healing  of  the  wounds  has  been  eflfected,  lameness,  with  more 
or  less  swelling  of  the  coronary  region,  may  remain.  In  such  cases 
the  coronet  should  be  blistered  or  even  fired  with  the  actual  cautery, 
and  the  patient  turned  to  pasture.  If  the  lameness  still  persists,  and 
is  not  due  to  a  stiff  joint,  unnerving  may  be  resorted  to ;  in  many  cases 
with  very  good  results.  If  the  joint  is  anchylosed,  no  treatment  can 
relieve  it,  and  the  patient  must  either  be  put  to  very  slow  work  or 
kept  for  breeding  purposes  only. 

''''Prick  in  shoeing  "  is  an  injury  which  should  be  considered  under 
the  head  of  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot.  The  nails  by  which  the 
shoe  is  fastened  to  the  hoof  may  produce  an  injury  followed  by 
inflammation  and  suppuration  in  two  days,  by  penetrating  the  soft 
tissues  directly  or  by  being  driven  so  deep  that  the  inner  layers  of  the 
horn  of  the  wall  are  pressed  against  the  soft  tissues  with  such  force 
as  to  crush  them.    In  either  case  the  animal  generally  goes  lame  soon 


CONTEACTED    HEELS,  OR    HOOP-BOUND.  403 

after  shoeing  unless  the  injury  is  at  the  toe,  when  the  first  evidence  of 
the  trouble  may  be  the  discharge  of  pus  at  the  coronet.  When  lameness 
follows  close  upon  the  setting  of  the  shoes,  without  other  appreciable 
cause,  each  nail  should  be  lightly  struck  with  a  hammer,  when  the 
one  at  fault  will  be  detected  by  the  flinching  of  the  animal. 

Treatment  consists  in  drawing  the  nail,  and  if  the  soft  tissues  have 
been  penetrated  or  suppuration  has  commenced,  the  horn  must  be 
pared  away  until  the  diseased  parts  are  exposed.  The  foot  is  now  to 
be  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two,  or  until  the  lameness  and  suppuration 
have  ceased.  If  the  discharge  of  pus  from  the  coronet  is  the  first  evi- 
dence of  the  disease,  the  offending  nail  must  be  found  and  removed, 
the  horn  pared  out,  and  creolin  or  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
injected  at  the  coronet  until  the  fistulous  tract  has  healed, 

CONTRACTED    HEELS,    OR    HOOF-BOUND. 

Contracted  heels,  or  hoof-bound,  is  a  common  disease  among  horses 
kept  on  hard  floors  in  dry  stables,  and  in  such  as  are  subject  to  much 
saddle  work.  It  consists  in  an  atrophy,  or  shrinking,  of  the  tissues  of 
the  foot,  whereby  the  lateral  diameter  of  the  heels  is  diminished.  It 
affects  the  fore  feet  principally ;  but  it  is  seen  occasionally  in  the  hind 
feet,  where  it  is  of  less  importance  for  the  reason  that  the  hind  foot 
first  strikes  the  ground  with  the  toe,  and,  consequently,  less  expan- 
sion of  the  heels  is  necessary  than  in  the  fore  feet,  where  the  weight 
is  first  received  on  the  heels.  Any  interference  with  the  expansibility 
of  this  part  of  the  foot  interferes  with  locomotion  and  ultimately 
gives  rise  to  lameness.  Usually  but  one  foot  is  affected  at  a  time ;  but 
when  both  are  diseased  the  change  is  greater  in  one  than  in  the  other. 
Occasionally  but  one  heel,  and  that  the  inner  one,  is  contracted;  in 
these  cases  there  is  less  likely  to  be  lameness  and  permanent  impair- 
ment of  the  animal's  usefulness.  According  to  the  opinion  of  some 
of  the  French  veterinarians,  hoof-bound  should  be  divided  into  two 
classes — total  contraction^  where  the  whole  foot  is  shrunken  in  size; 
and  contraction  of  the  heels ^  when  the  trouble  extends  only  from  the 
quarters  backward.     (Plate  XXXII,  figs.  4  and  7.) 

Causes. — Animals  raised  in  wet  or  marshy  districts,  when  taken  to 
towns  and  kept  on  dry  floors,  are  liable  to  have  contracted  heels,  not 
alone  because  the  horn  becomes  dry,  but  because  fever  of  the  feet  and 
wasting  away  of  the  soft  tissues  result  from  the  change.  Another 
common  cause  of  contracted  heels  is  to  be  found  in  faulty  shoeing, 
such  as  rasping  the  wall,  cutting  away  the  frog,  heels,  and  bars;  high 
calks  and  the  use  of  nails  too  near  the  heels.  Contracted  heels  may 
happen  as  one  of  the  results  of  other  diseases  of  the  foot ;  for  instance, 
it  often  accompanies  thrush,  sidebones,  ringbones,  canker,  navicular 
disease,  corns,  sprains  of  the  flexor  tendons,  of  the  sesamoid  and  sus- 
pensory ligaments,  and  from  excessive  knuckling  of  the  fetlock  joints. 


404  DISEASES    OP   THE   H0B8E. 

Symptoms. — In  contraction  of  the  heels  the  foot  has  lost  its  circular 
shape,  and  the  walls  from  the  quarters  backward  approach  to  a 
straight  line.  The  ground  surface  of  the  foot  is  now  smaller  than  the 
coronary  circumference;  the  frog  is  pinched  between  the  inclosing 
heels,  is  much  shrunken,  and  at  times  is  affected  with  thrush.  The 
sole  is  more  concave  than  natural,  the  heels  are  higher,  and  the  bars 
are  long  and  nearly  perpendicular.  The  whole  hoof  is  dry,  and  so 
hard  that  it  can  scarcely  be  cut ;  the  parts  toward  the  heels  are  scaly 
and  often  ridged  like  the  horns  of  a  ram,  while  fissures,  more  or  less 
deep,  may  be  seen  at  the  quarters  and  heels  following  the  direction 
of  the  horn  fibers.  (Plate  XXXI,  fig.  10.)  When  the  disease  is 
well  advanced,  lameness  is  present,  while  in  the  earlier  stages  there  is 
only  an  uneasiness  evinced  by  frequent  shifting  of  the  affected  foot. 
Stumbling  is  common,  especially  on  hard  or  rough  roads.  In  most 
cases  the  animal  comes  out  of  the  stable  stiff  and  inclined  to  walk  on 
the  toe,  but  after  exercise  he  may  go  free  again.  He  wears  his  shoes 
off  at  the  toe  in  a  short  time,  no  matter  whether  he  works  or  remains 
in  the  stable.  If  the  shoe  is  removed  and  the  foot  pared  in  old  cases, 
a  dry,  mealy  horn  will  be  found  where  the  sole  and  wall  imite,  ex- 
tending upward  in  a  narrow  line  toward  the  quarters. 

Treatment. — First  of  all,  the  preventive  measures  must  be  consid- 
ered. The  feet  are  to  be  kept  moist  and  the  horn  from  drying  out  by 
the  use  of  damp  sawdust  or  other  bedding;  by  occasional  poultices  of 
boiled  turnips,  linseed  meal,  etc.,  and  greasy  hoof  ointments  to  the 
sole  and  walls  of  the  feet.  The  wall  of  the  foot  should  be  spared 
from  the  abuse  of  the  rasp;  the  frog,  heels,  and  bars  are  not  to  be 
mutilated  with  the  knife,  nor  should  calks  be  used  on  the  shoe  except 
when  absolutely  necessary.  The  shoes  should  be  reset  at  least  once 
a  month,  to  prevent  the  feet  from  becoming  too  long,  and  daily  exer- 
cise must  be  insisted  on. 

As  to  curative  measures,  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists.  A  number 
of  kinds  of  special  shoes  have  been  invented,  having  for  an  object  the 
spreading  of  the  heels,  and  perhaps  any  of  these,  if  properly  used, 
would  eventually  effect  the  desired  result.  But  a  serious  objection 
to  most  of  these  shoes  is  that  they  are  expensive  and  often  difficult  to 
make  and  apply.  The  method  of  treatment  which  I  have  adopted  is 
not  only  attended  with  good  results,  but  is  inexpensive,  if  the  loss  of 
the  patient's  services  for  a  time  is  not  considered  a  part  of  the  ques- 
tion. It  consists,  first,  in  the  use  of  poultices  or  baths  of  cold  water 
imtil  the  horn  is  thoroughly  softened.  The  foot  is  now  prepared  for 
the  shoe  in  the  usual  way,  except  that  the  heels  are  lowered  a  little, 
and  (ho  frog  remains  untouched.  A  shoe,  called  a  "  tip,"  is  made  by 
cutting  off  both  branches  at  the  center  of  the  foot  and  drawing  the 
ends  down  to  an  edge.  The  tapering  of  the  branches  should  begin  at 
the  toe,  and  the  shoe  should  be  of  the  usual  width,  with  both  the  upper 


SAND-CRACKS.  405 

and  lower  surfaces  flat.  This  tip  is  to  be  fastened  on  with  six  or  eight 
small  nails,  all  set  well  forward,  two  being  in  the  toe.  With  a  com- 
mon foot  rasp  begin  at  the  heels,  close  to  the  coronet,  and  cut  away 
the  horn  of  the  wall  until  only  a  thin  layer  covers  the  "soft  tissues 
beneath.  Cut  forward  until  the  new  surface  meets  the  old  2J  or  3 
inches  from  the  heel.  The  same  sloping  shape  is  to  be  observed  in 
cutting  downward  toward  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  at  which  point  the 
wall  is  to  retain  its  normal  thickness.  The  foot  is  now  blistered  all 
around  the  coronet  with  Spanish-fly  ointment;  when  this  is  well  set, 
the  patient  is  to  be  turned  to  pasture  in  a  damp  field  or  meadow.  The 
blister  should  be  repeated  in  three  or  four  weeks,  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
patient  can  be  returned  to  work  in  two  or  three  months'  time. 

The  object  of  the  tip  is  to  throw  the  weight  on  the  frog  and  heels, 
which  are  readily  spread  after  the  horn  has  been  cut  away  on  the  sides 
of  the  wall.  The  internal  structures  of  the  foot  at  the  heels,  being 
relieved  of  excessive  pressure,  regain  their  normal  condition  if  the 
disease  is  not  of  too  long  standing.  The  blister  tends  to  relieve  any 
inflammation  which  may  be  present,  and  stimulates  a  rapid  growth  of 
healthy  horn,  which,  in  most  cases,  ultimately  forms  a  wide  and  nor- 
mal heel.  In  old,  chronic  cases,  with  a  shrunken  frog  and  increased 
concavity  of  the  sole,  accompanied  by  excessive  wasting  of  all  the 
internal  tissues  of  the  foot,  satisfactory  results  can  not  be  expected 
and  are  rarely  secured.  Still,  much  relief,  if  not  an  entire  cure,  may 
be  effected  by  these  measures. 

When  thrush  is  present  as  a  complication,  its  cure  must  be  sought 
by  measures  directed  under  that  heading.  If  sidebones,  ringbones, 
navicular  disease,  contracted  tendons,  or  other  diseases  have  been  the 
cause  of  contracted  heels,  treatment  will  be  useless  until  the  cause  is 
removed. 

SAND-CRACKS. 

A  sand-crack  is  a  fissure  in  the  horn  of  the  wall  of  the  foot.  These 
fissures  are  quite  narrow,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  they  follow  the  direc- 
tion of  the  horny  fibers.  They  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  wall,  but 
ordinarily  are  only  seen  directly  in  front,  when  they  are  called  toe- 
cracks;  or  on  the  lateral  parts  of  the  walls,  when  they  are  known  as 
quarter-ci'achs.     (Plate  XXXI.) 

Toe-cracks  are  most  common  in  the  hind  feet,  while  quarter-cracks 
nearly  always  affect  the  fore  feet.  The  inside  quarter  is  more  liable 
to  the  injury  than  the  outside,  for  the  reason  that  this  quarter  is  not 
only  the  thinner,  but  during  locomotion  receives  a  greater  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  body.  A  sand-crack  may  be  superficial,  involving  only 
the  outer  parts  of  the  wall,  or  it  may  be  deep,  involving  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  wall  and  the  soft  tissues  beneath. 

The  toe-crack  is  most  likely  to  be  complete — that  is,  extending  from 


406  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

the  coronary  band  to  the  sole — ^while  the  quarter-crack  is  nearly 
always  incomplete,  at  least  when  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
Sand-cracks  are  most  serious  when  they  involve  the  coronary  band  in 
the  injury.  They  may  be  complicated  at  any  time  by  hemorrhage, 
inflammation  of  the  laminae,  suppuration,  gangrene  of  the  lateral 
cartilage  and  of  the  extensor  tendon,  caries  of  the  coffin  bone,  or  the 
growth  of  a  horny  tumor  known  as  a  keraphyllocele. 

Causes. — Relative  dryness  of  the  horn  is  the  principal  predisposing 
cause  of  sand-cracks.  Excessive  dryness  is  perhaps  not  a  more  pro- 
lific cause  of  cracks  in  the  horn  than  alternate  changes  from  damp  to 
dry.  It  is  even  claimed  that  these  injuries  are  more  common  in  ani- 
mals working  on  wet  roads  than  those  working  on  roads  that  are 
rough  and  dry;  at  least  these  injuries  are  not  common  in  mountainous 
countries.  Animals  used  to  running  at  pasture  when  transferred  to 
stables  with  hard,  dry  floors  are  more  liable  to  quarter-cracks  than 
those  accustomed  to  stables.  Small  feet,  with  thick,  hard  hoofs,  and 
feet  which  are  excessively  large,  are  more  susceptible  to  sand-cracks 
than  those  of  better  proportion.  A  predisposition  to  quarter-cracks 
exists  in  contracted  feet,  and  in  those  where  the  toe  turns  out  or  the 
inside  quarter  turns  under. 

Heavy  shoes,  large  nails,  and  nails  set  too  far  back  toward  the 
heels,  together  with  such  diseases  as  canker,  quittor,  grease  and  sup- 
purative corns,  must  be  included  as  occasional  predisposing  causes  of 
sand-cracks. 

Fast  work  on  hard  roads,  jumping,  and  blows  on  the  coronet, 
together  with  calk  wounds  of  the  feet,  are  accidental  causes  of  quar- 
ter-cracks in  particular.  Toe-cracks  are  more  likely  to  be  caused  by 
heavy  pulling  on  slipjjery  roads  and  pavements  or  on  steep  hills. 

Symptoms. — ^The  fissure  in  the  horn  is  ofttimes  the  only  evidence 
of  the  disease ;  and  even  this  may  be  accidentally  or  purposely  hidden 
from  casual  view  by  mud,  ointments,  tar,  wax,  putty,  gutta-percha, 
or  by  the  long  hairs  of  the  coronet. 

Sand-cracks  sometimes  conmience  on  the  internal  face  of  the  wall, 
involving  its  whole  thickness  excepting  a  thin  layer  on  the  outer 
surface.  In  these  cases  the  existence  of  the  injury  may  be  suspected 
from  a  slight  depression,  which  begins  near  the  coronary  band  and 
follows  the  direction  of  the  horny  fibers;  but  the  trouble  can  only  be 
positively  diagnosed  by  paring  away  the  outside  layers  of  horn  until 
the  fissure  is  exposed.  In  toe-cracks  the  walls  of  the  fissure  are  in 
close  apposition  when  the  foot  receives  the  weight  of  the  body,  but 
jvhen  the  foot  is  raised  from  the  ground  the  fissure  opens.  In  quar- 
ter-crack the  opposite  is  true;  the  fissure  closes  when  the  weight  is 
removed  from  the  foot.  As  a  rule,  sand-cracks  begin  at  the  coronary 
band,  and  as  they  become  older  they  not  only  extend  downward,  but 
they  also  grow  d^per.     In  old  cases,  particularly  in  toe-crack,  the 


SAND-CRACKS.  407 

horn  on  the  borders  of  the  fissure  loses  its  vitality  and  scales  off, 
sometimes  through  the  greater  part  of  its  thickness,  leaving  behind 
a  rough  and  irregular  channel  extending  from  the  coronet  to  the  end 
of  the  toe. 

In  many  cases  of  quarter-crack,  and  in  some  cases  of  toe-crack  as 
well,  if  the  edges  remain  close  together,  with  but  little  motion,  the 
fissure  is  dry;  but  in  other  cases  a  thin,  offensive  discharge  issues 
from  the  crack  and  the  ulcerated  soft  tissues,  or  a  funguslike  growth 
protrudes  from  the  narrow  opening. 

When  the  cracks  are  deep,  and  the  motion  of  their  edges  consider- 
able, so  that  the  soft  tissues  are  bruised  and  pinched  with  every  move- 
ment, a  constant  inflammation  of  the  parts  is  maintained  and  the 
lameness  is  severe. 

Ordinarily  the  lameness  of  sand-crack  is  slight  when  the  patient 
walks ;  but  it  is  greatly  aggravated  when  he  is  made  to  trot,  and  the 
harder  the  road  the  worse  he  limps.  Furthermore,  the  lameness  is 
greater  going  down  hill  than  up,  for  the  reason  that  these  conditions 
are  favorable  to  an  increased  motion  in  the  edges  of  the  fissure. 
Lastly,  more  or  less  hemorrhage  accompanies  the  inception  of  a  sand- 
crack  when  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall  is  involved.  Subsequent 
hemorrhages  may  also  take  place  from  fast  work,  jumping,  or  a 
misstep. 

Treatment. — In  so  far  as  preventive  measures  are  concerned,  but 
little  can  be  done.  The  suppleness  of  the  horn  is  to  be  maintained  by 
the  use  of  ointments,  dajnp  floor,  bedding,  etc.  The  shoe  is  to  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  weight  and  work  of  the  animal;  the  nails  holding 
it  in  place  are  to  be  of  proper  size,  and  not  driven  too  near  the  heels ; 
sufficient  calks  and  toe-pieces  must  be  added  to  the  shoes  of  horses 
working  on  slippery  roads;  and  the  evils  of  jumping,  fast  driving, 
etc.,  are  to  be  avoided. 

When  a  fissure  has  made  its  appearance,  means  are  to  be  adopted 
which  will  prevent  it  from  growing  longer  or  deeper;  and  this  can 
only  be  done  by  arresting  all  motion  in  the  edges.  The  best  and 
simplest  artificial  appliance  for  holding  the  borders  of  a  toe-crack 
together  is  the  Vachette  clasp.  These  clasps  and  the  instruments 
necessary  for  their  application  can  be  had  of  any  prominent  maker  of 
veterinary  instruments.  (Plate  XXXI.)  These  instruments  com- 
prise a  cautery  iron  with  which  two  notches  are  burned  in  the  wall, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  crack,  and  forceps  with  which  the  clasps  are 
closed  into  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  notches  and  the  edges  of  the 
fissure  brought  close  together.  The  clasps,  being  made  of  stiff  steel 
wire,  are  strong  enough  to  prevent  all  motion  in  the  borders  of  the 
crack.  Before  these  clasps  are  applied  the  fissure  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  and  dried,  and,  if  the  injury  is  of  recent  origin,  the  crack 
may  be  filled  with  a  putty  made  of  2  parts  of  gutta-percha  and  1  part 


408  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

of  gum  ammoniac.  The  number  of  clasps  to  be  used  is  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  length  of  the  crack,  the  amount  of  motion  to  be  arrested, 
etc.  Generally  the  clasps  are  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  apart.  The  clasps  answer  equally  as  well  in  quarter-crack  if  the 
wall  is  sufficiently  thick  and  not  too  dry  and  brittle  to  withstand  the 
strain. 

In  the  absence  of  these  instruments  and  clasps  a  hole  may  be  drilled 
through  the  horn  across  the  fissure  and  the  crack  closed  with  a  thin 
nail  made  of  tough  iron,  neatly  clinched  at  both  ends.  A  plate  of 
steel  or  brass  is  sometimes  fitted  to  the  parts  and  fastened  on  with 
short  screws;  while  this  appliance  may  prevent  much  gaping  of  the 
fissure,  it  does  not  entirely  arrest  motion  of  the  edges,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  plate  and  screw  can  not  be  rendered  immobile. 

If,  for  any  reason,  the  above  measures  fail  or  can  not  be  used, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  an  operation.  The  horn  is  softened  by  the 
use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices,  the  patient  cast,  and  the  walls  of  the 
fissure  entirely  removed  with  the  knife.  The  horn  removed  is  in  the 
shape  of  the  letter  V  with  the  base  at  the  coronet.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  injure  the  coronary  band  and  the  laminae.  The  wound  is  to  be 
treated  with  mild  stimulant  dressings,  such  as  creolin,  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid,  tincture  of  aloes,  etc.,  oakum  balls,  and  a  roller 
bandage.  After  a  few  days  the  wound  will  be  covered  with  a  new, 
white  horn,  and  the  oakum  and  bandages  only  will  be  needed.  As  the 
new  quarter  grows  out  the  lameness  disappears,  and  the  patient  may 
be  shod  with  a  bar  shoe  and  returned  to  work. 

In  all  cases  of  sand-crack  the  growth  of  horn  should  be  stimulated 
by  cauterizing  the  coronary  band  or  by  the  use  of  blisters.  In  simple 
quarter-crack  recovery  will  often  take  place  if  the  coronet  is  blistered, 
the  foot  shod  with  a  "  tip,"  and  the  patient  turned  to  pasture. 

The  shoe  in  toe-crack  should  have  a  clip  on  each  side  of  the  fissure 
and  should  be  thicker  at  the  toe  than  at  the  heels.  The  foot  should  be 
lowered  at  the  heels  by  paring,  and  spared  at  the  toe,  except  directly 
under  the  fissure,  where  it  is  to  be  pared  away  until  it  sets  free  from 
the  shoe. 

When  any  of  the  complications  referred  to  above  arise,  special 
measures  must  be  resorted  to.  For  the  proper  treatment  of  gangrene 
of  the  lateral  cartilage  and  extensor  tendon  and  caries  of  the  coffin 
bone  reference  may  be  had  to  the  articles  on  quittors.  If  the  horny 
tumor,  known  as  keraphyllocele,  should  develop,  it  is  to  be  removed 
by  the  use  of  the  knife.  Since  this  tumor  develops  on  the  inside  of 
the  homy  box  and  may  involve  other  important  organs  of  the  foot  in 
disease,  its  removal  should  only  be  undertaken  by  a  skillful  surgeon. 


INFLAMMATION    OF    NAVICULAR    BONE.  409 

NAVICTJLAR    DISEASE. 

Navicular  disease  is  an  inflammation  of  the  sesamoid  sheath,  in- 
duced by  repeated  bruising  or  laceration,  and  complicated  in  many 
cases  by  inflammation  and  caries  of  the  navicular  bone.  In  some 
instances  the  disease  undoubtedly  begins  in  the  bone,  and  the  ses- 
amoid sheath  becomes  involved  subsequently  by  an  extension  of  the 
inflammatory  process.     (Plate  XXXIV,  fig.  5.) 

The  thoroughbred  horse  is  more  commonly  aflfected  than  any  other, 
yet  no  class  or  breed  of  horses  is  entirely  exempt.  The  mule,  how- 
ever, seems  rarely,  if  ever,  to  suffer  from  it.  For  reasons  which  will 
appear  when  considering  the  causes  of  the  disease,  the  hind  feet  are 
not  liable  to  be  affected.  Usually  but  one  fore  foot  suffers  from  the 
disease,  but  if  both  should  be  attacked  the  trouble  has  become  chronic 
in  the  first  before  the  second  shows  signs  of  the  disease. 

Causes, — To  comprehend  fully  how  navicular  disease  may  be  caused 
by  conditions  and  usages  common  to  nearly  all  animals,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  recall  the  peculiar  anatomy  of  the  parts  involved  in  the  process 
and  the  functions  which  they  perform  in  locomotion. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  fore  legs  largely  support  the  weight 
of  the  body  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  and  that  the  faster  he  moves 
the  greater  is  the  shock  which  the  fore  feet  must  receive  as  the  body 
is  thrown  forward  by  the  propelling  force  of  the  hind  legs.  This 
shock  could  not  be  withstood  by  the  tissues  of  the  fore  feet  and  legs 
were  it  not  that  it  is  largely  dissipated  by  the  elastic  muscles  which 
bind  the  shoulder  to  the  body,  the  ease  with  which  the  arm  closes  on 
the  shoulder  blade,  and  the  spring  of  the  fetlock  joint.  But  even  these 
means  are  not  sufficient  within  themselves  to  protect  the  foot  from 
injury ;  so  nature  has  further  supplemented  them  by  placing  the  coffin 
joint  on  the  hind  part  of  the  coffin  bone  instead  of  directly  on  top  of 
it,  whereby  a  large  part  of  the  shock  of  locomotion  is  dispersed  before 
it  can  reach  the  vertical  column  represented  by  the  cannon,  knee,  and 
arm  bones.  A  still  further  provision  is  made  by  placing  a  soft, 
elastic  pad — the  frog  and  plantar  cushion — at  the  heels  to  receive  the 
sesamoid  expansion  of  the  flexor  tendon  as  it  is  forced  downward  by 
the  pressure  of  the  coronet  bone  against  the  navicular,  ^Extraordinary 
as  these  means  may  appear  for  the  destruction  of  shock,  and  ample  as 
they  are  when  the  animal  is  at  a  slow  pace  or  unweighted  by  rider  or 
load,  they  fail  to  relieve  completely  the  parts  from  concussion  and  ex- 
cessive pressure  whenever  the  opposite  conditions  are  present.  The 
result,  then,  is  that  the  coronet  bone  forces  the  navicular  hard  against 
the  flexor  tendon,  which,  in  turn,  presses  firmly  against  the  navicular 
as  the  force  of  the  contracting  muscles  lifts  the  tendon  into  place.  It 
is  self-evident,  then,  that  the  more  rapid  the  pace  and  the  greater  the 
load,  the  greater  must  these  contending  forces  be,  and  the  greater  the 


410  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOESE. 

liability  to  injury.  For  the  same  reason  horses  with  excessive  knee 
action  are  more  likely  to  suffer  from  this  disease  than  others,  concus- 
sion of  the  foot  and  intense  pressure  on  the  tendon  being  common 
among  such  horses. 

Besides  the  above  exciting  causes  must  be  considered  those  which 
predispose  to  the  disease.  Most  prominent  among  these  is  heredity. 
It  may  be  claimed,  however,  that  an  inherited  predisposition  to  navic- 
ular disease  consists  not  so  much  in  a  special  susceptibility  of  the 
tissues  which  are  involved  in  the  process  as  in  a  vice  of  conformation 
which,  as  is  well  known,  is  likely  to  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  off- 
spring. The  faults  of  conformation  most  likely  to  be  followed  by  the 
development  of  navicular  disease  are  an  insufficient  plantar  cushion, 
a  small  frog,  high  heels,  excessive  knee  action,  and  contracted  heels. 
Finally,  the  environments  of  domestication  and  use,  such  as  dry 
stables,  heavy  pulling,  bad  shoeing,  punctuted  wounds,  etc.,  all  have 
their  influence  in  developing  this  disease. 

Symptoms. — In  the  early  stages  of  navicular  disease  the  symptoms 
are  generally  very  obscure.  When  the  disease  begins  in  inflammation 
of  the  navicular  bone,  the  animal  while  at  rest  points  the  affected  foot 
a  time  before  any  lameness  is  seen.  While  at  work  he  apparently 
travels  as  well  as  ever,  but  when  placed  in  the  stable  one  foot  is  set 
out  in  front  of  the  other,  resting  on  the  toe,  with  fetlock  and  knee 
flexed.  After  a  time,  if  the  case  is  closely  watched,  the  animal  takes 
a  few  lame  steps  while  at  work,  but  the  lameness  disappears  as  sud- 
denly as  it  came,  and  the  driver  doubts  if  the  animal  was  really  lame 
at  all.  Later  on  the  patient  has  a  lame  spell  which  may  last  during  a 
greater  part  of  the  day,  but  the  next  morning  it  is  gone ;  he  leaves  the 
stable  all  right,  but  goes  lame  again  during  the  day.  In  time  he  has 
a  severe  attack  of  lameness,  which  may  last  for  a  week  or  more,  when 
a  remission  takes  place  and  it  may  be  weeks  or  months  before  another 
attack  supervenes.  Finally,  he  becomes  constantly  lame,  and  the 
more  he  is  used  the  greater  the  lameness. 

In  the  lameness  from  navicular  disease  the  affected  leg  always  takes 
a  short  step,  and  the  toe  of  the  foot  first  strikes  the  ground ;  so  the 
shoe  is  most  worn  at  this  point.  If  the  patient  is  made  to  move  back- 
ward, the  foot  is  set  down  with  exceeding  great  care,  and  the  weight 
rests  upon  the  affected  leg  but  a  moment.  "When  exercised  he  often 
stumbles,  and  if  the  road  is  rough  he  may  fall  on  his  knees.  If  he  is 
lame  in  both  feet  the  gait  is  stilty,  the  shoulders  seem  stiff,  and,  if 
made  to  work,  he  sweats  profusely  from  intense  pain.  Early  in  the 
development  of  the  disease  a  careful  examination  will  reveal  some 
increased  heat  in  the  heels  and  frog,  particularly  after  work;  as  the 
disease  progresses  this  becomes  more  marked,  until  the  whole  foot  is 
hot  to  the  touch.  At  the  same  time  there  is  an  increased  sensibility 
of  the  foot,  for  the  patient  flinches  from  the  percussion  of  a  hammer 


SIDEBONES.  411 

lightly  applied  to  the  frog  and  heels  or  from  the  pressure  of  the 
smith's  pincers.  The  frog  is  generally  shrunken,  often  of  a  pale-red 
color,  and  at  times  is  affected  with  thrush.  If  the  heels  are  pared 
away  so  that  all  the  weight  is  received  on  the  frog,  or  if  the  same  re- 
sult is  attained  by  the  application  of  a  bar  shoe,  the  animal  is  excess- 
ively lame.  The  muscles  of  the  leg  and  shoulder  shrink  away,  and 
often  tremble  as  the  animal  stands  at  rest.  After  months  of  lameness 
the  foot  is  found  to  be  shrunken  in  its  diameter  and  apparently 
lengthened ;  the  horn  is  dry  and  brittle  and  has  lost  its  natural  gloss, 
while  circular  ridges,  developed  most  toward  the  heels,  cover  the 
upper  part  of  the  hoof.  When  both  feet  are  affected,  the  animal 
points  first  one  foot,  then  the  other,  and  stands  with  the  hind  feet  well 
forward  beneath  the  body,  so  as  to  relieve  the  fore  feet  as  much  as 
possible  from  bearing  weight.  In  old  cases  the  wasting  of  the  muscles 
and  the  knuckling  at  the  fetlock  become  so  great  that  the  leg  can  not 
be  straightened;  and  locomotion  can  scarcely  be  performed.  The 
disease  generally  makes  a  steady  progress  without  inclining  to  recov- 
ery— the  remission  of  symptoms  in  the  earlier  stages  should  not  be 
interpreted  as  evidence  that  the  process  has  terminated.  The  compli- 
cations usually  seen  are  ringbones,  sidebones,  thrush,  contracted  heels, 
quarter-cracks,  and  fractures  of  the  navicular,  coronet,  and  pastern 
bones. 

Treatment. — But  few  cases  of  navicular  disease  recover.  In  the 
early  stages  the  wall  of  the  heels  should  be  rasped  away,  as  directed 
in  the  treatment  for  contracted  heels,  until  the  horn  is  quite  thin ;  the 
coronet  should  be  well  blistered  with  Spanish-fly  ointment,  and  the 
patient  turned  to  grass  in  a  damp  field  or  meadow.  After  three  or 
four  weeks  the  blister  should  be  repeated.  This  treatment  is  to  be 
continued  for  two  or  three  months.  Plane  shoes  are  to  be  put  on 
when  the  patient  is  returned  to  work.  In  chronic  cases  the  animal 
should  be  put  to  "slow,  easy  work.  To  relieve  the  pain,  neurotomy 
may  be  performed — an  operation  in  which  the  sense  of  feeling  is 
destroyed  in  the  foot  by  cutting  out  pieces  of  the  nerve  at  the  fetlw^k. 
This  operation  iii  nowise  cures  the  disease,  and,  since  it  may  be  at- 
tended with  serious  results,  can  only  be  advised  in  certain  favorable 
cases,  to  be  determined  by  the  veterinarian. 

SIDEBONES. 

A  sidebone  consists  in  a  transformation  of  the  lateral  cartilages 
found  on  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone  into  bony  matter  by  the  depo- 
sition of  lime  salts.  The  disease  is  a  common  one,  especially  in 
heavy  horses  used  for  draft,  in  cavalry  horses,  cow  ponies,  and  other 
saddle  horses,  and  in  runners  and  trotters. 

Sidebones  are  peculiar  to  the  fore  feet,  yet  they  occasionally  de- 
velop in  the  hind  feet,  where  they  are  of  little  importance  since  they 


412  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

cause  no  lameness.  In  many  instances  sidebones  are  of  slow  growth 
and,  being  unaccompanied  by  acute  inflammation,  they  cause  no 
lameness  until  such  time  as,  by  reason  of  their  size,  they  interfere 
with  the  action  of  the  joint.     (Plat€  XXXIV,  fig.  4.) 

Causes. — Sidebones  often  grow  in  heavy  horses  without  any  appar- 
ent injury,  and  their  development  has  been  attributed  to  the  over- 
expansion  of  the  cartilages  caused  by  the  great  weight  of  the  animal. 
Blows  and  other  injuries  to  the  cartilages  may  setup  an  inflammatory 
process  which  ends  in  the  formation  of  these  bony  growths.  High- 
heeled  shoes,  high  calks,  and  long  feet  are  always  classed  among  the 
conditions  which  may  excite  the  growth  of  sidebones.  They  are  often 
seen  in  connection  with  contracted  heels,  ringbones,  navicular  dis- 
ease, punctured  wounds  of  the  foot,  quarter-cracks,  and  occasionally 
as  a  sequel  to  founder. 

Symptoms. — In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease,  if  inflammation  is 
present,  the  only  evidence  of  the  trouble  to  be  detected  is  a  little  fever 
over  the  seat  of  the  affected  cartilage  and  a  slight  lameness.  In  the 
lameness  of  sidebones  the  toe  of  the  foot  first  strikes  the  ground  and 
the  step  is  shorter  than  natural.  The  subject  comes  out  of  the  stable 
stiff  and  sore,  but  the  gait  is  more  free  after  exercise. 

Since  the  deposit  of  bony  matter  often  begins  in  that  part  of  the 
cartilage  where  it  is  attached  to  the  coffin  bone,  the  diseased  process 
may  exist  for  some  time  before  the  bony  growth  can  be  seen  or  felt. 
Later  on,  however,  the  cartilage  can  be  felt  to  have  lost  its  elastic 
character,  and  by  standing  in  front  of  the  animal  a  prominence  of  the 
coronary  region  at  the  quarters  can  be  seen.  Occasionally  these 
bones  become  so  large  as  to  bulge  the  hoof  outward,  and  by  pressing 
on  the  joint  they  so  interfere  with  locomotion  that  the  animal  becomes 
entirely  useless. 

Treatm^ent. — So  soon  as  the  disease  can  be  diagnosed  active  treat- 
ment should  be  adopted.  Cold-water  bandages  are  to  be  used  for  a 
few  days  to  relieve  the  fever  and  soreness. 

The  improvement  consequent  on  the  use  of  these  simple  measures 
often  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  disease  has  recovered;  but  with  a 
return  to  work  the  lameness,  fever,  etc.,  reappears.  For  this  reason 
the  use  of  blisters,  or,  better  still,  the  firing  iron,  should  follow  on  the 
discontinuance  of  the  cold  bandages. 

But  in  many  instances  no  treatment  will  arrest  the  growth  of  these 
bony  tumors,  and  as  a  palliative  measure  neurotomy  must  be  resorted 
to.  Generally  this  operation  Avill  so  relieve  the  pain  of  locomotion 
that  the  patient  may  be  used  for  slow  work ;  but  in  animals  used  for 
fast  driving  or  for  saddle  purposes,  the  operation  is  practically  use- 
less. Some  years  ago  I  unnerved  a  number  of  cavalry  horses  at  Fort 
Leavenworth  that  were  suffering  from  sidebones,  and  the  records 
show  that  in  less  than  seven  months  all  were  more  lame  than  ever. 


BINGBONE.  413 

Since  a  predisposition  to  develop  sidebones  may  be  inherited,  ani- 
mals suffering  from  this  disease  should  not  be  used  for  breeding 
purposes  unless  the  trouble  is  known  to  have  originated  from  an 
accident. 

RINGBONE. 

A  ringbone  is  the  growth  of  a  bony  tumor  on  the  ankle.  This 
tumor  is,  in  fact,  not  the  disease,  but  simply  the  result  of  an 
inflammatory  action  set  up  in  the  periosteum  and  bone  tissue  proper 
of  the  pastern  bones.    (Plate  XXXIV,  fig.  1.)     (See  also  page  289.) 

Causes. — Injuries,  such  as  blows,  sprains,  overwork  in  young,  unde- 
veloped animals,  fast  work  on  hard  roads,  jumping,  etc.,  are  among 
the  principal  exciting  causes  of  ringbone.  Horses  most  disposed  to 
this  disease  are  those  with  short,  upright  pasterns,  for  the  reason  that 
the  shock  of  locomotion  is  but  imperfectly  dissipated  in  the  fore  legs 
of  these  animals.  Improper  shoeing,  such  as  the  use  of  high  calks, 
a  too  great  shortening  of  the  toe  and  correspondingly  high  heels, 
predispose  to  this  disease  by  increasing  the  concussion  to  the  feet. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  an  actively  developed  ringbone 
is  the  appearance  of  a  lameness  more  or  less  acute.  If  the  bony 
tumor  forms  on  the  side  or  upper  parts  of  the  large  pastern,  its 
growth  is  generally  unattended  with  acute  inflammatory  action,  and 
consequently  produces  no  lameness  or  evident  fever.  These  are  called 
"  false  "  ringbones.  But  when  the  tumors  form  on  the  whole  circum- 
ference of  the  ankle,  or  simply  in  front  under  the  extensor  tendon,  or 
behind  under  the  flexor  tendons,  or  if  they  involve  the  joints  between 
the  two  pastern  bones,  or  between  the  small  pastern  and  the  coffin 
bone,  the  lameness  is  always  severe.  These  constitute  the  true  ring- 
bone. Besides  lameness,  the  ankle  of  the  affected  limb  presents  more 
or  less  heat,  and  in  many  instances  a  rather  firm,  though  limited, 
swelling  of  the  deeper  tissues  over  the  seat  of  the  inflammatory  proc- 
ess. The  lameness  of  ringbone  is  characteristic  in  that  the  heel  is 
first  placed  on  the  ground  when  the  disease  is  in  a  fore  leg,  and  the 
ankle  is  kept  as  rigid  as  possible.  In  the  hind  leg,  however,  the  toe 
strikes  the  ground  first,  when  the  ringbone  is  high  on  the  ankle,  just 
as  in  health,  but  the  ankle  is  maintained  in  a  rigid  position.  If  the 
bony  growth  is  under  the  front  tendon  of  the  hind  leg,  or  if  it 
involves  the  coffin  joint,  the  heel  is  brought  to  the  ground  first.  In 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease  it  is  not  always  easy  to  diagnose  ring- 
bone, but  when  the  deposits  have  reached  some  size  they  can  be  felt 
and  seen  as  well. 

The  importance  of  a  ringbone  depends  on  its  seat  and  often  on  its 
size.  If  it  interferes  with  the  joints  or  with  the  tendons  it  may  cause 
an  incurable  lameness,  even  though  small.  If  it  is  on  tlie  sides  of  the 
large  pastern,  the  lameness  generally  disappears  as  soon  as  the  tumor 
has  reached  its  growth  and  the  inflammation  subsides.     Even  where 


414  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

the  pastern  joint  is  involved,  if  complete  anchylosis  results,  the 
patient  may  recover  from  the  lameness  with  simply  an  imperfect 
action  of  the  foot  remaining,  due  to  the  stiff  joint. 

Treatment. — Before  the  bony  growth  has  commenced  the  inflam- 
matory process  may  be  cut  short  by  the  use  of  cold  baths  and  wet 
bandages,  followed  by  one  or  more  blisters.  If  the  bony  deposits 
have  begun  the  firing  iron  should  always  be  used.  Even  where  the 
tumors  are  large  and  the  pastern  joint  involved  firing  often  hastens 
the  process  of  anchylosis  and  should  always  be  tried. 

Where  the  lower  joint  is  involved  or  where  the  tumor  interferes 
with  the  action  of  the  tendons  recovery  is  not  to  be  expected.  In 
many  of  these  latter  cases,  however,  the  animal  may  be  made  service- 
able by  proper  shoeing.  If  the  patient  walks  with  the  toe  on  the 
ground  the  foot  should  be  shod  with  a  high-heeled  shoe  and  a  short 
toe.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  walks  on  the  heel,  a  thick-toed  and 
thin-heeled  shoe  must  be  worn. 

Since  ringbone  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  hereditary  diseases, 
no  animal  suffering  from  this  trouble  should  ever  be  used  for  breed- 
ing purposes. 

LAMINinS,   OR   FOUNDER. 

Laminitis  is  a  simple  inflammation  of  the  sensitive  laminae  of  the 
feet,  characterized  by  the  general  phenomena  attending  inflamma- 
tion of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  producing  no  constitutional 
disturbances  except  those  dependent  upon  the  local  disease,  and  hav- 
ing a  strong  tendency,  in  severe  cases,  to  destructive  disorganization 
of  the  tissues  affected. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  laminitis  are  as  wide  and  variable  as  in  any 
of  the  local  inflammations,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — the 
predisposing  and  the  exciting. 

Predisposing  causes. — From  personal  observation  I  do  not  know 
that  any  particular  construction  of  foot  or  any  special  breed  of  horses 
is  predisposed  to  this  disease,  neither  can  I  find  anything  to  warrant 
the  assumption  that  it  is  in  any  way  hereditary;  so  that  while  we 
may  easily  cultivate  a  predisposition  to  the  disease,  it  does  not  origi- 
nate without  an  exciting  cause.  Like  most  other  tissues,  a  predisposi- 
tion to  inflammation  may  be  induced  in  the  sensitive  laminae  by  any 
cause  which  lessens  their  power  of  withstanding  the  work  imposed  on 
them.  It  exists  to  an  extent  in  those  animals  unaccustomed  to  work, 
particularly  if  they  are  plethoric,  and  in  all  those  that  have  been  pre- 
vious subjects  of  the  disease ;  for  the  same  rule  holds  good  here  that 
we  find  in  so  many  diseases — i.  e.,  that  one  attack  impairs  the  func- 
tional activity  of  the  affected  tissues  and  renders  them  more  easy  of  a 
subsequent  inflammation.     Unusual  excitement  by  determining  an 


LAMINITIS,  OR   FOUNDER.  415 

excessive  blood  supply,  bad  shoeing,  careless  paring  of  the  feet  by 
removing  the  sole  support,  and  high  calkings  without  corresponding 
toe  pieces  must  be  included  under  this  head. 

Exciting  causes. — The  exciting  causes  of  laminitis  are  many  and 
varied.  The  most  common  are  concussion,  overexertion,  exhaustion, 
rapid  changes  of  temperature,  ingestion  of  certain  foods,  purgatives, 
and  the  oft-mentioned  metastasis. 

( 1 )  Concussion  produces  this  disease  by  local  overstimulation.  The 
excessive  excitement  is  followed  by  an  almost  complete  exhaustion  of 
the  functional  activity  of  the  laminated  tissues,  the  exhaustion  by 
congestion,  and  eventually  by  inflammation.  But  congestion  here,  as 
in  all  other  tissues,  is  not  necessarily  followed  by  inflammation ;  for, 
although  the  principal  symptoms  belonging  to  true  laminitis  are 
present,  the  congestion  may  be  relieved  before  the  processes  of  inflam- 
mation are  fully  established.  This  is  the  condition  in  the  many  so- 
called  cases  of  laminitis  which  recover  in  from  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours.    They  should  be  called  congestion  of  the  laminae. 

Laminitis  from  concussion  is  common  in  trotting  horses  that  are 
raced  when  not  in  condition,  especially  if  they  carry  the  obnoxious  toe 
weights,  and  in  green  horses  put  to  work  on  city  pavements  to  which 
they  are  unaccustomed.  Concussion  from  long  drives  on  dirt  roads  is 
at  times  productive  of  the  same  results,  notably  when  the  weather  is 
extremely  warm,  or  at  least  when  the  relative  change  of  temperature 
is  great.  But  the  exhaustion  of  these  circumstances  must  prove  an 
exciting  cause  as  well  as  the  long-continued  concussion.  This  combi- 
nation of  causes  must  also  determine  the  disease  at  times  in  hunters, 
for  the  weight  of  the  rider  increases  the  demands  made  upon  the 
function  of  these  tissues,  and  their  powers  are  the  sooner  exhausted. 

(2)  Overexertion,  as  heavy  pulling  or  rapid  work,  even  where  there 
is  no  immoderate  concussion,  occasionally  results  in  this  disease;  but 
here  also  exhaustion  is  a  conjunctive  cause,  for  overexertion  can  not 
be  long  continued  without  exhaustion. 

(3)  Exhaustion  is  nearly  as  prolific  a  source  of  laminitis  as  is  con- 
cussion ;  for  when  the  physical  strength  is  impaired,  even  though  tem- 
porarily, some  part  of  the  economy  is  rendered  more  vulnerable  to 
disease  than  others.  To  this  cause  we  must  ascribe  those  cases  which 
follow  a  hard  day's  work,  where  at  no  time  has  there  been  overexer- 
tion or  immoderate  concussion. 

The  tendency  to  laminitis  in  horses  on  sea  voyages  results  from  the 
continual  constrained  position  the  animal  maintains  on  account  of  the 
rocking  motion  of  the  vessel. 

Where  one  foot  has  been  blistered,  or  where  one  limb  is  incapaci- 
tated from  any  cause,  the  opposite  member,  doing  double  duty,  soon 
becomes  exhausted,  and  congestion,  followed  by  inflammation,  results. 
Where  one  foot  only  becomes  laminitic,  it  is  customary  to  find  the  cor- 


416  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

responding  member  participating  at  a  later  date;  not  always  because 
of  sympathy,  but  because  one  foot  had  to  do  the  work  of  two. 

(4)  Rapid  changes  of  temperature  act  as  an  exciting  cause  of  lami- 
nitis  by  impairing  the  normal  blood  supply. 

This  change  of  temperature  may  be  induced  by  drinking  large 
quantities  of  cold  water  while  in  an  overheated  condition.  Here  the 
internal  heat  is  rapidly  reduced,  the  neighboring  tissues  and  blood 
vessels  constrained,  and  the  blood  supply  to  these  organs  greatly 
diminished,  while  the  quantity  sent  to  the  surface  is  correspondingly 
increased.  True,  in  many  cases  there  has  not  been  sufficient  labor  per- 
formed to  impair  the  powers  of  the  laminae,  and  laminitis  is  more 
readily  induced  than  congestion  or  inflammation  of  the  skin  or  other 
surface  organs,  because  the  laminae  can  not  relieve  themselves  of 
threatened  congestion  by  the  general  safety  valve  of  perspiration. 
A  cold  wind  or  relatively  cold  air  allowed  to  play  upon  the  body 
when  heated  and  wet  with  sweat  has  virtually  the  same  result,  for  it 
arrests  evaporation  and  rapidly  cools  the  external  surface,  thereby 
determining  an  excess  of  blood  to  such  organs  and  tissues  as  are  pro- 
tected from  this  outside  influence.  In  many  instances  this  happens  to 
be  some  of  the  internal  organs,  as  the  lungs,  if  the  previous  work  has 
been  rapid  and  their  functional  activity  impaired;  but  in  numerous 
other  instances  the  determination  is  toward  the  feet,  and  that  it  is  so 
depends  upon  two  very  palpable  facts :  First,  that  these  tissues  have 
been  greatly  excited  and  are  already  receiving  as  much  blood  as  they 
can  accommodate  consistently  with  health;  secondly,  even  though 
these  tissues  are  classed  with  those  of  the  surface,  their  protection 
from  atmospheric  influences  by  means  of  the  thick  box  of  horn  incas- 
ing them  renders  them  in  this  respect  equivalent  to  internal  organs, 

A  more  limited  local  action  of  cold  may  excite  this  disease,  by  driv- 
ing through  water  or  washing  the  feet  and  legs  while  the  animal  is 
warm  or  just  in  from  work.  Here  a  very  marked  reaction  takes  place 
in  the  surface  tissues  of  the  limbs,  and  passive  congestion  of  the  foot 
results  from  an  interference  with  the  return  flow  of  blood  which  is 
being  sent  to  these  organs  in  excess.  These  are  more  apt  to  be  sim- 
ple cases  of  congestion,  soon  to  recover,  yet  they  may  become  true 
cases  of  laminitis. 

(5)  Why  it  is  that  certain  kinds  of  grain  will  cause  laminitis  does 
not  seem  to  be  clearly  understood.  Certainly  they  possess  no  specific 
action  upon  the  laminae,  for  all  animals  are  not  alike  aflfected,  neither 
do  they  always  produce  these  results  in  the  same  animal.  Some  of 
these  foods  cause  a  strong  tendency  to  indigestion,  and  the  consequent 
irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal  may  Iw  so  great  as  to  warrant  the 
belief  that  the  laminae  are  affected  through  sympathy.  In  other 
instances  there  is  no  apparent  interference  with  digestion  nor  evidence 
of  any  irritation  of  the  mucous  membranes,  yet  the  disease  is  in 


PLATE  xxxn- 


J/l'  ////It/  />"///■ 
ifl.-i   D.i.lil. 


vtnn 


'■rirr  iir//i 


/{/I  ft 


</)/////  /lorit 


l'/i/t/i/)n  /if)/i 


An//t(>IHV  lif  tJir  toot. 
.iftfrH«iilMior. 


Himcs  1)1' f /if  fbtjt 
al'lor  CliiiuviFfau 


f-'U'.Xf/r         5 
t/'/l<l(>n 


Si(Z(  Bones. 

a  tier  Stonehen^e 


A'/ >  u//.larDi\scnse 


HIXO  P.()N1-:    AXI)    XANKM'LAH    DISKASK. 


LAMINITTS,  OR    FOUNDER.  417 

some  manner  dependent  upon  the  food  for  its  inception.  Barley, 
wheat,  and  sometimes  corn  are  the  grains  most  apt  to  cause  this  dis- 
ease. With  some  horses  there  appears  to  be  a  particular  suscepti- 
bility to  this  influence  of  corn,  and  the  use  of  this  grain  is  followed  by 
inflammation  of  the  feet,  lasting  from  a  few  days'  to  two  weeks'  time. 
In  these  animals,  to  all  appearances  healthy,  the  corn  neither  induces 
colic,  indigestion,  nor  purging,  and  apparently  no  irritation  whatever 
of  the  alimentary  canal. 

(6)  Fortunately  purgative  medicines  rarely  cause  inflammation  of 
the  laminae.  That  it  is,  then,  the  result  of  sympathetic  action  is  no 
doubt  more  than  hypothetical,  for  when  there  is  no  derangement  of 
the  alimentary  canal  a  dose  of  cathartic  medicine  will  at  times  bring 
on  severe  laminitis. 

(7)  Most  all  the  older  authorities  were  agreed  that  metastatic  lami- 
nitis is  a  reality.  In  my  opinion  metastatic  laminitis  is  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  concurrent  laminitis,  and  presents  little  in  any  way  pecul- 
iar outside  the  imperfectly  understood  exciting  cause.  The  practi- 
tioner who  allows  the  acute  symptoms  of  the  laminitis  to  mislead  him, 
simply  because  their  severity  has  overshadowed  those  of  the  primary 
disease,  may  lose  his  case  through  unguarded  subsequent  treatment. 
This  form  of  laminitis  is  by  no  means  commonly  met  with.  It  may  be 
found  in  conjunction  with  pneumonia,  according  to  Youatt  with 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  eyes,  and  according  to  Law  and 
Williams  sometimes  with  bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — Laminitis  is  characterized  by  a  congregation  of  symp- 
toms so  well  marked  as  scarcely  to  be  misinterpreted  by  the  most 
casual  observer.  They  are  nearly  constant  in  their  manifestations, 
modified  by  the  number  of  feet  affected,  the  cause  which  has  induced 
the  disease,  the  previous  condition  of  the  patient,  and  the  various 
other  influences  which  operate  in  all  diseases  to  some  extent.  They 
may  be  divided  into  general  symptoms,  which  are  concomitants  of  all 
cases  of  the  disease,  subject  to  variations  in  degi'ee  only,  and  special 
symptoms,  or  those  which  serve  to  determine  the  feet  affected  and  the 
complications  which  may  arise. 

General  symptoms. — Usuall}',  the  first  symptom  is  the  interfer- 
ence with  locomotion.  Occasionally  the  other  symptoms  are  pre- 
sented fii-st.  As  the  lameness  develops  the  pulse  becomes  accelerated, 
full,  hard,  and  strikes  the  finger  strongly ;  the  temperature  soon  rises 
several  degrees  above  the  normal,  reaching  sometimes  106°  F. ;  it 
generally  ranges  between  102.5°  and  105°  F.  The  respirations  are 
rapid  and  panting  in  character,  the  nostrils  widely  dilated,  and  the 
mucous  membranes  highly  injected.  The  facial  expression  is  anxious 
and  indicative  of  the  most  acute  suffering,  while  the  body  is  more  or 
less  bedewed  with  sweat.     At  first  there  may  be  a  tendency  to  diar- 

H.  Doc.  705,  59-2 27 


418  DISEASES    OP   THE   HOBSB. 

rhea,  or  it  may  appear  later  as  the  result  of  the  medicines  used.  The 
urine  is  high  colored,  scant  in  quantity,  and  of  increased  specific 
gravity,  owing  to  the  water  being  eliminated  by  the  skin  instead  of 
the  kidneys.  The  appetite  is  impaired,  sometimes  entirely  lost,  but 
thirst  is  greatly  increased.  The  affected  feet  are  hot  and  dry,  and 
are  relieved  as  much  as  possible  from  bearing  weight.  Rapping  them 
with  a  hammer,  or  compelling  the  animal  to  stand  upon  one  affected 
member,  causes  intense  pain.  The  artery  at  the  fetlock  throbs 
beneath  the  finger. 

Special  symptoms. — Liability  to  affection  varies  in  the  different 
feet  according  to  the  exciting  cause.  Any  one  or  more  of  the  feet 
may  become  the  subject  of  this  disease,  although  it  appears  more  often 
in  the  fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones.  This  is  due  to  tne  difference 
of  function,  i.  e.,  that  the  fore  feet  are  the  bases  of  the  columns  of 
support,  receiving  nearly  all  of  the  body  weight  during  progression 
and  consequently  most  of  the  concussion,  while  the  hind  feet  become 
simply  the  fulcra  of  the  levers  of  progression,  and  are  almost  exempt 
from  concussion. 

One  foot. — Injuries  and  excessive  functional  performance  are  the 
causes  of  the  disease  in  only  one  foot.  The  general  symptoms,  as  a 
rule,  are  not  severe,  there  being  often  no  loss  of  appetite  and  no  unu- 
sual thirst,  while  the  pulse,  temperature,  and  respiration  remain  about 
normaL  The  weight  of  the  body  is  early  thrown  upon  the  opposite 
foot,  and  the  affected  one  is  extended,  repeatedly  raised  from  the  floor, 
and  then  carefully  replaced.  When  made  to  move  forward  the  lame 
foot  is  either  carried  in  the  air  while  progression  is  accomplished  by 
hopping  with  the  healthy  one,  or  else  the  heel  of  the  first  is  placed 
upon  the  ground  and  receives  little  weight  while  the  sound  limb  is 
quickly  advanced.  Progression  in  a  straight  line  is  more  easy  than 
turning  toward  the  lame  side. 

Both  fore  feet. — When  both  fore  feet  are  affected  the  symptoms  are 
well  marked.  The  lameness  is  excessive  and  the  animal  almost  im- 
movable. When  standing  the  head  hangs  low  down,  or  rests  upon  the 
manger  as  a  means  of  support  and  to  relieve  the  feet;  the  fore  feet 
are  well  extended  so  that  the  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  heels,  where 
the  tissues  are  least  sensitive,  least  inflamed,  and  most  capable  of 
relief  by  free  effusion.  The  hind  feet  are  brought  forward  beneath 
the  body  to  receive  as  much  weight  as  possible,  thereby  relieving  the 
diseased  ones.  If  progression  is  attempted,  which  rarely  happens 
voluntarily  during  the  first  three  or  four  days,  it  is  accomplished  with 
very  great  pain  and  lameness  at  the  starting,  which  usually  subsides 
to  an  extent  after  a  few  minutes'  exercise.  During  this  exercise,  if 
the  animal  happens  to  step  upon  a  small  stone  or  other  hard  substance, 
he  stumbles  painfully  and  is  excessively  lame  in  the  offended  member 
for  a  number  of  steps,  owing  to  the  acute  pain  which  pressure  upon 


LAMINITIS,  OR   FOUNDER.  419 

the  sole  causes  in  the  tissues  beneath.  The  manner  of  the  progression 
is  pathognomonic  of  the  complaint.  Sometimes  the  affected  feet  are 
simultaneously  raised  from  the  ground  (the  hind  ones  sustaining  the 
weight),  then  advanced  a  short  distance  and  carefully  replaced;  at 
almost  the  same  moment  the  hind  ones  are  quickly  shuffled  forward 
near  to  the  center  of  gravitation. 

In  other  instances  one  foot  at  a  time  is  advanced  and  placed  with 
the  heel  upon  the  ground  in  the  same  careful  manner,  all  causes  of 
concussion  being  carefully  avoided.  In  attempting  to  back  the  ani- 
mal he  is  found  to  be  almost  stationary,  simply  swaying  the  body 
backward  on  the  haunches  and  elevating  the  toes  of  the  diseased  feet 
as  they  rest  upon  their  heels.  In  attempting  to  turn  either  to  the 
right  or  left  he  allows  his  head  to  be  drawn  to  the  one  side  to  its  full 
extent  before  moving,  then  makes  his  hind  feet  the  axis  around 
which  the  forward  ones  describe  a  shuffling  circle. 

In  a  majority  of  cases  of  laminitis  in  the  fore  feet  the  animal  per- 
sists in  standing  until  he  is  nearly  recovered.  In  other  cases  he  as 
persistently  lies,  standing  only  when  necessity  seems  to  compel  it, 
and  then  for  as  short  a  time  as  possible.  If  the  recumbent  position  is 
once  assumed,  the  relief  experienced  tempts  the  patient  to  seek  it 
again;  and  so  we  often  find  him  down  a  greater  part  of  the  time. 
But  this  is  not  true  of  all  cases;  sometimes  he  will  make  the  experi- 
ment, then  cautiously  guard  against  a  repetition.  Even  in  cases  of 
enforced  recumbency,  he  ofttimes  takes  advantage  of  the  first 
opportunity  and  gets  upon  his  feet,  doggedly  remaining  there  until 
again  laid  upon  his  side.  How  to  explain  this  diversity  of  action 
I  do  not  know;  theoretically  the  recumbent  position  is  the  only  ap- 
propriate one,  except  when  complications  exist,  and  the  one  which 
should  give  the  most  comfort,  yet  it  is  rejected  by  very  many 
patients  and,  no  doubt,  for  some  good  reason.  It  has  been  suggested 
as  an  explanation  that  when  the  animal  gets  upon  his  feet  after 
lying  for  a  time  the  suffering  is  so  greatly  augmented  that  the  mem- 
ory of  this  experience  deters  him  from  an  attempted  repetition.  If 
this  were  true,  the  horse  with  the  first  attack  must  necessarily  make 
the  experiment  before  knowing  the  after  effects  of  lying  down,  yet 
many  remain  standing  without  even  an  attempt  at  gaining  this 
experimental  knowledge. 

The  most-favored  position  of  the  animal  when  down  is  on  the 
broadside,  with  the  feet  and  legs  extended.  "VVliile  in  this  position 
the  general  symptoms  greatly  subside;  the  respirations  and  pulse  be- 
come almost  normal ;  the  temperature  falls  and  the  perspiration  dries. 
It  is  with  difficulty  that  he  is  made  to  arise.  "Wlien  he  attempts  it  he 
gets  up  rapidly  and  "  all  of  a  heap,"  as  it  were,  shifting  quickly  from 
one  to  the  other  foot  until  they  become  accustomed  to  the  weight 


420  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

thrown  upon  them.  Occasionally  a  patient  will  get  up  like  a  cow, 
rising  upon  the  hind  feet  first.  Although  enforced  exercise  relieves 
to  some  extent  the  soreness,  it  is  but  temporary,  for  after  a  few 
minutes'  rest  it  returns  with  all  its  former  severity. 

Both  hind  feet. — When  only  both  hind  feet  are  affected,  they  are, 
while  standing,  maintained  -in  the  same  position  as  when  only  the  fore 
ones  are  the  subjects  of  the  disease,  but  with  an  entirely  different 
object  in  view.  Instead  of  being  there  to  receive  weight,  they  are  so 
advanced  that  the  heels  only  may  receive  what  little  weight  is  neces- 
sarily imposed  on  them;  the  fore  feet  at  the  same  time  are  placed 
well  back  beneath  the  body,  where  they  become  the  main  supports; 
the  animal  standing,  as  Williams  describes  it,  "  all  of  a  heap." 

Progression  is  even  more  difficult  now  than  when  the  disease  is 
confined  to  the  anterior  extremities.  The  fore  feet  are  dubiously 
advanced  a  short  distance  and  the  hind  ones  brought  forward  with  a 
sort  of  kangaroo  hop,  that  results  in  an  apparent  loss  of  equilibrium 
which  the  animal  is  a  few  moments  in  regaining.  The  general  symp- 
toms, or,  in  other  words,  the  degree  of  suffering,  seem  more  severe 
than  where  the  disease  affects  the  fore  feet  alone.  The  standing  posi- 
tion is  not  often  maintained,  the  patient  seeking  relief  in  recumbency. 
This  fact  is  easily  understood  when  we  consider  how  cramped  and 
unnatural  is  the  position  he  assumes  while  standing  and,  if  it  were 
maintained  for  any  considerable  length  of  time,  would,  no  doubt, 
excite  the  disease  in  the  fore  feet,  as  explained  by  D'Arboval. 

All  four  feet. — Laminitis  of  all  four  feet  is  but  uncommonly  met 
with.  The  author  has  seen  but  three  such  cases.  In  all  these  the  posi- 
tion assumed  was  nearly  normal.  All  the  feet  were  slightly  advanced, 
and  first  one,  then  another,  momentarily  raised  from  the  ground  and 
carefully  replaced,  this  action  being  kept  up  almost  continually  dur- 
ing the  time  the  animal  remained  standing.  The  suffering  is  most- 
acute,  the  appetite  lost,  and,  although  the  patient  lies  most  of  the  time, 
the  temperature  remains  too  high.  The  pulse  and  respirations  are 
greatly  accelerated,  the  body  covered  with  sweat,  and  bed  sores  are 
unpleasant  accompaniments. 

Course. — The  course  which  laminitis  takes  varies  greatly  in  differ- 
ent cases,  being  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  exciting  cause,  the 
animal's  previous  condition,  the  acuteness  of  the  attack,  and  the  sub- 
sequent treatment.  The  first  symptoms  rarely  exhibit  themselves 
while  the  animal  is  at  his  work,  although  we  occasionally  see  the  gait 
impaired  by  stumbling,  the  body  covered  with  a  profuse  sweat,  and 
the  respirations  become  blowing  in  character  as  premonitions  of  the 
oncoming  disease;  but,  as  a  rule,  nothing  is  noted  amiss  with  the  ani- 
mal until  he  has  stood  for  some  time  after  coming  in  from  work,  when, 
in  attempting  to  move  him,  he  is  found  very  stiff.  Like  all  conges- 
tions, the  early  symptoms  usually  develop  rapidly;    yet  this  is  not 


LAMINITI6,  OR   FOUNDER.  421 

always  the  case,  for  often  there  appears  to  be  no  well-defined  period 
of  congestion,  the  disease  seemingly  commencing  at  a  point  and 
gradually  spreading  until  a  large  territory  is  involved  in  the  morbid 
process. 

Simple  congestion. — ^Those  cases  of  simple  congestion  of  the  laminae, 
which  we  erroneously  call  laminitis,  are  rapidly  developed,  the  symp- 
toms are  but  moderately  severe,  and  but  one  to  three  days  required 
for  recovery.  There  are  no  structural  changes  and  but  a  moderate 
exudate.  This  is  rapidly  reabsorbed,  leaving  the  parts  in  the  same 
condition  as  they  were  previous  to  the  attack.  If  the  congestion  has 
been  excessive,  a  rupture  of  some  of  the  capillaries  will  be  found,  a 
condition  more  apt  to  obtain  where  the  animal  is  made  to  continue 
work  after  a  development  of  symptoms  has  begun. 

True,  the  majority  of  these  last-described  cases  prove  to  be  the  lam- 
initis in  fact,  yet  the  congestion  may  pass  away  and  the  extravasated 
blood  be  absorbed  without  inflammation  sufficient  to  warrant  calling 
it  laminitis.  The  seat  of  greatest  congestion  will  always  be  found  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  toe,  because  of  the  increased  vascularity  of 
that  part,  and,  although  at  times  it  is  limited  to  the  podophyllous 
tissue  alone,  any  or  all  parts  of  the  keratogenous  membrane  may  be 
affected  by  the  congestion  and  followed  finally  by  inflammation. 

Acute. — In  the  acute  form  of  laminitis  the  symptoms  may  all  de- 
velop rapidly,  or  it  may  commence  by  the  appearance  of  a  little  sore- 
ness of  the  feet  which  in  twenty- four  or  forty-eight  hours  develops 
into  a  well-marked  case.  This  peculiarity  of  development  is  due  to 
one  of  two  causes.  Either  the  congestion  is  general,  but  takes  place 
slowly,  or  else  it  begins  in  one  or  more  points  and  gradually  spreads 
throughout  the  laminae.  These  acute  cases  generally  run  their  course 
in  from  one  or  two  weeks.  Usually  a  culmination  of  the  symptoms 
is  reached,  if  the  patient  is  properly  treated,  in  from  three  to  five 
days;  then  evidences  of  recovery  are  discernible  in  favorable  cases. 
The  lameness  improves,  the  other  symptoms  gradually  subside,  and 
eventually  health  is  regained.  It  is  in  these  cases  that  a  strong  tend- 
ency to  disorganization  of  a  destructive  character  exists,  hence  it 
is  we  see  so  many  recover  imperfectly  with  marked  structural  changes 
permanently  remaining. 

Subacute. — Subacute  laminitis  is  most  often  seen  as  a  termination 
of  the  acute  form,  although  it  may  exist  independent  of  or  precede  an 
acute  attack.  It  is  characterized  by  the  mildness  of  its  symptoms, 
slow  course,  and  moderate  tissue  changes.  It  may  be  present  a  long 
time  before  any  pathological  lesions  result  other  than  those  found  in 
the  acute  form,  and  when  these  changes  do  take  place  they  should 
rather  be  viewed  as  complications. 

Chronic. — Chronic  laminitis  is  a  term  used  by  many  to  designate 
any  of  the  sequelae  of  the  acute  and  subacute  forms  of  this  disease. 


422  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

Pure  chronic  inflammation  of  the  laminae  is  not  very  commonly  met 
with,  but  is  most  frequent  in  horses  that  have  long  done  fast  track 
work.  They  have  "  fever  in  the  feet "  at  all  times  and  are  continually 
sore,  both  conditions  being  aggravated  by  work.  Like  chronic  in- 
flammation of  other  parts,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  the  develop- 
ment of  new  connective  tissue,  which,  by  its  pressure  upon  the  blood 
vessels,  interferes  with  nutrition.  Wasting  of  the  coffin  bone  and  in- 
flanmiation  of  its  covering  with  caries  is  not  unusual.  The  continued 
fever  and  impaired  function  of  secretion  result  in  the  production  of 
a  horn  deficient  in  elasticity,  somewhat  spongy  in  character,  and  in- 
clined to  crumble.  In  some  cases  of  "  soreness  "  in  horses  used  to 
hard  or  fast  work,  there  is  evident  weakness  of  the  coats  of  the  ves- 
sels, brought  on  by  repeated  functional  exhaustion.  Here  slight  work 
brings  on  congestion,  which  results  in  serous  effusion  and  temporary 
symptoms  similar  to  those  of  chronic  laminitis. 

Complications. — Complications  concurrent  with  or  supervening 
upon  laminitis  are  frequent  and  varied,  and  are  often  dependent  upon 
causes  not  fully  understood. 

Excessive  purgation  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  these,  and  not  usually 
attended  with  dangerous  consequences.  It  rarely  occurs  unless  in- 
duced by  a  purgative,  and  the  excessive  action  of  the  medicine  is  prob- 
ably to  be  explained  upon  the  theory  that  the  mucous  membrane 
sympathizes  with  the  diseased  laminae,  is  irritable,  and  readily  be- 
comes overexcited.  The  discharges  are  thin  and  watery,  sometimes 
offensively  odorous,  and  occasionally  persist  in  spite  of  treatment.  It 
may  prove  disastrous  to  the  welfare  of  the  patient  by  the  rapid 
exhaustion  which  it  causes,  preventing  resolution  of  the  laminitis, 
and  may  even  cause  death. 

Septicemia,  and  pyemia. — Septicemia  and  pyemia  are  unusual  com- 
plications and  are  seen  only  in  the  most  severe  cases,  where  bed  sores 
are  present  or  suppuration  of  the  laminae  results.  They  die,  as  a  rule, 
within  three  days  after  showing  signs  of  the  complication. 

Pneumonia — the  so-called  metastatic — needs  no  special  considera- 
tion, for  in  its  lesions  and  symptoms  it  does  not  differ  from  ordinary 
pneumonia,  although  it  may  be  overlooked  entirely  by  the  practi- 
tioner. Examinations  of  the  chest  should  be  made  every  day,  so  as 
to  detect  the  disease  at  its  onset  and  render  proper  aid. 

Sidehones. — A  rapid  development  of  sidebones  is  one  of  the  compli- 
cations, or,  perhaps  better,  a  sequel  of  laminitis  not  often  met  with  in 
practice.  Here  the  inflammatory  process  extends  to  the  lateral  carti- 
lages, with  a  strong  tendency  to  calcification.  The  deposition  of  tha 
lime  salts  is  sometimes  most  rapid,  so  that  the  "  bones  "  are  developed 
in  a  few  weeks ;  in  other  instances  they  are  deposited  slowly  and  their 
growth  is  not  noted  until  long  after  the  subsidence  of  the  laminitis, 
so  that  the  exciting  cause  is  not  suspected.     This  change  in  the  car- 


LAMINITIS,  OR   FOUNDEB.  423 

tilages  may  commence  as  early  as  the  first  week  of  the  laminitis ;  and 
although  the  trouble  in  the  laminae  is  removed  in  the  course  of  a  fort- 
night the  symptoms  do  not  entirely  subside,  the  animal  retains  the 
shuffling  gait,  the  sidebones  continue  to  grow,  and  the  patient  usually 
remains  quite  lame.  This  alteration  of  the  cartilages  generally  pre- 
vents the  patient  recovering  his  natural  gait,  and  the  practitioner 
receives  unjust  censure  for  a  condition  of  affairs  he  could  neither 
foresee  nor  prevent. 

The  laminitic  process  occasionally  extends  to  the  covering  of  the 
coronet  bone,  or  at  least  concurrent  with  and  subsequent  to  laminitis 
the  development  of  "  low  ringbone  "  is  seen,  and  it  is  apparently 
dependent  upon  the  disease  of  the  laminae  for  its  exciting  cause.  The 
impairment  of  function  and  consequent  symptoms  are  much  less 
marked  here  than  in  sidebones.  The  coronet  remains  hot  and  sensi- 
tive and  somewhat  thickened  after  the  laminitis  subsides,  and  a  little 
lameness  is  present.  This  lameness  persists  and  the  deposits  of  new 
bone  may  readily  be  detected. 

Suppuration  of  the  sensitive  membrane  is  a  somewhat  common 
complication,  and  even  when  present  in  its  most  limited  form  is 
always  a  serious  matter ;  but  when  it  becomes  extensive,  and  especially 
where  the  suppurative  process  extends  to  the  periosteum,  the  results 
are  apt  to  be  fatal.  When  suppuration  occurs  the  exudation  does  not 
appear  to  be  excessive.  It  is  rich  in  leucocytes  and  seems  to  have 
caused  detachment  of  the  sensitive  tissues  from  the  horn  prior  to  the 
formation  of  pus  in  some  instances;  in  others  the  tissues  are  still 
attached  to  the  horn  and  the  suppuration  takes  place  in  the  deeper 
tissues. 

Limited  suppuration  may  take  place  in  any  part  of  the  sensitive 
tissues  of  the  foot  during  laminitis,  and  may  ultimately  be  reabsorbed 
instead  of  being  discharged  upon  the  surface,  but  generally  the  process 
begins  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  toe  and  spreads  backward  and 
upward  toward  the  coronet,  finally  separating  the  horn  from  the 
coronary  band  at  the  quarters.  At  the  same  time  it  spreads  over  the 
sole  and  eventually  the  entire  hoof  is  loosened  and  sloughs  away, 
leaving  the  tissues  beneath  entirely  unprotected.  In  other  instances, 
and  these  are  generally  the  cases  not  considered  unusually  severe,  the 
suppuration  begins  at  the  coronary  band ;  it  extends  but  a  short  dis- 
tance into  the  tissues,  yet  destroys  the  patient  by  separating  the  hoof 
from  the  coronary  band,  upon  which  it  depends  for  support  and 
growth.  This  form  of  the  suppurative  process  usually  begins  in 
front;  for  it  is  this  part  of  the  coronarj^  band  that  is  always  most 
actively  affected  with  inflammation,  and  consequently  it  is  here  that 
impairments  first  occur. 

Suppuration  of  the  sensitive  sole  is  more  commoii  than  of  the  sensi- 
tive laminae  and  coronary  band.    It  is  present  in  the  majority  of  cases 


424  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

where  there  is  a  dropping  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  in  other  instances 
where  the  effusion  at  this  point  is  so  great  as  to  arrest  the  production 
of  horn  and  uncover  the  sensitive  tissues.  Except  when  the  result  of 
injury  it  begins  at  the  toe  and  spreads  backward,  and,  if  not  relieved 
by  opening  the  sole,  escapes  at  the  heel.  Suppuration  of  the  sole  is 
much  less  serious  than  in  other  parts  of  the  foot. 

If  the  acute  constitutional  symptoms  developed  from  sloughing  of 
the  foot  do  not  result  in  death,  a  new  hoof  of  very  imperfect  horn 
may  be  developed  after  a  time ;  but  unless  the  animal  is  to  be  kept  for 
breeding  purposes  alone  the  foot  will  ever  be  useless  for  work  and 
death  should  relieve  the  suffering.  When  only  the  sole  sloughs 
recovery  takes  place  with  proper  treatment. 

Peditis. — ^This  is  the  term  that  Williams  applies  to  that  serious 
complication  of  laminitis  where  not  only  the  laminae,  but  the  perios- 
teum and  coffin  bone  also  are  subjects  of  the  inflammatory  process. 
Neither  is  this  all ;  for  in  some  of  these  cases  of  peditis  acute  inflam- 
mation of  the  coffin  joint  is  present,  and  occasionally  suppuration  of 
the  joint.  A  mild  form  of  periostitis,  in  which  the  exudation  is  in 
the  outer  layer  of  the  periosteum  only,  is  a  more  common  condition 
than  is  recognized  by  practitioners  generally.  Intimate  contiguity  of 
structures  is  the  predisposing  cause,  for  the  disease  either  spreads 
from  the  original  seat  or  the  complication  occurs  as  one  of  the  primary 
results  of  the  exciting  cause.  In  the  severer  cases  wheie  the  exudate 
separates  the  periosteum  from  the  bone,  suppuration,  gangrene,  and 
superficial  caries  are  common  results.  If  infiltration  of  the  bone 
tissues  is  rapid  the  blood  supply  is  cut  off  by  pressure  upon  the  vessels 
and  death  of  the  coffin  bone  follows.  Grave  constitutional  symptoms 
mark  these  changes,  which  soon  prove  fatal. 

In  the  mild  cases  of  periostitis  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine 
its  presence  positively,  for  there  are  no  special  symptoms  by  which  it 
may  be  distinguished  from  pure  laminitis.  In  a  majority  of  acute 
cases,  though,  which  show  no  signs  of  improvement  by  the  fifth  to 
seventh  day,  it  is  safe  to  suspect  periostitis,  particularly  if  the  coro- 
nets are  very  hot,  the  pulse  full  and  hard,  and  the  lameness  acute. 
In  the  fortunately  rare  cases  where  the  bone  is  affected  with  inflam- 
mation and  suppuration,  the  agony  of  the  patient  is  intense ;  he  occu- 
pies the  recumbent  position  almost  continually,  never  standing  for 
more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time;  suffers  from  the  most  careful 
handling  of  the  affected  feet;  maintains  a  rapid  pulse  and  respiration, 
high  temf>erature,  loss  of  appetite,  and  great  thirst.  It  is  in  these 
cases  the  patient  continually  grows  worse,  and  the  appearance  of  sup- 
puration at  the  top  of  the  hoof  in  about  two  weeks  after  the  inception 
of  the  disease  proves  the  inefficiency  of  any  treatment  which  may  have 
been  used  and  the  hopelessness  of  the  case.    These  patients  die  usually 


LAMTNITTS,  OR   FOUNDER.  425 

between  the  tenth  and  twentieth  days  either  from  exhaustion  or 
pyemic  infection. 

Gangrene  occurs  in  the  periosteum  as  the  result  of  excessive  detach- 
ment from  the  bone  and  compression  due  to  excessive  exudation. 
Other  parts  of  the  sensitive  tissues  are  subject  to  the  same  fate  occa- 
sionally, and  at  times  large  territories  will  be  found  dead. 

Pumiced  sole  is  that  condition  in  which  the  horny  sole  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  toe  readily  crumbles  away  and  leaves  the  sensitive 
tissues  more  or  less  exposed.  It  is  not  a  complication  of  laminitis 
only,  for  it  is  seen  under  other  conditions.  Williams  has  described 
the  horny  tissue  of  pumiced  sole  as  "  weak,  cheesy,  or  spongy,  like 
macerated  horn,  or  even  grumous."  This  crumbling  horn,  when 
critically  examined,  shows  almost  an  entire  absence  of  the  cohesive 
matter  which  unites  the  healthy  fibers,  while  the  fibers  themselves  are 
irregular  and  granular  ia  appearance.  Pumiced  sole  depends  upon 
an  impairment  of  the  horn-^creting  powers  of  the  sensitive  sole,  or 
upon  a  separation  of  the  horny  from  the  soft  tissues  which  maintain 
its  vitality. 

Punctured  wounds  of  the  foot,  accompanied  by  any  considerable 
destruction  of  the  soft  tissues,  present  the  same  peculiarities  of  horn 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  injury.  Bruises  of  the  sole  are 
followed  by  this  change  when  the  exudation  has  been  excessive  and 
has  separated  the  horn  from  the  living  tissues.  True,  in  these  cases 
we  rarely  see  the  soft  tissues  laid  bare,  for  the  reason  that  new  horn 
is  constantly  secreted  and  replaces  that  undergoing  disintegration. 

Laminitis  presents  three  different  conditions  under  which  pumiced 
sole  may  appear :  First,  where  free  exudation  separates  the  horn  from 
the  other  tissues,  or  where  the  process  of  inflammation  arrests  the 
production  of  horn  by  impairing  or  destroying  the  horn-secreting 
membrane ;  secondly,  where  depression  of  the  coffin  bone  causes  pres- 
sure upon  and  arrests  the  formation  of  horn ;  and,  thirdly,  where  the 
elevation  of  the  sole  compresses  the  soft  tissues  against  the  pedal  bone 
and  induces  the  same  condition. 

Pumiced  sole,  from  simple  exudation  and  separation  of  tissues,  is 
of  little  importance,  for  the  reason  given  above  in  connection  with 
bruises;  but  when  suppuration  occurs  in  restricted  portions  of  the 
foot  in  conjunction  with  laminitis,  it  always  lays  bare  the  tissues 
beneath  and  impairs  the  animal's  value  temporarily.  Recovery  takes 
place  after  a  few  weeks  by  the  tissues  horning  over,  as  in  injuries 
attended  by  the  same  process.  Depression  of  the  coffin  bone  is  not 
sufficient  within  itself  to  cause  pumiced  sole;  for,  if  the  relative 
change  in  the  bone  takes  place  slowly,  or  if  the  horn  is  thin,  the  sole 
becomes  convex  from  gradual  pressure,  and  the  soft  tissues  adapt 
themselves  to  the  change  Avithout  having  their  function  materially 


426  DISEASES   OF  THE   HOESE. 

impaired.  But  when  the  dropping  is  sudden  and  the  soft  tissues  are 
destroyed,  the  horn  rapidly  crumbles  away  and  the  toe  of  the  bone 
comes  through.  In  many  of  these  cases  the  soft  tissues  remain 
uncovered  for  months.  When  they  are  eventually  covered  it  is  with 
a  thin,  slightly  adherent  horn  that  stands  but  little  or  no  wear.  The 
sole  being  now  convex,  the  diseased  tissues  bear  unusual  weight  by 
coming  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  hence  it  is  that  these  animals 
are  generally  incurable  cripples. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  where  the  sole  is  raised  to  meet  the  pedal 
bone  and  pumiced  sole  occurs,  it  is  due  not  to  pressure  of  the  bone 
from  within  (for  the  tissues  are  capable  of  adapting  themselves  to  the 
gradual  change),  but  to  impaired  vitality  of  the  sensitive  tissues  from 
the  inflammation  and  to  the  constant  concussion  and  pressure  applied 
from  without  during  progression.  To  this  is  to  be  added  the  paring 
away  of  the  horn  by  the  smith  when  applying  the  shoe,  thereby  keep- 
ing the  sole  at  this  point  too  thin.  • 

Turning  up  of  the  toe. — In  many  cases  of  laminitis  which  have 
become  chronic  it  is  found  that  the  toe  of  the  foot  turns  up ;  that  the 
heels  are  longer  than  natural ;  while  the  hoof  near  the  coronary  band 
is  circled  with  ridges  like  the  horn  of  a  ram.  Even  in  cases  where 
recovery  has  taken  place,  and  in  other  diseases  than  laminitis,  these 
ridges  may  be  found  in  the  wall  of  the  foot.  But  in  such  cases  the 
ridges  are  equally  distant  from  each  other  all  around  the  foot,  while 
in  turning  up  of  the  toe  the  ridges  are  wide  apart  at  the  heels  and 
close  together  in  front,  as  seen  in  the  figure  (Plate  XXXIII,  fig.  4). 
These  ridges  are  produced  by  periods  of  interference  with  the  growth 
of  horn  alternating  with  periods  during  which  a  normal  or  nearly 
normal  growth  takes  place.  When  the  toe  turns  up  it  is  because  the 
coronary  band  in  front  produces  horn  very  slowly,  while  at  the  heels 
it  grows  much  faster,  causing  marked  deformitj^ 

Animals  so  affected  always  place  the  abnormally  long  heel  first 
upon  the  ground,  not  alone  because  the  heel  is  too  long,  nor  as  in  acute 
or  subacute  laminitis  to  relieve  the  pain,  but  for  the  simple  reason  that 
the  toe  is  too  short  and  lifted  away  from  its  natural  position.  To 
bring  the  toe  to  the  ground  the  leg  knuckles  at  the  fetlock  joint. 

The  pain  and  impairment  of  function  in  these  cases  always  result  in 
marked  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  shoulder,  and  to 
some  extent  of  the  pectorals,  while  the  position  of  the  fore  legs 
advances  the  shoulder  joints  so  far  forward  as  to  cause  a  sunken 
appearance  of  the  breast,  which  the  laity  recognize  as  "  chest 
founder." 

The  lesions  of  turning  up  of  the  toe  are  permanent,  and  are  the 
most  interesting  pathologically  of  all  the  complications  of  laminitis. 

TreatTnent. — The  treatment  of  laminitis  is  probably  more  varied 


LAMINITIS,  OB  FOUNDEB.  427 

than  in  any  other  disease,  and  yet  a  large  number  of  cases  recover  for 
even  the  poorest  practitioner. 

Prevention. — To  guard  against  and  prevent  disease,  or  to  render  an 
unpreventable  attack  less  serious  than  it  otherwise  would  be,  is  the 
highest  practice  of  the  healing  art.  In  a  disease  so  prone  to  result 
from  the  simplest  causes,  especially  when  the  soundest  judgment  may 
not  be  able  to  determine  the  extent  of  the  disease-resisting  powers  of 
the  tissues  which  are  liable  to  be  affected,  or  of  what  shall  in  every 
instance  constitute  an  overexcitement,  it  is  not  strange  that  horse 
owners  find  themselves  in  trouble  from  unintentional  transgression. 
If  the  disease  was  dependent  upon  specific  causes,  or  if  the  stability  of 
the  tissues  were  of  a  fixed  or  more  nearly  determinate  quality,  some 
measures  might  be  instituted  that  would  prove  generally  preventive. 
But  the  predisposing  causes  are  common  conditions  and  often  can  not 
be  remedied.  That  which  is  gentle  work  in  one  instance  may  incite 
disease  in  another.  That  which  is  food  to-day  may  to-morrow  prove 
disastrous  to  health.  Finally,  necessary  medical  interference,  no  mat- 
ter how  judicious,  may  cause  a  more  serious  complaint  than  that 
which  was  being  treated.  Notwithstanding  these  difficulties  there  are 
some  general  rules  to  be  observed  that  will  in  part  serve  to  prevent  the 
development  of  an  unusual  number  of  cases.  First  of  all  the  predis- 
posing causes  must  be  removed  where  possible ;  when  this  is  impossi- 
ble unusual  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  into  operation  an  exciting 
cause.  Fat  animals  should,  under  no  circumstances,  have  hard  work. 
If  the  weather  is  warm  or  the  variation  of  temperature  great,  all 
horses  should  have  but  slow,  gentle  labor  until  they  become  inured  to 
it,  the  tissues  hardened,  and  their  excitability  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Green  horses  should  have  moderate  work,  particularly  when  taken 
from  the  farm  and  dirt  roads  to  city  pavements;  for  increased  con- 
cussion, changed  hygienic  conditions,  and  artificial  living  readily 
become  active  causes  of  the  disease  under  these  circumstances.  Army 
horses  just  out  of  winter  quarters,  track  horses  with  insufficient  prep- 
aration, and  farmers'  horses  put  to  work  in  the  spring  are  among  the 
most  susceptible  classes,  and  must  be  protected  by  work  that  is  easy 
and  gradual.  If  long  marches  or  drives  are  imperative,  the  in- 
cumbrances must  be  as  light  as  possible  and  the  journey  interspersed 
with  frequent  rests,  for  this  allows  the  lamina  to  regain  their 
impaired  functional  activity  and  to  withstand  much  more  work  with- 
out danger.  Furthermore,  it  permits  early  detection  of  an  attack, 
and  prevents  working  after  the  disease  begins,  which  renders  subse- 
quent medication  more  effective  by  cutting  the  process  short  at  the 
stage  of  congestion. 

All  animals  when  resting  immediately  after  work  should  be  pro- 
tected from  cold  air  or  drafts.    If  placed  in  a  stable  that  is  warm. 


428  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOBSE. 

and  without  draft,  no  covering  is  necessary ;  under  opposite  conditions 
blankets  should  be  used  until  the  excitement  and  exhaustion  of  labor 
have  entirely  passed  away.  It  is  still  better  that  all  animals  coming 
in  warm  from  work  be  "  cooled  out "  by  slow  walking  until  the  per- 
spiration has  dried  and  the  circulation  and  respiration  are  again 
normal.  Animals  stopped  on  the  road  even  for  a  few  moments  should 
always  be  protected  from  rapid  change  of  temperature  by  appropriate 
clothing.  If  it  can  be  avoided,  horses  that  are  working  should  never 
be  driven  or  ridden  through  water.  If  unavoidable,  they  should  be 
cooled  off  before  passing  through,  and  then  kept  moving  until  com- 
pletely dried.  The  same  care  is  to  be  practiced  with  washing  the  legs 
in  cold  water  when  just  in  from  work,  for  occasionally  it  proves  the 
cause  of  a  most  acute  attack  of  this  disease. 

Unusual  changes  in  the  manner  of  applying  the  shoes  should  not  be 
hastily  made.  If  a  plane  shoe  has  been  worn,  high  heels  or  toes  must 
not  be  substituted  at  once;  but  the  change,  if  necessary,  should 
gradually  be  made,  so  that  the  different  tissues  may  adapt  themselves 
to  the  altered  conditions.  If  radical  changes  are  imperative,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  the  work  must  be  so  reduced  in  quantity  and 
quality  that  it  can  not  excite  the  disease. 

Laminitis  from  the  effects  of  purgatives  can  scarcely  be  guarded 
against.  I  can  not  determine  from  the  cases  in  which  I  have  seen  this 
result  that  there  are  any  conditions  present  that  would  warn  us  of 
danger.  The  trouble  does  not  seem  to  depend  upon  the  size  of  the 
purgative,  the  length  of  time  before  purgation  begins,  or  the  activity 
and  severity  with  which  the  remedy  acts.  Medicines  known  to  have 
unusual  irritating  effects  on  the  alimentary  canal  should  be  used  only 
when  necessity  demands  it,  and  then  in  moderate  doses. 

Experience  alone  will  determine  what  animals  are  liable  to  suffer 
from  this  disease  through  the  use  of  foods.  When  an  attack  can  be 
ascribed  to  any  particular  food  it  should  be  withheld,  unless  in  small 
quantities.  Horses  that  have  never  been  fed  upon  Indian  corn  should 
receive  but  a  little  of  it  at  a  time,  mixed  with  bran,  oats,  or  other  food, 
until  it  has  been  determined  that  no  danger  exists.  Com  is  less  safe 
in  warm  than  in  cold  weather,  and  for  this  reason  it  should  always  be 
fed  with  caution  during  spring  and  summer  months. 

When  an  animal  is  excessively  lame  in  one  foot  the  shoe  of  the  oppo- 
site member  should  be  removed,  and  cold  water  frequently  applied  to 
the  well  foot.  At  the  same  time  use  the  slings  if  the  subject  remains 
standing.  Horses  should  under  no  circumstances  be  overworked;  to 
guard  against  this,  previous  work,  nature  of  roads,  state  of  weather, 
and  various  other  influences  must  be  carefully  considered.  Watering 
while  warm  is  a  pernicious  habit,  and,  unless  the  animal  is  accustomed 
to  it,  is  apt  to  result  in  some  disorder,  ofttimes  in  laminitis. 


LAMINITIS.  OR   FOUNDER.  429 

Curative  measures. — In  cases  of  simple  congestion  of  the  laminae  the 
body  should  be  warmly  clothed  and  warm  drinks  administered.  The 
feet  should  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  to  increase  the  return  flow  of 
blood.  In  course  of  an  hour  the  feet  may  be  changed  to  cold  water 
and  kept  there  until  recovery  is  completed.  If  the  constitutional 
symptoms  demand  it,  diuretics  should  be  given.  Half-ounce  doses 
of  saltpeter,  three  times  a  day  in  the  water,  answer  the  purpose.  In 
cases  of  active  congestion  the  warm  footbaths  should  be  omitted  and 
cold  ones  used  from  the  commencement.  Subacute  laminitis  demands 
the  same  treatment,  with  laxatives  if  there  is  constipation,  and  the  ad- 
dition of  low-heeled  shoes.  The  diuretics  may  need  to  be  continued 
for  some  time  and  their  frequency  increased.  Regarding  acute  lami- 
nitis, what  has  been  called  the  "  American  treatment "  is  simple  and 
efficient.  It  consists  solely  in  the  exhibition  of  large  doses  of  nitrate 
of  potash  and  the  continued  application  to  the  feet  and  ankles  of  cold 
water. 

Three  to  4  ounces  of  saltpeter  in  a  pint  of  water,  repeated  every 
six  hours,  is  the  proper  dose.  The  laminitis  frequently  subsides 
within  a  week.  These  large  doses  may  be  continued  for  a  week  with- 
out danger ;  under  no  circumstances  have  I  seen  the  kidneys  irritated 
to  excess  or  other  unfavorable  effects  produced. 

The  feet  should  be  kept  in  a  tub  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  45° 
to  50°  F.,  unless  the  animal  is  lying  down,  when  swabs  are  to  be  used 
and  wet  every  half  hour  with  the  cold  water.  The  water  keeps  the 
horn  soft  and  moist  and  acts  directly  upon  the  inflamed  tissues  by  re- 
ducing the  temperature.  Cold  maintains  the  vitality  and  disease- 
resisting  qualities  of  the  soft  tissues,  tones  up  the  coats  of  the  blood 
vessels,  diminishes  the  supply  of  blood,  and  limits  the  exudation. 
Furthermore,  cold  has  an  anesthetic  effect  upon  the  diseased  tissues 
and  relieves  the  pain. 

Aconite  may  be  given  in  conjunction  with  the  niter  where  the  heart 
is  greatly  excited  and  beats  strongly.  Ten-drop  doses,  repeated 
every  two  hours  for  twenty-four  hours,  are  sufficient.  The  use  of 
cathartics  is  dangerous,  for  they  may  excite  superpurgation.  Usually 
the  niter  will  relieve  the  constipation,  yet  if  it  should  prove  obstinate, 
laxatives  may  be  carefully  given.  Bleeding,  both  general  and  local, 
should  be  guarded  against.  The  shoes  must  be  early  removed  and 
the  soles  left  unpared. 

Paring  of  the  soles  presents  two  objections:  First,  while  it  may 
temporarily  relieve  the  pain  by  relieving  pressure,  it  favors  greater 
exudation,  which  may  more  than  counterbalance  the  good  effects. 
Secondly,  it  makes  the  feet  tender  and  subject  to  bruises  when  the 
animal  again  goes  to  work.  The  shoes  should  be  replaced  when  con- 
valescence sets  in  and  the  animal  is  ready  to  take  exercise.     Exercise 


430  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

should  never  be  enforced  until  the  inflammation  has  subsided;  for 
although  it  temporarily  relieves  the  pain  and  soreness,  it  maintains 
the  irritation,  increases  the  exudation,  and  postpones  recovery. 

If  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  prominent  symptoms  of 
recovery  are  not  apparent,  apply  a  stiff  blister  of  cantharides  around 
the  coronet  and  omit  the  niter  for  about  forty -eight  hours.  "When  the 
blister  is  well  set,  the  feet  may  again  receive  wet  swabs.  If  one  blister 
does  not  remove  the  soreness  it  may  be  repeated,  or  the  actual  cautery 
applied.  The  same  treatment  should  be  adopted  where  sidebones 
form  or  inflammation  of  the  coronet  bone  follows.  When  the  sole 
breaks  through,  exposing  the  soft  tissues,  the  feet  must  be  carefully 
shod  with  thin  heels  and  thick  toes  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  walk 
on  the  heels,  and  the  sole  must  be  well  protected  with  appropriate 
dressings  and  pressure  over  the  exposed  parts.  When  there  is  turn- 
ing up  of  the  toe,  blistering  of  the  coronet,  in  front  only,  sometimes 
stimulates  the  growth  of  horn,  but  as  a  rule  judicious  shoeing  is  the 
only  treatment  that  will  enable  the  animal  to  do  light,  slow  work. 

Where  suppuration  of  the  laminae  is  profuse,  it  is  better  to  destroy 
your  patient  at  once  and  relieve  his  suffering;  but  if  the  suppuration 
is  limited  to  a  small  extent  of  tissue,  especially  of  the  sole,  treatment, 
as  in  acute  cases,  may  induce  recovery  and  should  always  be  tried.  If 
from  bed  sores  or  other  causes  septicemia  or  pyemia  is  feared,  the 
bisulphite  of  soda,  in  half-oimce  doses,  may  be  given  in  conjunction 
with  tonics  and  such  other  treatment  as  is  indicated  in  these  diseases. 

As  to  enforced  recumbency  I  doubt  the  propriety  of  insisting  on  it 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  for  I  think  the  patient  usually  assumes  what- 
ever position  gives  most  comfort.  No  doubt  recumbency  diminishes 
the  amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  feet,  and  may  greatly  relieve  the  pain, 
so  that  forcing  the  patient  to  lie  down  may  be  tried,  yet  should  not  be 
renewed  if  he  thereafter  persists  in  standing. 

Where  the  animal  persistently  stands,  or  where  constant  lying  indi- 
cates it  (to  prevent  extensive  sores),  the  patient  should  be  placed  in 
slings.  When  all  four  feet  are  affected  it  may  be  impossible  to  use 
slings,  for  the  reason  that  the  patient  refuses  to  support  any  of  his 
weight  and  simply  hangs  in  them.  Lastly,  convalescent  cases  must 
not  be  returned  to  work  too  early,  else  permanent  recovery  may  never 
be  effected. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  Cornell  University. 

[Revised  In  1903  by  the  author.] 

As  we  find  them  described  in  systematic  works,  the  diseases  of  the 
skin  are  very  numerous  and  complex,  which  may  be  largely  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  the  cutaneous  covering  is  exposed  to  view  at  all 
points,  so  that  shades  of  diflFerence  in  inflammatory  and  other  diseased 
processes  are  easily  seen  and  distinguished  from  one  another.  In  the 
horse  the  hairy  covering  serves  to  some  extent  to  mask  the  symptoms, 
and  hence  the  nonprofessional  man  is  tempted  to  apply  the  term 
"  mange  "  to  all  alike,  and  it  is  only  a  step  further  to  apply  the  same 
treatment  to  all  these  widely  different  disorders.  Yet  even  in  the 
hairy  quadruped  the  distinction  can  be  made  in  a  way  which  can  not 
be  done  in  disorders  of  that  counterpart  and  prolongation  of  the 
skin — the  mucous  membrane,  which  lines  the  air  passages,  the  digest- 
ive organs,  the  urinary  and  generative  apparatus.  Diseased  processes, 
therefore,  which  in  these  organs  it  might  be  difficult  or  impossible  to 
distinguish  from  one  another,  can  usually  be  separated  and  recognized 
when  appearing  in  the  skin. 

Nor  is  this  differentiation  unimportant.  The  cutaneous  covering 
presents  such  an  extensive  surface  for  the  secretion  of  cuticular  scales, 
hairs,  horn,  sebaceous  matter,  sweat,  and  other  excretory  matters,  that 
any  extensive  disorder  in  its  functions  may  lead  to  serious  internal 
disease  and  death.  Again,  the  intimate  nervous  sympathy  of  differ- 
ent points  of  the  skin  with  particular  internal  organs  renders  certain 
skin  disorders  causative  of  internal  disease  and  certain  internal  dis- 
eases causative  of  affections  of  the  skin.  The  mere  painting  of  the 
skin  with  an  impermeable  coating  of  glue  is  speedily  fatal ;  a  cold ' 
draft  striking  on  the  chest  causes  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  pleura ; 
a  skin  eruption  speedily  follows  certain  disorders  of  the  stomach,  the 
liver,  the  kidneys,  or  even  the  lungs;  simple  burns  of  the  skin  cause 
inflammations  of  internal  organs,  and  inflammations  of  such  or- 
gans cause  in  their  turn  eruptions  on  the  skin.  The  relations — 
nervous,  secretor}'^,  and  absorptive — between  the  skin  and  internal 
organs  are  most  extensive  and  varied,  and  therefore  a  visible  disorder 
in  the  skin  may  point  at  once  and  specifically  to  a  particular  fault  in 
diet,  to  an  injudicious  use  of  cold  water  when  the  system  is  heated,  to 
a  fault  in  drainage,  ventilation,  or  lighting  of  the  stables,  to  indiges- 
tion, to  liver  disease,  to  urinary  disorder,  etc. 

431 


432  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

STRUCTURE  OF   THE    SKIN. 

The  skin  consists  primarily  of  two  parts:  (1)  The  superficial  non- 
vascular (without  blood  vessels)  layer,  the  cuticle,  or  epidermis;  and 
(2)  the  deep  vascular  (with  blood  vessels)  layer,  the  corium,  dermis, 
or  true  skin. 

The  cuticle  is  made  up  of  cells  placed  side  by  side  and  more  or  less 
modified  in  shape  by  their  mutual  compression  and  by  surface  evapo- 
ration and  drying.  The  superficial  stratum  consists  of  the  cells  dried 
in  the  form  of  scales,  which  fall  off  continually  and  form  dandruff. 
The  deep  stratum  (the  mucous  layer)  is  formed  of  somewhat  rounded 
cells  with  large  central  nuclei,  and  in  colored  skin  containing  numer- 
ous pigment  granules.  These  cells  have  prolongations,  or  branches, 
by  which  they  communicate  with  one  another  and  with  the  superficial 
layer  of  cells  in  the  true  skin  beneath.  Through  these  prolongations 
they  receive  nutrient  liquids  for  their  growth  and  increase,  and  pass 
on  liquids  absorbed  by  the  skin  into  the  vessels  of  the  true  skin 
beneath.  The  living  matter  in  the  cells  exercises  an  equally  selective 
power  on  what  they  shall  take  up  for  their  own  nourishment  and  on 
what  they  shall  admit  into  the  circulation  from  without.  Thus,  cer- 
tain agents,  like  iodine  and  belladonna,  are  readily  admitted,  whereas 
others,  like  arsenic,  are  excluded  by  the  sound,  unbroken  epidermis. 
Between  the  deep  and  superficial  laj^ers  of  the  epidermis  there  is  a 
thin  translucent  layer  (septum  lucidum)  consisting  of  a  double 
stratum  of  cells,  and  forming  a  medium  of  transition  from  the  deep 
spheroidal  to  the  superficial  scaly  cuticle. 

The  true  skin,  or  dermis,  has  a  framework  of  interlacing  bundles  of 
white  and  yellow  fibers,  large  and  coarse  in  the  deeper  layers,  and 
fine  in  the  superficial,  where  they  approach  the  cuticle.  Between  the 
fibrous  bundles  are  left  interspaces  which,  like  the  bundles,  become 
finer  as  they  approach  the  surface,  and  inclose  cells,  vessels,  nerves, 
glands,  gland  ducts,  hairs,  and  in  the  deeper  layers  fat. 

The  superficial  layer  of  the  dermis  is  formed  into  a  series  of  minute 
conical  elevations,  or  papilla,  projecting  into  the  deep  portion  of  the 
cuticle,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  very  fine  transparent 
membrane.  This  papillary  layer  is  very  richly  supplied  with  capil- 
lary blood  vessels  and  nerves,  and  is  at  once  the  seat  of  acute  sensa- 
tion and  the  point  from  which  the  nutrient  liquid  is  supplied  to  the 
cells  of  the  cuticle  above.  It  is  also  at  this  point  that  the  active 
changes  of  inflammation  are  especially  concentrated;  it  is  the  im- 

Descriptlon  of  Fig.  1,  Plate  XXXV:  e.  Epidermis,  d.  Derma.  1.  Horny  layer 
of  the  epidermis.  2.  Stratum  mueosum.  3.  Papillary  layer  of  the  derma.  4. 
Excretory  diirt  of  a  sudoriparous  gland.  5.  Gloinorule  of  a  sudoriparous  gland. 
G.  Hair  follicle.  7.  Sebaceous  gland.  8.  Internal  sheath  of  the  hair  follicle. 
9.  Bulb  of  the  hair.     10.  Mass  of  adipose  tissue. 


i»i,.vri:  xwv 


lerlif'fil  .section  th}r>uqh   .shin. 

after  n>auw,ni . 


Hair  ili.\e<i.te/l  hy 
TvirliojihyUtn  Toiisnrnns 


al1«r  M.-^i.ii. 


Haiv  disiut.sed  hy 
.Uhorion.   Sr/ion  teini 

aflfi-  Mi'-aniii 


w: 


MivitK\fMf/un  Adiniinii   /it>rn 
Piim.s'itu-  Pifyrui.\i\  in  f/w  hi>r.\i' 

.inrrM.aiiin 


JliCS  eiEN  fc  CO  NT 


i)is1':asks  oi'  tiik  skin 


STRUCTURE   OF   THE    SKIN.  433 

mediately  superposed  cell  layers  (mucous)  that  become  morbidly 
increased  in  the  earlier  stages  of  inflammation;  it  is  on  the  surface 
of  the  papillary  layer  that  the  liquid  is  thrown  out  which  raises  the 
cuticle  in  the  form  of  a  blister,  and  it  is  at  this  point  mainly  that  pus 
forms  in  the  ordinary  pustule. 

The  fibrous  bundles  of  the  true  skin  contain  plain  muscular  fibers, 
which  are  not  controlled  by  the  will,  but  contract  under  the  influence 
of  cold  and  under  certain  nervous  influences,  as  in  some  skin  dis- 
eases and  in  the  chill  of  a  fever,  and  lead  to  contraction,  tightening, 
or  corrugation  of  the  skin,  contributing  to  produce  the  "  hidebound  " 
of  the  horseman.  Other  minute  muscular  filaments  are  extended 
from  the  surface  of  the  dermis  to  the  hair  follicle  on  the  side  to  which 
the  hair  is  inclined,  and  under  the  same  stimulating  influences  pro- 
duce that  erection  of  the  hair  which  is  familiarly  known  as  "  staring 
coat."  Besides  these,  the  horse's  skin  is  furnished  with  an  expansion 
of  red  voluntary  muscle,  firmly  attached  to  the  fibrous  bundles,  and 
by  which  the  animal  can  not  only  dislodge  insects  and  other  irritants, 
but  even  shake  off  the  harness.  This  fleshy  envelope  covers  the  sides 
of  the  trunk  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  neck  and  head,  the  parts 
unprotected  by  the  mane  and  tail,  and  serves  to  throw  the  skin  of. 
these  parts  into  puckers,  or  ridges,  in  certain  irritating  skin  diseases. 

The  hairs  are  cuticular  products  growing  from  an  enlarged  papilla 
lodged  in  the  depth  of  a  follicle  or  sac,  hollowed  out  in  the  skin  and 
extending  to  its  deepest  layers.  The  hair  follicle  is  lined  by  cells  of 
epidermis,  which  at  the  bottom  are  reflected  on  the  papilla  and  become 
the  root  of  the  hair.  The  hair  itself  is  formed  of  the  same  kind  of 
cells  firmly  adherent  to  each  other  by  a  tough  intercellular  substance, 
and  overlapping  each  other  like  slates  on  a  roof  in  a  direction  toward 
the  free  end. 

The  sebaceous  (/lands  are  branching  tubes  ending  in  follicles  or  sacs 
and  opening  into  the  hair  follicles,  lined  by  a  very  vascular  fibrous 
network  representing  the  dermis,  and  an  internal  layer  of  cells  repre- 
senting the  mucous  layer  of  the  cuticle.  The  oily  secretion  gives  gloss 
to  the  hair  and  prevents  its  becoming  dry  and  brittle,  and  keeps  the 
skin  soft  and  supple,  protecting  it  at  once  against  undue  exhalation  of 
water  and  undue  absorption  when  immersed  in  that  medium.  Besides 
those  connected  with  the  hair  follicles  there  are  numerous  isolated 
sebaceous  glands,  opening  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  produ- 
cing a  somewhat  thicker  and  more  odorous  secretion.  These  are  found 
in  large  numbers  in  the  folds  of  the  skin,  where  chafing  would  be 
likely  if  the  surface  were  dry,  as  on  the  sheath,  scrotum,  mammary 
glands,  and  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  around  the  anus  and  vulva,  in  the 
hollow  of  the  heel,  beneath  the  fine  horn  of  the  frog,  on  the  inner  side 

H.  Doc.  705,  50-2 28 


434  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

of  the  elbow,  on  the  lips,  nostrils,  and  eyelids.  When  closed  by  dried 
secretion  or  otherwise  these  glands  may  become  distended  so  as  to 
form  various-sized  swellings  on  the  skin,  and  when  inflamed  they 
may  throw  out  offensive  liquid  discharges,  as  in  "  grease,"  or  produce 
red,  tender  fungous  growths  ("  grapes  "). 

The  sweat  glands  of  the  horse,  like  those  of  man,  are  composed  of 
simple  tubes,  which  extend  down  through  the  cuticle  and  dermis  in  a 
spiral  manner,  and  are  coiled  into  balls  in  the  deeper  layer  of  the  true 
skin.  In  addition  to  their  importance  in  tlirowing  offensive  waste 
products  out  of  the  system,  these  glands  tend  to  cool  the  skiri  and  the 
entire  economy  of  the  animal  through  the  evaporation  of  their  watery 
secretion.  Their  activity  is  therefore  a  matter  of  no  small  moment, 
as  besides  regulating  the  animal  heat  and  excreting  impurities,  they 
influence  largely  the  internal  organs  through  the  intimate  sympathy 
maintained  between  them  and  the  skin. 

Diseases  of  the  skin  may  be  conveniently  divided,  according  to  their 
most  marked  features,  into — 

(1)  Those  in  which  congestion  and  infiammation  arc  the  most 
marked  features,  varying  according  to  the  grade  or  form  into  (a) 
congestion  with  simple  redness,  dryness,  and  heat,  but  no  eruption 
{erythema)  ;  (&)  inftammation  with  red-pointed  elevations,  but  no 
blisters  {papules)  ;  {c)  inflammation  with  fine  conical  elevations, 
each  surmounted  by  a  minute  blister  {vesicle)  ;  {d)  inflammation 
with  a  similar  eruption  but  with  larger  blisters,  like  half  a  pea  and 
upwards  {hullce)  ]  {e)  inflammation  with  a  similar  eruption,  but 
with  a  small  sac  of  white  creamy  pus  on  the  summit  of  each  elevation 
{pustules)  ;  (/)  the  formation  of  pustules  implicating  the  superficial 
layer  of  the  true  skin,  a  small  portion  of  which  dies  and  is  thrown  off 
as  a  slough,  or  "  core  "  {boils)  ;  {g)  the  formation  of  round,  nodular, 
transient  swellings  in  the  true  skin  {tubercles)  ;  and  (A)  the  excessive 
production  of  scales,  or  dandruff  {scaly  or  squamous  affections) . 

(2)  Diseases  in  which  there  are  only  deranged  sensations  of  itch- 
ing, heat,  tenderness,  etc.  {neurosis). 

(3)  Diseased  growths,  such  as  warts,  callosities,  horny  growths, 
cancer,  etc. 

(4)  Diseases  due  to  parasites,  animal  and  vegetable. 

(5)  Diseases  connected  with  a  specific  poison,  such  as  horsepox, 
erysipelas,  anthrax,  farcy,  or  cutaneous  glanders,  etc. 

(6)  Physical  injuries,  like  wounds,  burns,  scalds,  etc. 

CONGESTION     (rED    EFFTX)RESCENCE,    OR    ERYTHEMA). 

This  is  a  congested  or  slightly  inflamed  condition  of  the  skin,  unat- 
tended by  any  eruption.  The  part  is  slightly  swollen,  hot,  tender, 
or  itchy,  and  dry,  and  if  the  skin  is  white  there  is  redness.     The  red- 


ITTBTjAMMATION   op  the  SETN.  435 

ness  is  effaced  by  pressure,  but  reappears  instantly  when  the  pressure 
is  removed.  Unless  in  transient  cases  the  hairs  are  liable  to  be  shed. 
It  may  be  looked  on  as  the  first  stage  of  inflammation,  and  therefore 
when  it  becomes  aggravated  it  may  merge  in  part  or  in  whole  into  a 
papular,  vesicular,  or  pustular  eruption. 

Erythema  may  arise  from  a  variety  of  causes,  and  is  often  named 
in  accordance  with  its  most  prominent  cause.  Thus  the  chilling,  or 
partial  freezing,  of  a  part  will  give  rise  to  a  severe  reaction  and  con- 
gestion. When  snowy  or  icy  streets  have  been  salted  this  may  extend 
to  severe  inflammation  with  vesicles,  pustules,  or  even  sloughs  of 
circumscribed  portions  of  the  skin  of  the  pastern  (chillblain,  frost- 
bite). Heat  and  burning  have  a  similar  effect,  and  this  often  comes 
from  exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  skin  that  does  not 
perspire  is  the  most  subject,  and  hence  the  white  face  or  white  limb 
of  a  horse  becoming  dried  by  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  often 
suffers  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest  of  the  body  {white  face  and  foot 
disease).  The  febrile  state  of  the  general  system  is  also  a  potent 
cause,  hence  the  white-skinned  horse  is  rendered  the  more  liable  if 
kept  on  a  heating  ration  of  buckwheat,  or  even  of  wheat  or  maize. 
Contact  of  the  skin  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  other  essential  oils,  with 
irritant  liquids,  vegetable  or  mineral,  with  rancid  fats,  with  the  acrid 
secretions  of  certain  animals,  like  the  irritating  toad,  with  pus,  sweat, 
tears,  urine,  or  liquid  feces,  will  produce  congestion  or  even  inflam- 
mation. Chafing  is  a  common  cause,  and  is  especially  liable  to  affect 
the  fat  horse  between  the  thighs,  by  the  side  of  the  sheath  or  scrotum, 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow,  or  where  the  harness  chafes  on  the 
poll,  shoulder,  back,  breastbone,  and  under  the  tail.  The  accumula- 
tion of  sweat  and  dust  between  the  folds  of  the  skin  and  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  harness,  and  the  specially  acrid  character  of  the  sweat  in 
certain  horses  contribute  to  chafing  or  "  intertrigo."  The  heels  often 
become  congested,  owing  to  the  irritation  caused  by  the  short  bristly 
hairs  in  clipped  heels.  Again,  congestion  may  occur  from  friction  by 
halter,  harness,  or  other  foreign  body  under  the  pastern,  or  inside  the 
thigh  or  arm,  or  by  reason  of  blows  from  another  foot  (cutting,  inter- 
fering, overreach).  Finally  erythema  is  especially  liable  to  occur  in 
spring  when  the  coat  is  being  shed,  and  the  hair  follicles  and  general 
surface  are  exposed  and  irritable  in  connection  with  the  dropping  of 
the  hairs. 

If  due  only  to  a  local  irritant,  congestion  will  usually  disappear 
when  such  cause  has  been  removed,  but  when  the  feeding  or  system 
is  at  fault  these  conditions  must  be  first  corrected.  ^\Tiile  the  coat  is 
being  shed  the  susceptibility  will  continue,  and  the  aim  should  be  to 
prevent  the  disease  developing  and  advancing  so  as  to  weaken  the 
skin,  render  the  susceptibility  permanent,  and  lay  the  foundation  of 


436  DISEASES   OF    THE   HORSE. 

persistent  or  frequently  recurring  skin  disease.  Hence  at  such  times 
the  diet  should  be  nonstimulating ;  any  excess  of  grain,  and  above  all 
of  buckwheat,  Indian  com,  or  wheat,  being  avoided.  A  large  grain 
ration  should  not  be  given  at  once  on  return  from  hard  work,  when 
the  general  system  and  stomach  are  unable  to  cope  with  it ;  the  animal 
should  not  be  given  more  than  a  swallow  or  two  of  cold  water  when 
perspiring  and  fatigued;  nor  should  he  be  allowed  a  full  supply  of 
water  just  after  his  grain  ration;  he  should  not  be  overheated  or 
exhausted  by  work,  nor  should  dried  sweat  and  dust  be  allowed  to 
accumulate  on  the  skin  or  on  the  harness  pressing  on  it.  The  expo- 
sure of  the  affected  heels  to  damp,  mud,  and  snow,  and,  above  all,  to 
melting  snow,  should  be  guarded  against ;  light,  smooth,  well-fitting 
harness  must  be  secured,  and  where  the  saddle  or  collar  irritates  an 
incision  should  be  made  in  them  above  and  below  the  part  that  chafes, 
and,  the  padding  between  having  been  removed,  the  lining  should  be 
beaten  so  as  to  make  a  hollow.  A  zinc  shield  in  the  upper  angle  of 
the  collar  will  often  prevent  chafing  in  front  of  the  withers. 

Treatment. — ^Wash  the  chafed  skin  and  apply  salt  water  (one-half 
ounce  to  the  quart),  extract  of  witch-hazel,  a  weak  solution  of  oak 
bark,  or  camphorated  spirit.  If  the  surface  is  raw  use  bland  powders, 
such  as  oxide  of  zinc,  lycopodium,  starch,  or  smear  the  surface  with 
vaseline,  or  with  1  ounce  of  vaseline  intimately  mixed  with  one-half 
dram  each  of  sugar  of  lead  and  opium.  In  cases  of  chafing  rest  must 
be  strictly  enjoined.  Where  there  is  constitutional  disorder  or  acrid 
sweat,  1  ounce  cream  of  tartar  or  a  teaspoonful  of  bicarbonate  of  soda 
may  be  given  twice  daily. 

CONGESTION,  WITH    SMALL   PIMPLES,   OR  PAPULES. 

In  this  affection  there  is  the  general  blush,  heat,  etc.,  of  erythema, 
together  with  a  crop  of  elevations  from  the  size  of  a  poppy  seed  to  a 
coffee  bean,  visible  when  the  hair  is  revei'sed  or  to  be  felt  with  the 
finger  where  the  hair  is  scanty.  In  white  skins  they  vary  from  the 
palest  to  the  darkest  red.  All  do  not  retain  the  papular  type,  but 
some  go  on  to  form  blisters  (eczema,  bullae)  or  pustules,  or  dry  up 
into  scales,  or  break  out  into  open  sores,  or  extend  into  larger  swell- 
ings (tubercles).  The  majority,  however,  remaining  as  pimples, 
characterize  the  disease.  When  very  itchy  the  rubbing  breaks  them 
open,  and  the  resulting  sores  and  scales  hide  the  true  nature  of  the 
eruption. 

The  general  and  local  causes  may  be  the  same  as  for  erythema,  and 
in  the  same  subject  one  portion  of  the  skin  may  have  simple  conges- 
tion and  another  adjacent  papules.  As  the  inflammatory  action  is 
more  pronounced,  so  the  irritation  and  itching  are  usually  greater, 
the  animal  rubbing  and  biting  himself  severely.    This  itching  is  espe- 


INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    SKIN.  437 

cially  severe  in  the  forms  which  attack  the  roots  of  the  mane  and  tail, 
and  there  the  disease  is  often  so  persistent  and  troublesome  that  the 
horse  is  rendered  virtually  useless. 

The  bites  of  insects  often  produce  a  papular  eruption,  but  in  many 
such  cases  the  swelling  extends  wider  into  a  buttonlike  elevation, 
one-half  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the 
effects  of  the  poison  ivy  and  poison  sumac. 

Treatment. — In  papular  eruption  first  remove  the  cause,  then  apply 
the  same  general  remedies  as  for  simple  congestion.  In  the  more 
inveterate  cases  use  a  lotion  cf  one-half  ounce  sulphide  of  potassium 
in  2  quarts  water,  to  which  a  little  Castile  soap  has  been  added ;  or 
use  a  wash  with  one-half  ounce  oil  of  tar,  2  ounces  Castile  soap,  and 
20  ounces  water. 

INFLAMMATION    WITH    BLISTERS,    OR   ECZEMA. 

In  this  the  skin  is  congested,  thickened,  warm  (white  skins  are  red- 
dened), and  shows  a  thick  crop  of  little  blisters  formed  by  effusions  of 
a  straw-colored  fluid  between  the  true  skin  and  the  cuticle.  The  blis- 
ters may  be  of  any  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  pea,  and  often  crack 
open  and  allow  the  escape  of  the  fluid,  which  concretes  as  a  slightly 
yellowish  scab  or  crust  around  the  roots  of  the  hairs.  This  exudation 
and  incrustation  are  especially  common  where  the  hairs  are  long, 
thick,  and  numerous,  as  in  the  region  of  the  pastern  of  heavy  draft 
horses.  The  term  eczema  is  now  applied  very  generally  to  eruptions 
of  all  kinds  that  depend  on  internal  disorders  or  constitutional  con- 
ditions, and  that  tend  to  recurrences  and  inveteracy.  Eczema  may 
appear  on  any  part  of  the  body,  but  in  horses  it  is  especially  common 
on  the  heels  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs,  and  less  frequently  on 
the  neck,  shoulder,  and  abdomen.  The  limbs  appear  to  be  especially 
liable  because  of  their  dependent  position,  all  blood  having  to  return 
from  them  against  the  action  of  gravity,  and  congestions  and  swell- 
ings being  common,  because  of  the  abundance  of  blood  vessels  in  this 
part  of  the  skin,  and  because  of  the  frequent  contact  with  the  irritant 
dung  and  urine  and  their  ammoniacal  emanations.  The  legs  further 
suffer  from  contact  with  wet  and  mud  when  at  work,  from  snow  and 
ice,  from  drafts  of  cold  air  on  the  wet  limbs,  from  washing  with 
caustic  soaps,  or  from  the  relaxing  effects  of  a  too  deep  and  abundant 
litter.  Among  other  causes  may  be  named  indigestion  and  the  pres- 
ence of  irritant  matters  in  the  blood  and  sweat,  the  result  of  patent 
medicated  foods  and  condition  powders  (aromatics,  stimulants),  green 
food,  new  hay,  new  oathi,  buckwheat,  wheat,  maize,  diseased  potatoes, 
smut,  or  ergot,  in  grains,  decomposing  green  food,  brewers'  grains,  or 
kitchen  garbage.  The  excitement  in  the  skin,  caused  by  shedding 
the  coat,  lack  of  grooming,  hot  weather,  hot  boiled  or  steamed  food, 


438  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

conduces  to  the  eruption.  Lastly,  any  sudden  change  of  food  may 
induce  it. 

The  blisters  may  in  part  go  on  to  suppuration  so  that  vesicles  and 
pustules  often  appear  on  the  same  patch,  and  when  raw  from  rubbing 
the  true  nature  of  the  eruption  may  be  completely  masked.  In  high- 
fed  horses,  kept  in  close  stables  with  little  work,  eczema  of  the  limbs 
may  last  for  months  and  years.  It  is  a  very  troublesome  affection  in 
draft  stallions. 

Treatment. — This  disease  is  so  often  the  result  of  indigestion  that  a 
laxative  of  1  pound  Glauber's  salts,  in  3  or  4  quarts  water  or  1^  pints 
olive  oil,  is  often  demanded  to  clear  away  irritants  from  the  alimen- 
tary canal.  Following  this,  in  recent  and  acute  cases,  give  2  drams 
of  acetate  or  bicarbonate  of  potash  twice  a  day  in  the  drinking  water. 
If  the  bowels  still  become  costive,  give  daily  1  ounce  sulphate  of  soda 
and  20  grains  powdered  nux  vomica.  In.  debilitated  horses  combine 
the  nux  vomica  with  one-half  ounce  powdered  gentian  root.  As  a 
wash  for  the  skin  use  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  1  dram  carbolic 
acid  in  a  quart  of  water,  after  having  cleansed  the  surface  with  tepid 
water.  Employ  the  same  precautions  as  regards  feeding,  stabling, 
and  care  of  harness  as  in  simple  congestion  of  the  skin. 

In  the  more  inveterate  forms  of  eczema  more  active  treatment  is 
required.  Soak  the  scabs  in  fresh  sweet  oil,  and  in  a  few  hours 
remove  these  with  tepid  water  and  Castile  soap ;  then  apply  an  oint- 
ment of  sulphur  or  iodide  of  sulphur  day  by  day.  If  this  seems  to 
be  losing  its  effect  after  a  week,  change  for  mercurial  ointment  or  a 
solution  of  sulphide  of  potassium,  or  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  3  drams 
to  the  quart  of  water.  In  these  cases  the  animal  may  take  a  course  of 
sulphur  (1  ounce  daily),  bisulphite  of  soda  (one-half  ounce  daily),  or 
of  arsenic  (5  grains  daily)  mixed  with  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda. 

INFLAMMATION    WITH    PUSTULES. 

In  this  affection  the  individual  elevations  on  the  inflamed  skin 
show  in  the  center  a  small  sac  of  white,  creamy  pus,  in  place  of  the 
clear  liquid  of  a  blister.  They  vary  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a 
hazelnut.  The  pustules  of  glanders  (farcy  buds)  are  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  watery  contents  and  the  cordlike  swelling,  extending 
from  the  pustules  along  the  line  of  the  veins,  and  those  of  boils  by  the 
inflammation  and  sloughing  out  of  a  core  of  the  true  skin.  The  hair 
on  the  pustule  stands  erect,  and  is  often  shed  with  the  scab  which 
results.  When  itching  is  severe  the  parts  become  excoriated  by 
rubbing,  and,  as  in  the  other  forms  of  skin  disease,  the  character  of 
the  eruption  may  become  indistinct.  Old  horses  suffer  mainly  at  the 
root  of  the  mane  and  tail  and  about  the  heels,  and  suckling  foals 
around  the  mouth,  on  the  face,  inside  the  thighs,  and  under  the  tail. 

Pustules  like  eczema  are  especially  liable  to  result  from  unwhole- 
some food  and  indigestion,  from  a  sudden  change  of  food — above  all. 


BOILS,    OB   FURUNCLES.  439 

from  dry  to  green  food.  In  foals  it  may  result  from  overheating  of 
the  mare  and  allowing  the  first  milk  after  she  returns,  or  by  milk 
rendered  unwholesome  by  faulty  feeding  of  the  dam.  If  a  foal  is 
brought  up  by  hand  the  souring  and  other  decompositions  in  the  milk 
derange  the  digestion  and  cause  such  eruption.  Vetches  and  other 
plants  affected  with  honey  dew  and  buckwheat  have  been  the  cause  of 
these  eruptions  on  white  portions  of  the  skin.  Disorders  of  the 
kidneys  or  liver  are  common  causes  of  this  affection. 

Treatment. — Apply  soothing  ointments,  such  as  benzonated  oxide 
of  zinc,  or  vaseline  .with  1  dram  oxide  of  zinc  in  each  ounce.  Or  a 
wash  of  1  dram  sugar  of  lead  or  2  drams  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  a 
quart  of  water  may  be  freely  applied.  If  the  skin  is  already  abraded 
and  scabby,  smear  thickly  with  vaseline  for  some  hours,  then  wash 
with  soapsuds  and  apply  the  above  dressings.  When  the  excoriations 
are  indolent  they  may  be  painted  with  a  solution  of  lunar  caustic,  2 
grains  to  1  ounce  of  distilled  water.  Internally  counteract  costive- 
ness  and  remove  intestinal  irritants  by  the  same  means  as  in  eczema, 
and  follow  this  with  one-half  ounce  doses  daily  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  and  one-half  ounce  doses  of  gentian.  Inveterate  cases  may 
often  be  benefited  by  a  course  of  sulphur,  bisulphite  of  soda,  or 
arsenic.  In  all,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  with  regard  to  food, 
feeding,  watering,  cleanliness,  and  work.  In  wet  and  cold  seasons 
predisposed  animals  should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  protected  from 
wet,  mud,  snow,  and  melted  snow — above  all,  from  that  which  has 
been  melted  by  salt. 

BOILS,    OR    FURUNCLES. 

These  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  skin,  but  are  especially  com- 
mon on  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs,  and  on  the  shoulders  and  back 
where  the  skin  is  irritated  by  accumulated  secretion  and  chafing  with 
the  harness.  In  other  cases  the  cause  is  constitutional,  or  attended 
by  unwholesome  diet  and  overwork  with  loss  of  general  health  and 
condition.  They  also  follow  on  weakening  diseases,  notably  strangles, 
in  which  irritants  are  retained  in  the  system  from  overproduction  of 
poisons  and  effete  matters  during  fever,  and  imperfect  elimination. 
There  is  also  the  presence  of  a  pyogenic  bacterium,  by  which  the 
disease  may  be  maintained  and  propagated. 

^Vhile  boils  are  pus- producing,  they  differ  from  simple  pustule  in 
affecting  the  deepest  layers  of  the  true  skin,  and  even  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  connective  tissues  beneath,  and  in  the  death  and  slough- 
ing out  of  the  central  part  of  the  inflamed  mass  (core).  The  depth 
of  the  hard,  indurated,  painful  swelling,  and  the  formation  of  this 
central  mass  or  core,  which  is  bathed  in  pus  and  slowly  separated 
from  surrounding  parts,  serve  to  distinguish  the  boil  alike  from  the 
pustule,  from  the  farcy  bud,  and  from  a  superficial  abscess. 


440  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Treatment. — To  treat  very  painful  boils  a  free  incision  with  a 
lancet  in  two  directions,  followed  by  a  dressing  with  one-half  an 
ounce  carbolic  acid  in  a  pint  of  water,  bound  on  with  cotton  wool  or 
lint,  may  cut  them  short.  The  more  common  course  is  to  apply  a 
warm  poultice  of  linseed  meal  or  wheat  bran,  and  renew  daily  until 
the  center  of  the  boil  softens,  when  it  should  be  lanced  and  the  core 
pressed  out. 

If  the  boil  is  smeared  with  a  blistering  ointment  of  Spanish  flies 
and  a  poultice  put  over  it,  the  formation  of  matter  and  separation  of 
the  core  is  often  hastened.  A  mixture  of  sugar  and  soap  laid  on  the 
boil  is  equally  good.  Cleanliness  of  the  skin  and  the  avoidance  of  all 
causes  of  irritation  are  important  items,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  once  or  twice  a  day  will  sometimes  assist  in  warding 
off  a  new  crop. 

NETTLERA8H     (SURFEIT,    OR    I'RTICARIa). 

This  is  an  eruption  in  the  form  of  cutaneous  nodules,  in  size  from 
a  hazelnut  to  a  hickory  nut,  transient,  with  little  disposition  to  the 
formation  of  either  blister  or  pustule,  and  usually  connected  with 
shedding  of  the  coat,  sudden  changes  of  weather,  and  unwholesome- 
ness  or  sudden  change  in  the  food.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the  spring 
and  in  young  and  vigorous  animals  (good  feeders).  The  swelling 
embraces  the  entire  thickness  of  the  skin  and  terminates  by  an 
abrupt  margin  in  place  of  shading  off  into  surrounding  parts.  When 
the  individual  swellings  run  together  there  are  formed  extensive 
patches  of  thickened  integument.  These  may  appear  on  any  part  of 
the  body,  and  may  be  general;  the  eyelids  may  be  closed,  the  lips 
rendered  immovable,  or  the  nostrils  so  thickened  that  breathing 
l)ecomes  difficult  and  snuffling.  It  may  be  attended  by  constipation 
or  diarrhea  or  by  colicky  pains.  The  eruption  is  sudden,  the  whole 
skin  being  sometimes  covered  in  a  few  hours,  and  it  may  disappear 
with  equal  rapidity  or  persist  for  six  or  eight  days. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  clearing  out  the  bowels  by  .5  drama 
Barbados  aloes,  or  1  })ound  Glauber's  salts,  and  follow  the  operation 
of  these  by  daily  doses  of  one-half  ounce  powdered  gentian  and  1 
ounc(i  Glauber's  salts.  A  weak  solution  of  alum  may  be  applied  to 
the  swellings. 

8CAL.T   SKIN   DISEASE,  OR  PITYRIASIS. 

This  affection  is  characterized  by  an  excessive  production  and 
detachment  of  dry  scales  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  (dandruff).  It 
is  usually  dependent  on  some  fault  in  digestion  and  an  imperfect 
secretion  from  the  sebaceous  glands,  and  is  most  common  in  old  horses 
with  spare  habit  of  body.    Williams  attributes  it  to  food  rich  in  sac- 


ERUPTIONS   OP   THE   SKIN.  441 

charine  matter  (carrots,  turnips)  and  to  the  excretion  by  the  skin 
of  oxalic  acid.  He  has  found  it  in  horses  irregularly  worked  and  well 
fed,  and  advises  the  administration  of  pitch  for  a  length  of  time,  and 
the  avoidance  of  saccharine  food.  Otherwise  the  horse  may  take  a 
laxative  followed  by  dram  doses  of  carbonate  of  potash,  and  the 
affected  parts  may  be  bathed  with  soft  tepid  water  and  smeared 
with  an  ointment  made  with  vaseline  and  sulphur.  In  obstinate 
cases  sulphur  niay  be  given  daily  in  the  food, 

NERVOUS    IRRITATION    OF   THE    SKIN,   OR    PRURITUS. 

This  is  seen  in  horses  fed  to  excess  on  grain  and  hay,  kept  in  dose 
stables,  and  worked  irregularly.  Though  most  common  in  summer, 
it  is  often  severe  in  hot,  close  stables  in  winter.  Pimples,  vesicles, 
and  abrasions  may  result,  but  as  the  itching  is  quite  as  severe  on  other 
parts  of  the  skin,  these  may  be  the  result  of  scratching  merely.  It  is 
especially  common  and  inveterate  about  the  roots  of  the  mane  and  tail. 

Treatment  consists  in  a  purgative  (Glauber's  salts,  1  pound),  re- 
stricted, laxative  diet,  and  a  wash  of  water  slightly  soured  with  oil  of 
vitriol  and  rendered  sweet  by  carbolic  acid.  If  obstinate,  give  daily  1 
ounce  of  sulphur  and  20  grains  nux  vomica.  If  the  acid  lotion 
fails,  2  drams  carbonate  of  potash  and  2  grains  of  C3^anide  of  potas- 
sium in  a  quart  of  water  will  sometimes  benefit.  If  due  to  pinworms 
in  the  rectum,  the  itching  of  the  tail  may  be  remedied  by  an  occasional 
injection  of  a  quart  of  water  in  which  chips  of  quassia  wood  have  been 
steeped  for  twelve  hours. 

HERPES. 

This  name  has  been  applied  to  a  disease  in  which  there  is  an  erup- 
tion of  minute  vesicles  in  circular  groups  or  clusters,  with  little 
tendency  to  burst,  but  rather  to  dry  up  into  fine  scabs.  If  the  vesicles 
break  they  exude  a  slight  gummy  discharge  which  concretes  into  a 
small,  hard  scab.  It  is  apparently  noncontagious  and  not  appreciably 
connected  with  any  disorder  of  internal  organs.  It  sometimes  accom- 
panies or  follows  specific  fevers,  and  is,  on  the  whole,  most  frequent 
at  the  seasons  of  changing  the  coat — spring  and  autumn.  It  is  seen 
on  the  lips  and  pastern,  but  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body.  The 
duration  of  the  eruption  is  two  weeks  or  even  more,  the  tendency 
being  to  spontaneous  recovery.  The  affected  part  is  very  irritable, 
causing  a  sensitiveness  and  a  disposition  to  rub  out  of  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  the  eruption. 

Treatment. — It  may  be  treated  by  oxide  of  zinc  ointment,  and  to 
relieve  the  irritation  a  solution  of  opium  or  belladonna  in  water,  or  of 
sugar  of  lead  or  oil  of  peppermint.  A  course  of  bitters  (one-half  an 
ounce  Peruvian  bark  daily  for  a  week)  may  be  serviceable  in  brac- 
ing the  system  and  producing  an  indisposition  to  the  eruption. 


442  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

BLEEDING    SKIN   ERUPTIONS,   OR   DERMATORRHAGIA   PARASITICA. 

In  China,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  other  countries  horses  frequently 
suffer  from  the  presence  of  a  threadworm  {Filaria  hcemorrhagica^ 
Railliet;  F.  multipapillosa,  Condamine  and  Drouilly)  in  the  subcuta- 
neous connective  tissue,  causing  effusions  of  blood  under  the  scurf 
skin  and  incrustations  of  dried  blood  on  the  surface.  The  eruptions, 
which  appear  mainly  on  the  sides  of  the  trunk,  but  may  cover  any 
part  of  the  body,  are  rounded  elevations  about  the  size  of  a  small  pea, 
containing  blood  which  bursts  through  the  scurf  skin  and  concretes 
like  a  reddish  scab  around  the  erect,  rigid  hairs.  These  swellings 
appear  in  groups,  which  remain  out  for  several  days,  gradually 
diminishing  in  size ;  new  groups  appear  after  an  interval  of  three  or 
four  weeks,  the  manifestation  being  confined  to  three  or  four  months 
of  spring  and  disappearing  in  winter.  A  horse  will  suffer  for  several 
years  in  succession,  and  then  permanently  recover.  A  fatal  issue  is 
not  unknown.  To  find  the  worm  the  hair  is  shaved  from  the  part 
where  the  elevations  are  felt,  and  as  soon  as  a  bleeding  point  is  shown 
the  superficial  layer  is  laid  open  with  the  knife,  when  the  parasite 
will  be  seen  drawing  itself  back  into  the  parts  beneath.  The  worm  is 
about  2  inches  long  and  like  a  stout  thread,  thicker  toward  the  head 
than  toward  the  tail,  and  with  numerous  little  conical  elevations 
(papillae)  around  the  head.  The  young  worms  are  numerous  in  the 
body  of  the  adult  female  worm.  The  worm  has  become  common  in 
given  localities,  and  probably  enters  the  system  with  food  or  wat^r. 

Treatment  is  not  satisfactory,  but  the  affected  surface  should  be 
kept  clean  by  sponging,  and  the  pressure  of  harness  on  any  affected 
part  must  be  avoided.  Thus  rest  may  become  essential.  The  part 
may  be  frequently  washed  with  a  strong  solution  of  sulphide  of 
potassium. 

SUMMER  SORES  FROM  FILARIA  IRRITANS. 

The  summer  sores  of  horses  (Dermatitis  granulosa^  boils)  have 
been  traced  to  the  presence  in  the  skin  of  another  parasite,  3  milli- 
meters in  length  and  extremely  attenuated  {Filaria  initans  Railliet). 
The  sores  may  be  seen  as  small  as  a  millet  seed,  but  more  frequently 
the  size  of  a  pea,  and  may  become  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  may 
appear  on  any  point,  but  are  especially  obnoxious  where  the  harness 
presses  or  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs.  They  cause  intense  and 
insupportable  itching,  and  the  victim  rubs  and  bites  the  part  until 
extensive  raw  surfaces  are  produced.  Aside  from  such  frictiofi  the 
sore  is  covered  by  a  brownish-red,  soft,  pulpy  material  with  cracks 
or  furrows  filled  with  serous  pus.  In  the  midst  of  the  softened  mass 
are  small,  firm,  rounded  granulations,  fibrinous,  and  even  caseated, 
and  when  the  soft  pultaceous  material  has  been  scraped  off,  the  sur- 
face bears  a  resemblance  to  the  fine  yellow  points  of  miliary  tubercu- 


CBACKED   HEEIiS.  •    443 

losis  in  the  lung.  The  worm  or  its  debris  is  found  in  the  center  of 
such  masses.  These  sores  are  very  obstinate,  resisting  treatment  for 
months  in  summer,  and  even  after  apparent  recovery  during  the 
cold  season  they  may  appear  anew  the  following  summer.  In  bad 
cases  the  rubbing  and  biting  may  cause  exposure  of  synovial  sacs  and 
tendons,  and  cause  irremediable  injury.  Even  in  winter,  however, 
when  the  diseased  process  seems  arrested,  there  remain  the  hard, 
firm,  resistant  patches  of  the  skin  with  points  in  which  the  diseased 
product  has  become  softened  like  cheese. 

The  apparent  subsidence  of  the  disease  in  winter  is  attributed  to  the 
coldness  and  comparative  bloodlessness  of  the  skin,  whereas  in  sum- 
mer, with  high  temperature,  active  circulation,  and  rapid  cell  growth, 
inflammation  is  increased,  itching  follows,  and  from  the  animal  rub- 
bing the  part  the  irritation  is  persistently  increased.  The  hotter  the 
climate  the  more  troublesome  the  disease. 

The  life  history  of  the  parasite  is  unknown,  but  it  probably  enters 
the  system  with  the  food  or  water. 

Treatment  consists,  first,  in  placing  the  animal  in  a  cool  place  and 
showering  the  surface  with  cold  water.  The  parasite  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  wound  with  iodoform  and 
covering  it  with  a  layer  of  collodion,  and  repeating  the  applications 
every  twenty-four  hours  for  fifteen  days,  or  until  the  sores  heal  up. 
Ether  or  chloroform  may  be  used  in  place  of  iodoform,  being  poured 
on  cotton  wool  and  applied  to  the  sore  for  two  minutes  before  paint- 
ing it  with  collodion. 

CRACKED    HEELS   (SCRATCHES,  OR    CHAPS    ON    KNEE    AND    HOCk). 

This  usually  sets  in  with  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  hol- 
low of  the  heel,  with  erections  of  the  hairs  and  redness  (in  white 
skins),  with  stiffness  and  lameness,  which  may  be  extreme  in  irritable 
horses.  Soon  slight  cracks  appear  transversely,  and  may  gain  in 
depth  and  width,  and  may  even  suppurate.  More  frequently  they 
become  covered  at  the  edges  or  throughout  by  firm  incrustations  re- 
sulting from  the  drying  of  the  liquids  thrown  out,  and  the  skin  be- 
comes increasingly  thick  and  rigid.  A  similar  condition  occurs 
behind  the  knee  and  in  front  of  the  hock  (malanders  and  salanders), 
and  may  extend  from  these  points  to  the  hoof,  virtually  incasing  that 
side  of  the  limb  in  a  permanent  incrusting  sheath. 

Causes. — Besides  a  heavy  lymphatic  constitution,  which  predisposes 
to  this  affection,  the  causes  are  overfeeding  on  grain,  unwholesome 
fodder,  close,  hot,  dirty  stables,  constant  contact  with  dung  and  urine 
and  their  emanations,  working  in  deep,  irritant  mud ;  above  all,  in 
limestone  districts,  irritation  by  dry  limestone  or  sandy  dust  in  dry 
weather  on  dirt  roads;  also  cold  drafts,  snow  and  freezing  mud, 
washing  the  legs  with  caustic  soap,  wrapping  the  wet  legs  in  thick 


444    *  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

woolen  bandages  which  soak  the  skin  and  render  it  sensitive  when 
exposed  next  day,  clipping  the  heels,  weak  heart  and  circulation, 
natural  or  supervening  on  overwork,  imperfect  nourishment,  impure 
air,  lack  of  sunshine,  chronic  exhausting,  or  debilitating  diseases, 
or  functional  or  structural  diseases  of  the  heart,  liver,  or  kidneys. 
These  last  induce  dropsical  swelling  of  the  limbs  (stocking) ,  weaken 
the  parts,  and  induce  cracking.  Finally  the  cicatrix  of  a  preexist- 
ing crack,  weak,  rigid,  and  unyielding,  is  liable  to  reopen  under  any 
severe  exertion,  hence  rapid  paces  and  heavy  draft  are  active  causes. 
Treatment. — In  treatment  the  first  step  is  to  ascertain  and  remove 
the  cause  whenever  possible.  If  there  is  much  local  heat  and  inflam- 
mation, a  laxative  (5  drams  aloes  or  1  pound  Glauber's  salts)  may  be 
given,  and  for  the  pampered  animal  the  grain  should  be  reduced  or 
replaced  altogether  by  bran  mashes,  flaxseed,  and  other  laxative,  non- 
stimulating  food.  In  the  debilitated,  on  the  other  hand,  nutritious 
food  and  bitter  tonics  may  be  given,  and  even  a  course  of  arsenic  (5 
grains  arsenic  with  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda  daily).  When  the 
legs  swell,  exercise  on  dry  roads,  hand  rubbing,  and  evenly  applied 
bandages  are  good,  and  mild  astringents,  like  extract  of  witch-hazel, 
may  be  applied  and  the  part  subsequently  rubbed  dry  and  bandaged. 
If  there  is  much  heat  but  unbroken  skin,  a  lotion  of  2  drams  sugar 
of  lead  to  1  quart  of  water  may  be  applied  on  a  thin  bandage,  cov^ered 
in  cold  weather  with  a  dry  one.  The  same  may  be  used  after  the 
cracks  appear,  or  a  solution  of  sulphurous  acid  1  part,  glycerin  1  part, 
and  water  1  part,  applied  on  cotton  and  well  covered  by  a  bandage. 
In  case  these  should  prove  unsuitable  to  the  particular  case,  the  part 
may  be  smeared  with  vaseline  1  ounce,  sugar  of  lead  1  dram,  and 
carbolic  acid  10  drops. 

INFLAMMATION   OF  THE   HEELS   WITH   SEBACEOUS   SECRETION    (gREASE,   OK 

canker). 

This  is  a  specific  affection  of  the  heels  of  horses  usually  associated 
with  the  growth  of  a  parasitic  fungus,  an  offensive  discharge  from  the 
numerous  sebaceous  glands,  and,  in  bad  cases,  the  formation  of  red, 
raw  excrescences  (grapes)  from  the  surface.  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
(1)  from  simple  inflammation  in  which  the  special  fetid  discharge 
and  the  tendency  to  the  formation  of  "  grapes  "  are  absent;  (2)  from 
horsepox,  in  which  the  abundant  exudate  forms  a  firm  yellow  in- 
crustation around  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  is  cml)eddod  at  intervals 
in  the  pits  formed  by  the  individual  pocks,  and  in  which  there  is  no 
vascular  excrescence;  (3)  from  foot  scabies  (mange),  in  which  the 
presence  of  an  acarus  is  distinctive;  (4)  from  lymphangitis,  in  which 
the  swelling  appears  suddenly  extending  around  the  entire  limb  as 
high  as  the  hock,  and  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh  along  the  line  of 
the  vein  to  the  groin,  and  in  which  there  is  active  fever,  and  (5)  from 


GREASE,  OR   CANKER.  445 

erysipelas,  in  which  there  is  active  fever  (wanting  in  grease),  the 
implication  of  the  deeper  layers  of  the  skin  and  of  the  parts  beneath 
giving  a  boggy  feeling  to  the  parts,  the  absence  of  the  fetid,  greasy 
discharge,  and  finally  a  tendency  to  form  pus  loosely  in  the  tissues 
without  any  limiting  membrane,  as  in  abscess.  Another  distinctive 
feature  of  grease  is  its  tendency  to  implicate  the  skin  which  secretes 
the  bulbs  or  heels  of  the  horny  frog  and  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  con- 
stituting the  disease  known  as  canker. 

Causes. — The  predisposing  causes  of  grease  are  essentially  the  same 
as  those  of  simple  inflammation  of  the  heel,  so  that  the  reader  may 
consult  the  preceding  article,  and  though  a  specific  fungus  and  bac- 
teria of  different  kinds  are  present,  they  tend  mainly  to  aggravation 
of  the  disease,  and  are  not  proved  to  be  essential  factors  in  causation. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  yary  according  to  whether  the  disease 
comes  on  suddenly  or  more  tardily.  In  the  first  case  there  is  a  sudden 
swelling  of  the  skin  in  the  heel,  with  heat,  tenderness,  itching,  and 
stiffness,  which  is  lessened  during  exercise.  In  the  slower  forms  there 
is  only  seen  a  slight  swelling  after  rest,  and  with  little  heat  or  inflam- 
mation for  a  week  or  more.  Even  at  this  early  stage  a  slight  serous 
oozing  may  be  detected.  As  the  swelling  increases,  extending  up 
toward  the  hock  or  knees,  the  hairs  stand  erect,  and  are  bedewed  by 
moisture  no  longer  clear  and  odorless,  but  grayish,  milky,  and  fetid. 
The  fetor  of  the  discharge  draws  attention  to  the  part  whenever  one 
enters  the  stable,  and  the  swollen  pastern  and  wet,  matted  hairs  on 
the  heel  draw  attention  to  the  precise  seat  of  the  malady.  If  actively 
treated,  the  disease  may  not  advance  further,  but  if  neglected  the 
tense,  tender  skin  cracks  open,  leaving  open  sores  from  which  vascular 
bleeding  growths  grow  up,  constituting  the  "  grapes."  The  hair  is 
shed,  and  the  heel  may  appear  but  as  one  mass  of  rounded,  red,  angry 
excrescences  which  bleed  on  handling  and  are  covered  with  the  now 
repulsively  fetid  decomposing  discharge.  During  this  time  there  is 
little  or  no  fever,  the  animal  feeds  well,  and  but  for  its  local  trouble  it 
might  continue  at  work.  When  the  malady  extends  to  the  frog,  there 
is  a  fetid  discharge  from  its  cleft  or  from  the  depressions  at  its  sides, 
and  this  gradually  extends  to  its  whole  surface  and  upon  the  adjacent 
parts  of  the  sole.  The  horn  meanwhile  becomes  soft,  whitish,  and 
fleshy  in  aspect,  its  constituent  tubes  being  greatly  enlarged  and 
losing  their  natural  cohesion ;  it  grows  rapidly  above  the  level  of  the 
surroimding  horn,  and  when  pared  is  found  to  be  penetrated  to  an 
unusual  depth  by  the  secreting  papillae,  and  that  at  intervals  these 
have  bulged  out  into  a  vascular  fungous  mass  comparable  to  the 
"  grapes." 

Treatment. — In  treatment  hygienic  measures  occupy  a  front  rank, 
but  are  in  themselves  insufficient  to  establish  a  cure.  All  local  and 
general  conditions  which  favor  the  production  and  persistence  of  the 


446  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

disease  must  be  guarded  against.  Above  all,  cleanliness  and  purity 
of  the  stable  and  air  must  be  secured;  also  nourishing  diet,  regular 
exercise,  and  the  avoidance  of  local  irritants — septic,  muddy,  chilling, 
etc.  At  the  outset  benzoated  oxide  of  zinc  ointment  may  be  used  with 
advantage.  A  still  better  dressing  is  made  with  1  ounce  vaseline,  2 
drams  oxide  of  zinc,  and  20  drops  iodized  phenol.  If  the  surface  is 
much  swollen  and  tender,  a  flaxseed  poultice  may  be  applied  over  the 
surface  of  which  has  been  poured  some  of  the  following  lotion :  Sugar 
of  lead,  one-half  ounce;  carbolic  acid,  1  dram;  water,  1  quart.  All 
the  astringents  of  the  pharmacopoeia  have  been  employed  with  more 
or  less  advantage,  and  some  particular  one  seems  to  suit  particular 
cases  or  patients.  To  destroy  the  grapes,  they  may  be  rubbed  daily 
with  strong  caustics  (copperas,  bluestone,  lunar  caustic),  or  each  may 
be  tied  round  its  neck  by  a  stout  waxed  thread,  or,  finally  and  more 
speedily,  they  may  be  cut  off  by  a  blacksmith's  shovel  heated  to  red- 
ness and  applied  with  its  sharp  edge  toward  the  neck  of  the  excres- 
cence, over  a  cold  shovel  held  between  it  and  the  skin  to  protect  the 
skin  from  the  heat.  The  cold  shovel  must  be  kept  cool  by  frequent 
dipping  in  water.  After  the  removal  of  the  grapes  the  astringent 
dressing  must  be  persistently  applied  to  the  surface.  When  the  frog 
is  affected,  it  must  be  pared  to  the  quick  and  dressed  with  dry  caustic 
powders  (quicklime,  copperas,  bluestone)  or  carbolic  acid  and  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  the  dressing  being  renewed  every  day  at  least. 

ERYSIPELAS. 

This  is  a  specific  contagious  disease,  characterized  by  spreading 
dropsical  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  attended 
by  general  fever.  It  differs  from  most  specific  diseases  in  the  absence 
of  a  definite  period  of  incubation,  a  regular  course  and  duration,  and 
a  conferring  of  immunity  on  the  subject  after  recovery.  On  the  con- 
trary, one  attack  of  erysipelas  predisposes  to  another,  partly,  doubt- 
less, by  the  loss  of  tone  and  vitality  in  the  affected  tissues,  but  also, 
perhaps,  because  of  the  survival  of  the  infecting  germ. 

Cause. — It  is  no  longer  to  be  doubted  that  the  microbes  found  in  the 
inflammatory  product  are  the  true  cause  of  erysipelas,  as  the  disease 
can  be  successfully  transferred  from  man  to  animals  and  from  one 
animal  to  another  by  their  means.  This  transition  may  be  direct  or 
through  the  medium  of  infected  buildings  or  other  articles.  Yet  from 
the  varying  severity  of  erysipelas  in  different  outbreaks  and  localities 
it  has  been  surmised  that  various  different  microbes  are  operative  in 
this  disease,  and  a  perfect  knowledge  of  these  might  perhaps  enable  us 
to  divide  erysipelas  into  two  or  more  distinct  affections.  At  present 
we  must  recognize  it  as  a  specific  inflammation  due  to  a  bacterial 
poison  and  closely  allied  to  septicemia.     Erysipelas  was  formerly 


ERYSIPELAS.  447 

known  as  surgical  when  it  spread  from  a  wound  (through  which  the 
germ  had  gained  access)  and  medical^  or  idiopathic,  when  it  started 
independently  of  any  recognizable  lesion.  Depending  as  it  does,  how- 
ever, upon  a  germ  distinct  from  the  body,  the  disease  must  be  looked 
upon  as  such,  no  matter  by  what  channel  the  germ  found  an  entrance. 
Erysipelas  which  follows  a  wound  is  usually  much  more  violent  than 
the  other  form,  the  difference  being  doubtless  partly  due  to  the 
lowered  vitality  of  the  wounded  tissues  and  to  the  oxidation  and 
septic  changes  which  are  invited  on  the  raw,  exposed  surface.  As 
apparently  idiopathic  cases  may  be  due  to  infection  through  bites  of 
insects,  the  small  amount  of  poison  inserted  may  serve  to  moderate 
the  violence. 

This  affection  may  attack  a  wound  on  any  part  of  the  horse's  body, 
while  apart  from  wounds  it  is  most  frequent  about  the  head  and  the 
hind  limbs.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  ordinary  inflammations 
by  its  gradual  extension  from  the  point  first  attacked,  by  the  abun- 
dant liquid  exudation  into  the  affected  part,  by  the  tension  of  the  skin 
over  the  affected  part,  by  its  soft  boggy  feeling,  allowing  it  to  be 
deeply  indented  by  the  finger,  by  the  abrupt  line  of  limitation  between 
the  diseased  and  healthy  skin,  the  former  descending  suddenly  to  the 
healthy  level  instead  of  shading  off  slowly  toward  it,  by  the  tendency 
of  the  inflammation  to  extend  deeply  into  the  subjacent  tissues  and 
into  the  muscles  and  other  structures,  by  the  great  tendency  to  death 
and  sloughing  of  portions  of  skin  and  of  the  structures  beneath,  by 
the  formation  of  pus  at  various  different  points  throughout  the 
diseased  parts  without  any  surrounding  sac  to  protect  the  surround- 
ing structures  from  its  destructive  action,  and  without  the  usual  dis- 
position of  pus  to  advance  harmlessly  toward  the  surface  and  escape ; 
and,  finally,  by  a  low  prostrating  type  of  fever,  with  elevated  tem- 
perature of  the  body,  coated  tongue,  excited  breathing,  and  loss  of 
appetite.  The  pus  when  escaping  through  a  lancet  wound  is  grayish, 
brownish,  or  reddish,  with  a  heavy  or  fetid  odor,  and  intermixed  with 
shreds  of  broken-down  tissues.  The  most  destructive  form,  however, 
is  that  in  which  pus  is  deficient  and  gangrene  and  sloughing  more 
speedy  and  extensive. 

Treatment  resolves  itself  mainly  into  the  elimination  from  the 
system  of  the  poisonous  products  of  the  bacteria  by  laxatives  and 
diuretics,  the  sustaining  of  the  failing  vitality  by  tonics  and  stimu- 
lants, above  all  those  of  the  nature  of  antiferments,  and  the  local 
application  of  astringent  and  antiseptic  agents.  Internal  treatment 
may  consist  in  4  drams  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  and  one-half  dram 
muriate  of  ammonia  or  chlorate  of  potash,  given  in  a  pint  of  water 
every  two  hours.  To  this  may  be  added,  liberally,  whisky  or  brandy 
when  the  prostration  is  very  marked.  Locally  a  strong  solution  of 
iron,  alum,  or  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  laudanum  may  be  used ;  or  the 


448  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

affected  part  may  be  painted  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  or  with 
iodized  phenol.  In  mild  cases  a  lotion  of  4  drams  sugar  of  lead  and 
2  ounces  laudanum  in  a  quart  of  water  may  be  applied.  It  is  desir- 
able to  avoid  the  formation  of  wounds  and  the  consequent  septic 
action,  yet  when  pus  has  formed  and  is  felt  by  fluctuation  under  the 
finger  to  be  approaching  the  surface  it  should  be  freely  opened  with 
a  clean,  sharp  lancet,  and  the  wound  thereafter  disinfected  daily  with 
carbolic  acid  1  part  to  water  10  parts,  with  a  saturated  solution  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  or  with  powders  of  iodoform  or  salol. 

HORSEPOX,   ANTHRAX,   AND    CUTANEOUS   GLANDERS  (fARCy). 

These  subjects  will  come  more  properly  under  the  head  of  conta- 
gious diseases. 

CALLOSITIES. 

These  are  simple  thickening  and  induration  of  the  cuticle  by  reason 
of  continued  pressure,  notably  in  lying  down  on  a  hard  surface.  Be- 
ing devoid  of  hair,  they  cause  blemishes;  hence  smooth  floors  and 
good  bedding  should  be  secured  as  preventives. 

HORNY    SLOUGHS     ( SITFA8T8 )  ,  OR    SLOUGHING    CALLOSITIES. 

These  are  circumscribed  sloughs  of  limited  portions  of  the  skin,  the 
result  of  pressure  by  badly  fitting  harness  or  by  irritating  masses  of 
dirt,  sweat,  and  hairs  under  the  harness.  They  are  most  common 
under  the  saddle,  but  may  be  found  under  collar  or  breeching  as  well. 
The  sitfast  is  a  piece  of  dead  tissue  which  would  be  thrown  off  but 
that  it  has  formed  firm  connections  with  the  fibrous  skin  beneath,  or 
even  deeper  with  the  fibrous  layers  (fascia)  of  the  muscles,  or  with 
the  bones,  and  is  thus  bound  in  its  place  as  a  persistent  source  of  irri- 
tation. The  hornlike  slough  may  thus  involve  the  superficial  part  of 
the  skin  only,  or  the  whole  thickness  of  the  skin,  and  even  of  some  of 
the  structures  beneath.  The  first  object  is  to  remove  the  dead  irri- 
tant by  dissecting  it  off  with  a  sharj:)  knife,  after  which  the  sore  may 
be  treated  with  simple  wet  cloths  or  a  weak  carbolic-acid  lotion,  like  a 
common  wound.  If  the  outline  of  the  dead  mass  is  too  indefinite,  a 
linseed-meal  poultice  will  make  its  outline  more  evident  to  the  opera- 
tor. If  the  fascia  or  bone  has  become  gangrenous,  the  dcsid  portion 
must  be  removed  with  the  hornlike  skin.  During  and  after  treat- 
ment the  horse  must  be  kept  at  rest  or  the  harness  must  be  so  adjusted 
that  no  pressure  can  come  near  the  affected  parts.  (See  also  page 
470.) 

WARTS. 

These  are  essentially  a  morbid  overgrowth  of  the  superficial  papil- 
lary layer  of  the  skin  and  of  the  investing  cuticular  layer.     They  are 


PI, All'.   XXX\I 


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PARASITES   OF   THE   SKIN.  449 

mostly  seen  in  young  horses,  about  the  lips,  eyelids,  cheeks,  ears, 
beneath  the  belly,  and  on  the  sheath,  but  may  develop  anywhere. 
The  smaller  ones  may  be  clipped  off  with  scissors  and  the  raw  surface 
cauterized  with  bluestone.  The  larger  may  be  sliced  off  with  a  sharp 
knife,  or  if  with  a  narrow  neck  they  may  be  twisted  off  and  then  cau- 
terized. If  very  vascular  they  may  be  strangled  by  a  wax  thread  or 
cord  tied  around  their  necks,  at  least  three  turns  being  made  round 
and  the  ends  being  fixed  by  passing  them  beneath  the  last  preceding 
turn  of  the  cord,  so  that  they  can  be  tightened  day  by  day  as  they 
slacken  by  shrinkage  of  the  tissues.  If  the  neck  is  too  broad  it  may  be 
transfixed  several  times  with  a  double-threaded  needle  and  then  be 
tied  in  sections.  Very  broad  warts  that  can  not  be  treated  in  this  way 
may  be  burned  down  to  beneath  the  surface  of  the  skin  with  a  solder- 
ing bolt  at  a  red  heat,  and  any  subsequent  tendency  to  overgrowth 
kept  down  by  bluestone. 

BLACK    PIGMENT   TUMORS,  OR    MEI^NOSIS. 

These  are  common  in  gray  and  in  white  horses  on  the  naturally 
black  parts  of  the  skin  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  around  the  anus,  vulva, 
udder,  sheath,  eyelids,  and  lips.  They  are  readily  recognized  by  their 
inky-black  color,  which  extends  throughout  the  whole  mass.  They 
may  appear  as  simple  pealike  masses,  or  as  multiple  tumors  aggre- 
gating many  pounds,  especially  around  the  tail.  In  the  horse  these 
are  usually  simple  tumors,  and  may  be  removed  with  the  knife.  In 
exceptional  cases  they  prove  cancerous,  as  they  usually  are  in  man. 

EPITHELIAL    CANCER,    OR   EPITHELIOMA. 

This  sometimes  occurs  on  the  lips  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth  and 
elsewhere  in  the  horse.  It  begins  as  a  small  wartlike  tumor,  which 
grows  slowly  at  first,  but  finally  bursts  open,  ulcerates,  and  extends 
laterally  and  deeply  in  the  skin  and  other  tissues,  destroying  them  as 
it  advances  (rodent  ulcer) .  It  is  made  up  of  a  fibrous  framework  and 
numerous  round,  ovoid,  or  cylindrical  cavities,  lined  with  masses  of 
epithelial  cells,  which  may  be  squeezed  out  as  a  fetid  caseous  material. 
The  most  successful  treatment  is  early  and  thorough  removal  with  the 
knife. 

ATIGETABLE   PARASITES   OF   THE    SKIN. 

Parasite  :  Trichophyton  tonsurans.  Malady  :  Tinea  tonsurans,  or 
Circinate  ringworm. — This  is  especially  common  in  young  horses 
coming  into  training  and  work,  in  low-conditioned  colts  in  winter  and 
spring  after  confinement  indoors  and  during  molting,  in  lymphatic 
rather  than  nervous  subjects,  and  at  the  same  time  in  several  animals 
that  have  herded  together.  The  disease  is  common  to  man,  and 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 29 


450  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

among  the  domestic  animals  to  horse,  ox,  goat,  dog,  cat,  and  in  rare 
instances  to  sheep  and  swine.  Hence  it  is  common  to  find  animals  of 
different  species  and  their  attendants  suffering  at  once,  the  diseases 
having  been  propagated  from  one  to  the  other. 

Symptoms. — In  the  horse  the  symptoms  are  the  formation  of  a  cir- 
cular scurfy  patch  where  the  fungus  has  established  itself,  the  hairs  of 
the  affected  spot  being  erect,  bristly,  twisted,  broken,  or  split  up  and 
dropping  off.  Later  the  spot  first  affected  has  become  entirely  bald, 
and  a  circular  row  of  hairs  around  this  are  erect,  bristly,  broken,  and 
split.  These  in  turn  are  shed  and  a  new  row  outside  passes  through 
the  same  process,  so  that  the  extension  is  made  in  more  or  less  circular 
outline.  The  central  bald  spot,  covered  with  a  grayish  scurf  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  circle  of  broken  and  split  hairs,  is  characteristic.  If  the 
scurf  and  diseased  hairs  are  treated  with  caustic  potash  solution  and 
put  under  the  microscope  the  natural  cells  of  the  cuticle  and  hair  will 
be  seen  to  have  become  transparent,  while  the  groups  of  spherical  cells 
and  branching  filaments  of  the  fungus  stand  out  prominently  in  the 
substance  of  both,  dark  and  unchanged.  The  eruption  usually  appears 
on  the  back,  loins,  croup,  chest,  and  head.  It  tends  to  spontaneous 
recovery  in  a  month  or  two,  leaving  for  a  time  a  dappled  coat  from 
the  spots  of  short,  light-colored  hair  of  the  new  growth. 

The  most  effective  way  of  reaching  the  parasite  in  the  hair  follicles 
is  to  extract  the  hairs  individually,  but  in  the  horse  the  mere  shaving 
of  the  affected  part  is  usually  enough.  It  may  then  be  painted  with 
tincture  of  iodine  twice  a  day  for  two  weeks.  Germs  about  the  stable 
may  be  covered  up  or  destroyed  by  a  whitewash  of  freshly  burned 
quicklime,  the  harness,  brushes,  etc.,  may  be  washed  with  caustic 
soda,  and  then  smeared  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  one-half 
dram  and  water  1  pint.     The  clothing  may  be  boiled  and  dried. 

Parasite:  Achorion  schonleini.  Malady:  Favus^  or  Iloneycomb 
ringworm. — Megnin  and  Goyau,  who  describe  this  in  the  horse,  say 
that  it  loses  its  characteristic  honeycomb  or  cup-shaped  appearance, 
and  forms  only  a  series  of  closely  aggregated,  dry,  yellowish  crusts 
the  size  of  hemp  seed  on  the  trunk,  shoulders,  flanks,  or  thighs. 
They  are  accompanied  by  severe  itching,  especially  at  night.  The 
cryptogam,  formed  of  spherical  cells  with  a  few  filaments  only, 
grows  in  the  hair  follicles  and  on  the  cuticle,  and  thus  a  crust  often 
forms  around  the  root  of  a  hair.  Like  the  other  cryptogams,  their 
color,  as  seen  under  the  microscope,  is  unaffected  by  acetic  acid, 
alcohol,  ether,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  while  the  cells  are  turned  bluish 
by  iodine.  For  treatment,  remove  the  hair  and  apply  tincture  of 
iodine  or  corrosive  sublimate  lotion,  as  advised  under  the  last  para- 
graph. 

Parasite:  Microsporon  furfur.  Mai^vdy:  Parasitic  pityriasis. — 
This  attacks  the  horse's  head  where  the  harness  presses,  and  leads  to 


PABASITES   OF   THE   SKIN.  451 

dropping  of  the  hair,  leaving  bald  patches  covered  with  a  branlike 
scurf,  without  any  eruption,  heat,  tenderness,  swelling,  or  rigidity  of 
the  skin.  A  lotion  of  carbolic  acid  1  dram  and  water  2^  ounces  is 
usually  applied  to  effect  a  cure. 

ANIMAL  PARASITES  OF  THE  SKIN. 

Acariasis,  or  mange. — This  affection  is  due  to  the  irritation  of  the 
skin  caused  by  the  presence  of  nearly  microscopic  acarus,  or  mite. 
The  disease  varies,  however,  according  to  the  species  of  acarus  which 
infests  the  skin,  so  that  we  must  treat  of  several  different  kinds  of 
acariasis. 

Parasite  :  Sarcoptes  scabiei  equi.  Malady  :  Sarcoptic  acariasis. — 
This  is  the  special  Sarcoptes  of  the  horse,  but  under  favorable  condi- 
tions it  can  be  transmitted  to  ass  and  mule,  and  even  to  man,  and  may 
live  indefinitely  on  the  human  skin.  The  mite  is  nearly  microscop- 
ical, but  may  be  detected  with  a  magnifying  lens  among  moving 
scurf  taken  from  the  infected  skin.  Like  all  Sarcoptes^  it  burrows 
little  galleries  in  and  beneath  the  scurf  skin,  where  it  hides  and  lays 
its  eggs  and  where  its  young  are  hatched.  It  is  therefore  often 
difficult  to  find  the  parasite  on  the  surface,  unless  the  skin  has  been 
heated  by  a  temporary  exposure  to  the  sun  or  in  a  warm  room.  Even 
then  it  may  be  needful  to  tie  the  scab  on  the  human  arm  till  a 
pricking  is  felt,  when  the  acarus  will  be  found  in  the  center  of  a 
minute  papule  caused  by  its  bite.  Like  other  acari,  this  is  wonder- 
fully prolific,  a  new  generation  of  fifteen  individuals  being  possible 
every  fifteen  days,  so  that  in  three  months  the  offspring  of  a  single 
pair  may  produce  generations  aggregating  1,500,000  young.  The 
Sarcoptes  have  less  vitality  than  the  nonburrowing  acari,  as  they 
die  in -an  hour  when  kept  apart  from  the  skin  in  dryliir  at  a  heat  of 
145°  F.  They  live  twelve  to  fourteen  days  apart  from  the  skin  in 
the  damp  air  of  a  stable.  On  a  piece  of  damp  hide  they  lived  till 
the  twenty-fourth  day,  when  they  began  to  die,  and  all  were  dead 
on  the  twenty-eighth. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  an  incessant,  intolerable,  and  in- 
creasing itching  orf  some  part  of  the  skin  (head,  mane,  tall,  back, 
etc),  the  horse  inclining  himself  toward  the  hand  that  scratches 
him,  and  moving  his  lips  as  if  himself  scratching.  •  The  hairs  may  be 
broken  and  rubbed  off,  but  the  part  is  never  entirely  bald,  as  in  ring- 
worm, and  there  may  be  papules  or  any  kind  of  eruption  or  open 
sores  from  the  energy  of  the  scratching.  Scabs  of  any  thickness 
may  form,  but  the  special  features  are  the  intense  itching  and  the 
discovery  of  the  acarus. 

Treatment  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  scabs  by  soapsuds,  and,  if 
necessary,  a  brush  and  the  thorough  application  of  tobacco  1^  ounces 
and  water  2  pints,  prepared  by  boiling.    This  may  be  applied  more 


452  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

than  once,  and  should  always  be  repeated  after  fifteen  days,  to  destroy 
the  new  brood  that  may  have  been  hatched  in  the  interval.  All  har- 
ness and  stable  utensils  should  be  similarly  treated;  blankets  and 
rubbers  may  be  boiled,  and  the  stalls  should  be  covered  with  a  white- 
wash of  quicklime,  containing  one-fourth  pound  of  chloride  of  lime 
to  the  gallon. 

Parasite:  Sarcoptes  mutans.  Malady:  Sarcoptic  acariasis  of 
fowls. — This  parasite  belongs  to  chickens,  but  can  live  on  the  skin  of 
the  fox  and  horse  as  well.  A  troublesome  mange  may  therefore  at 
times  be  traceable  to  the  proximity  of  a  chicken  roost.  The  general 
symptoms  and  treatment  are  essentially  the  same  as  for  Sarcoptes 
scabiei  equi. 

Parasite:  Psoroptes  equi  {Dermatocoptes  equi,  Dermatodectes 
equi).  JVIalady:  Psoroptic  acariasis. — This  produces  the  most  fre- 
quent mange  in  horses,  and  as  the  parasite  only  bites  the  surface  and 
lives  among  the  crusts  under  the  shelter  of  the  hair,  it  is  very  easily 
discovered.  It  reproduces  itself  with  equal  rapidity  and  causes  simi- 
lar symptoms  to  those  produced  by  the  Sarcoptes.  The  same  treat- 
ment will  suffice  and  is  more  promptly  eflfectual.  The  purifying  of 
the  stable  must  be  more  thorough,  as  the  Psoroptes  will  survive 
twenty  to  thirty  days  in  the  moist  atmosphere  of  a  stable,  and  may 
even  revive  after  six  or  eight  weeks  when  subjected  to  moist  warmth. 
Infested  pastures  will  therefore  prove  dangerous  to  horses  for  that 
length  of  time,  and,  with  rubbing  posts,  etc.,  should  not  be  used. 

Parasite:  Chorioptes  ho  vis  {Symhiotes  equi,  Dermatophagus  equi, 
Chorioptes  spathiferus) .  Malady:  Foot  mange. — This  acarus  at- 
tacks the  heels  and  lower  parts  of  the  legs,  especially  the  hind  ones, 
and  may  be  present  for  years  without  extending  upon  the  body. 
Like  the  Psoroptes,  it  lives  on  the  surface,  on  the  hairs,  and  among 
the  scabs.  It  gives  rise  to  great  itching,  stamping,  rubbing  of  the 
one  leg  with  the  other,  and  the  formation  of  papules,  wounds,  ulcerous 
sores,  and  scabs.  The  intense  itching  will  always  suggest  this  para- 
site, and  the  discovery  of  the  acarus  will  identify  the  disease.  The 
treatment  is  the  same  as  for  the  Sarcoptes,  but  may  be  confined  to  the 
legs  and  the  parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact. 

Parasite:  Dermanyssus  gallina>,  or  chicken  acari.  Malady:  Poul- 
try acariasis. — This  is  a  large-sized  acarus,  though  usually  miscalled 
"  hen  louse,"  and  the  disease  "  poultry-lousiness."  The  mite  lives  in 
the  hen  manure  and  adjacent  woodwork,  but  temporarily  passes  on 
to  the  skin  of  man  and  of  the  horse  and  other  quadrupeds,  when 
occasion  serves.  It  causes  much  irritation,  with  the  eruption  of 
papules  or  vesicles  and  the  formation  of  sores  and  scabs.  The  ex- 
amination of  the  skin  is  usually  fruitless,  as  the  attacks  are  mostly 
made  at  night  and  the  effects  only  may  be  seen  during  the  day. 
The  proximity  of  hen  manure  swarming  with  the  acari  explains  the 


PARASITES    OF    THE    SKIN.  453 

trouble,  and  the  removal  of  this  and  a  whitewashing  with  quicklime, 
with  or  without  chloride  of  lime,  will  prevent  future  attacks.  The 
skin  may  still  require  bland  ointments  or  lotions,  as  for  congestion. 

Parasite:  Larva  of  a  Trombidium,  Lcptus  americanus,  or  harvest 
hug^  misnamed  jigger  {chigoe).  Malady:  Autumn  mange. — This 
parasite  is  a  brick-red  acarus,  visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  a  dark 
ground,  and  living  on  green  vegetation  in  many  localities.  It  attacks 
man,  and  the  horse,  ox,  dog,  etc.,  burrowing  under  the  skin  and  giving 
rise  to  small  papules  and  intolerable  irritation.  This  continues  for 
two  or  three  days  only  if  no  fresh  acari  are  received,  but  will  last 
until  cold,  weather  sets  in  if  a  fresh  colony  is  received  every  day. 
Horses  at  pasture  suffer  mainly  on  the  lower  part  of  the  face.  If 
kept  indoors  the  disease  will  disappear,  or  if  left  at  pasture  a  weak 
tar-water  or  solution  of  tobacco  may  be  applied  to  the  face. 

Parasites  :  Gamarus  pteroptoides  and  Cheyletus  live  in  musty  fod- 
ders and  are  found  on  the  horse. 

TICKS. 

The  wood  ticks  are  familiar  to  inhabitants  of  uncultivated  lands, 
and  prove  troublesome  parasites  to  man  and  beast  alike.  The  tick 
lives  on  bushes,  and  attaches  itself  to  the  mammal  only  to  secure 
a  feast  of  blood,  for  when  gorged  it  drops  off  to  sleep  oif  its  debauch 
on  the  soil.  The  tick  produces  great  irritation  by  boring  into  the 
skin  with  its  armed  proboscis.  If  pulled  out,  the  head  and  thorax 
are  often  left  in  the  skin.  They  may  be  covered  with  oil  to  shut 
out  the  air  from  their  breathing  pores,  or  by  touching  them  with 
a  hot  penknife  they  will  be  impelled  to  let  go  their  hold. 

grubs  in  skin. 

Parasite:  Hypoderma  lineata.  Malady:  Larvce  (grvhs)  under 
the  skin. — ^The  larvse  of  a  fly  (probably  Hypoderma  lineata,  whose 
larvsB  in  the  skin  of  cattle  are  commonly  known  as  "warbles")  are 
occasionally  found  in  little  sacs  beneath  the  skin  of  horses.  The 
mature  larva  escapes  in  early  summer  and  develops  into  a  fly.  In 
districts  where  they  exist  the  grubs  should  be  pressed  out  of  the  skin 
in  the  course  of  the  winter  and  destroyed. 

LARV.i:    (grubs)    on    THE   SKIN,   OR   FLYBLOW. 

The  following  flies,  among  others,  deposit  their  eggs  on  open  sores 
or  on  wet,  filthy  parts  of  the  skin,  where  their  larvae  or  gi'ubs  give 
rise  to  serious  trouble:  Lucilia  ccesar  (bluebottle),  Lucilia  homini- 
vorax  (screwworm  fly),  Musca  vomitoria  (meat  fly),  and  Sarcophaga 
carnaria  (flesh  fly).  To  prevent  their  attacks,  wet,  filthy  hair  should 
be  removed  and  wounds  kept  clean  and  rendered  antiseptic  bj'^  a 
lotion  of  carbolic  acid  1  part,  water  50  parts,  or  by  a  mixture  of  1 


454  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOBSE. 

ounce  oil  of  tar  in  20  ounces  sweet  oil,  or  by  some  other  antiseptic. 
If  the  grubs  are  already  present  they  should  be  picked  off  and  one 
of  these  dressings  freely  applied. 

FLIES. 

A  number  of  flies  attack  horses  and  suck  their  blood,  producing 
great  annoyance,  and  in  some  instances  death.  These  insects  not  only 
suck  the  blood,  but  also  often  instill  an  acid  poison  into  the  skin,  and 
in  exceptional  cases  transfer  infectious  germs  from  animal  to  animal 
by  inoculation. 

Various  devices  are  resorted  to  to  prevent  the  attacks,  as  to  sponge 
the  skin  with  a  decoction  of  walnut  or  elder  leaves,  of  tobacco,  to  dust 
with  Persian  insect  powder,  to  keep  a  light  blanket  or  fly  net  on  the 
horse,  to  close  doors  and  windows  with  fine  screens  and  destroy  by 
pyrethrum  any  flies  that  have  gained  admission,  to  remove  all  manure 
heaps  that  would  prove  breeding  places  for  flies,  to  keep  the  stalls 
clean,  deodorize  by  gypsum,  and  to  spread  in  them  trays  of  dry  chlo- 
ride of  lime.  For  the  poisoned  bites  apply  ammonia,  or  a  solution  of 
1  part  of  carbolic  acid  in  20  parts  of  sweet  oil  or  glycerin,  or  one- 
fourth  ounce  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  1  dram  of  carbolic  acid  in  a 
quart  of  water  may  be  used. 

« 

STINGS    OF    BEES,    WASPS,    AND    HORNETS. 

These  are  much  more  irritating  than  the  bites  of  flies,  partly  be- 
cause the  barbed  sting  is  left  in  the  wound,  and  partly  because  of  the 
amount  and  quality  of  the  venom.  When  a  swarm  attacks  an  animal 
the  result  may  prove  fatal. 

TreatTnent  consists  in  the  application  of  wet  clay,  or  of  a  lotion  of 
soda  or  ammonia,  or  of  carbolic  acid,  or  permanganate  of  potash,  2 
grains  to  the  ounce,  or  of  sugar  of  lead  2  drams,  laudanum  1  ounce, 
and  water  1  pint.  The  embedded  stings  should  be  extracted  with  fine 
forceps  or  even  with  the  finger  nails. 

FLEA,   OR   PULEX.  . 

The  flea  of  man  and  those  of  the  dog  and  cat,  when  numerous,  will 
bite  the  horse  and  give  rise  to  rounded  swellings  on  the  skin.  To  dis- 
pose of  them  it  is  needful  to  clear  the  surroundings  of  the  grublike 
larvae  as  well  as  to  treat  the  victim.  The  soil  may  be  sprinkled  with 
(|uicklime,  carbolic  acid,  coal  tar,  or  petroleum;  the  stalls  may  be 
deluged  with  boiling  water  and  afterwards  painted  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  littered  with  fresh  pine  sawdust,  and  all  blankets  should 
be  boiled.  The  skin  may  be  sponged  with  a  solution  of  1  part  carbolic 
acid  in  50  parts  of  water.  Dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  should  be  dressed 
with  the  same  lotion,  or,  better,  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
stable. 


DISEASES   OF   THE   SKIN.  455 

The  chigoe  {Pulex  penetrans)  of  the  Gulf  coast  is  still  more  injuri- 
ous, because  it  burrows  under  the  surface  and  deposits  its  eggs  to  be 
hatched  out  slowly  with  much  irritation.  The  tumor  formed  by  it 
should  be  laid  open  and  the  parasite  extracted.  If  it  bursts  so  that 
its  eggs  escape  into  the  wound,  they  may  be  destroyed  by  introduc- 
ing a  wire  at  a  red  heat. 

LICE,    OR    PEDICULI. 

Two  kinds  of  lice  attack  the  horse,  one  of  which  is  furnished  with 
narrow  head  and  a  proboscis  for  perforating  the  skin  and  sucking  the 
blood,  and  the  other — the  broad-headed  kind — with  strong  mandibles, 
by  which  it  bites  the  skin  only.  Of  the  bloodsuckers,  one  is  common 
to  horse  and  ass  and  another  to  horse  and  ox,  while  of  the  nonsucking 
lice  one  species  attacks  horse  and  ox  and  a  second  ox  and  ass.  The 
poor  condition,  itching,  and  loss  of  hair  should  lead  to  suspicion,  and 
a  close  examination  will  detect  the  lice.  They  may  be  destroyed  by 
rubbing  the  victim  with  sulphur  ointment,  or  with  sulphuret  of  potas- 
sium 4  ounces,  water  1  gallon,  or  with  tar  water,  or  the  skin  may  be 
sponged  with  benzine.  The  application  should  be  repeated  a  week 
later  to  destroy  all  lice  hatched  from  the  nits  in  the  interval.  Build- 
ings, clothes,  etc.,  should  be  treated  as  for  fleas. 

TARANTULA    AND    SCORPION. 

The  bite  of  the  first  and  the  sting  of  the  second  are  poisonous,  and 
may  be  treated  like  other  insect  venom,  by  carbolated  ghxerin,  or  a 
strong  solution  of  ammonia,  or  permanganate  of  potash. 

SNAKE   BITES. 

These  are  marked  by  the  double  incision  caused  by  the  two  fangs, 
by  the  excessive  doughy  (dark  red)  swelling  around  the  wounds,  and 
in  bad  cases  by  the  general  symptoms  of  giddiness,  weakness,  and 
prostration.  They  are  best  treated  by  enormous  doses  of  alcohol, 
Avhisky,  or  brandy,  or  by  aqua  ammonia  very  largely  diluted  in  water, 
the  object  being  to  sustain  life  until  the  poison  shall  have  spent  its 
power.  As  local  treatment,  if  the  wound  is  in  a  limb,  the  latter  may 
have  a  handkerchief  or  cord  tied  around  it  above  the  injury  and 
drawn  tight  by  a  stick  twisted  into  it.  In  this  way  absorption  may  be 
checked  until  the  poison  can  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  a  hot 
iron  or  a  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver  or  other  caustic.  A  poultice  of 
tobacco  leaves  is  a  favorite  remedy,  and  may  be  used  to  soothe  the 
sore  after  cauterization. 

BURNS    AND    SCALDS. 

For  scalds  the  surface  may  be  bathed  with  a  solution  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  sweetened  or  not  by  carbolic  acid,  or  a  weak  solution  of  sugar 


456  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

of  lead  may  be  used ;  or  the  surface  may  be  dusted  thickly  with  starch 
or  flour  and  covered  with  the  cotton  wool,  or  oil  of  turpentine  may  be 
applied  over  the  scalded  skin.  Burns  are  well  treated  by  liniment 
made  of  equal  parts  of  lime  water  and  linseed  oil  (Carron  oil). 
For  both  kinds  of  injuries  cosmoline  10  parts,  and  carbolic  acid  1 
part,  proves  an  excellent  dressing.  Blisters  should  be  pricked  with 
a  needle  and  emptied  to  prevent  their  rupture  and  exposures  of  the 
raw  surface. 

Severe  bums,  leading  to  destruction  of  very  extensive  patches  of 
skin,  usually  render  a  horse  useless  by  reason  of  the  contraction  of  the 
resulting  scar.  Hence  the  treatment  of  such  is  rarely  advisable,  unless 
followed  by  a  skillful  plastic  operation.  In  other  cases  a  skillful 
transplanting  of  epidermis,  shaved  from  a  healthy  surface  with  a 
sharp  razor,  will  secure  the  healing  of  a  granulating  wound  which 
has  proved  obstinate  to  all  other  measures.  In  cases  of  bums  with 
mineral  acids  (sulphuric,  nitric,  or  hydrochloric)  avoid  water,  as  that 
will  develop  heat,  and  cover  the  surface  with  dry  whiting  or  chalk, 
and  only  when  effervescence  has  ceased  wash  off  with  water.  When 
the  caustic  has  been  a  salt  (copperas,  bluestone,  chloride  of  zinc,  etc.) 
apply  limewater  or  white  of  egg.  If  the  irritant  has  been  caustic 
potash,  soda,  or  ammonia,  vinegar  should  be  the  first  application.  If 
sores  result  they  may  be  treated  like  ordinary  wounds. 

WOUNDS   OF   THE   SKIN. 

These  are  divided  into  incised  {clean  cut)  wounds,  lacerated  (torn) 
wounds,  and  contused  (bruised)  and  punctured  wounds. 

Incised  wounds  are  the  simplest,  and  the  sharper  the  instrument 
and  the  cleaner  the  cut  the  greater  the  hope  of  speedy  healing. 
Something,  however,  depends  on  the  seat  and  direction  of  the  wound ; 
thus,  one  running  from  before  backward  on  the  body,  or  from  above 
downward  in  the  limb,  will  not  tend  to  be  drawn  open  and  gape  as 
would  one  running  transversely  on  the  body  or  limb.  Again,  a  wound 
on  a  joint  and  running  across  the  limb  will  gape  when  the  joint  is 
bent.  Again,  a  clean-cut  wound  which  has  not  been  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  which  lodges  no  foreign  body  and  no  septic  nor  infecting 
germ,  will  heal  readily  by  simple  adhesion,  whereas  those  that  have 
been  exposed  and  contain  matter  foreign  to  the  tissues  will  have 
healing  delayed  or  prevented  by  the  disturbing  action  of  such  bodies. 

Healing  in  wounds  may  be  said  to  take  place  by  these  modes : 

(1)  By  primary  adhesion,  in  which  case  the  spherical  (embryonic) 
cells,  and  the  stellate  connective  tissue  cells  thrown  out  on  the  surface 
of  the  wound  rapidly  multiply  and  form  a  bond  of  union  between 
the  divided  lips.     Union  by  this  means  may   be  effected   within 


WOUNDS    OF    THE    SKIN.  457 

twenty-four  hours  after  the  wound  has  been  inflicted.  Of  all  do- 
mestic animals,  however,  the  horse  is  the  least  prone  to  such  union, 
being  more  disposed  to  the  formation  of  pus. 

(2)  By  granulation,  which  is  the  common  form  of  healing  in  raw, 
exposed  sores,  in  those  containing  foreign  bodies  and  septic  and  in- 
fecting ferments;  also  in  torn  and  contused  wounds.  In  this  form 
the  wound  becomes  covered  with  a  layer  of  embryonic  cells,  of  which 
the  superficial  ones  degenerate  into  pus  cells,  and  thus  the  surface  is 
kept  moist  by  a  layer  of  whitish,  creamy  pus.  In  the  deeper  layer  of 
cells  minute  loops  of  capillary  blood  vessels  start  up,  causing  the  small 
rounded  elevations  known  as  granulations.  In  this  way  the  deeper 
layer  of  cells  receiving  a  blood  supply  is  transformed  into  connective 
tissue,  and  from  its  surface  new  loops  of  blood  vessels  start  into  the 
layer  above,  and  thus  layer  after  layer  of  new  tissue  is  formed,  and 
the  breach  caused  by  the  wound  is  gradually  filled  up.  The  new  tis- 
sue as  formed  undergoes  a  steady  contraction,  drawing  in  the  ad- 
jacent skin  over  the  wound,  and  hence  large  wounds  healed  in  this 
way  have  the  skin  more  or  less  puckered  around  them. 

(3)  By  secondary  adhesion,  in  which,  two  granulating  lips  of  a 
wound  having  been  brought  together  and  kept  in  apposition,  union 
takes  place  through  the  medium  of  the  cells,  as  in  primary  adhesion. 

(?)  By  scabbing,  in  which  the  exudation  on  the  surface  of  the 
wound  dries  up  into  a  firm  scab,  under  which  the  process  of  repair 
goes  on  by  the  development  of  tissue  from  the  deeper  cells,  as  in  ad- 
hesion. 

Treatment. — In  treating  clean,  incised  wounds,  attempts  should  be 
made  to  secure  healing  by  primary  adhesion,  even  in  the  horse. 
Bleeding  should  first  be  arrested,  or  nearly  so,  by  applying  a  cold 
or  hot  sponge,  or  by  tying  bleeding  vessels,  and  the  lips  of  the  wound 
should  then  be  closed  accurately,  without  any  twisting  or  overlap- 
ping. In  small  wounds  pieces  of  sticking  plaster  may  be  used,  the 
lips  of  the  wound  having  first  been  smoothly  shaved,  so  that  they 
may  adhere  firmly.  In  larger  wounds  the  wound  may  be  sewed  with 
a  curved  surgical  needle  and  a  silk  thread  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
carbolic  acid.  The  stitches  may  be  continued  from  end  to  end  of 
the  wound  and  the  thread  prevented  from  slipping  and  loosening 
by  a  knot  at  each  end ;  or  the  stitches  may  be  independent,  the  two 
ends  being  tied  together  across  the  wound.  In  such  cases  they  may 
be  one-quarter  to  one-third  inch  apart ;  or  the  lips  of  the  wound  may 
be  pinned  together,  the  pins  in  a  simple  skin  wound  being  inserted 
one-eighth  inch  from  the  edge,  and  when  both  lips  have  been  trans- 
fixed in  this  way  a  thread  (or  hair)  carried  successively  around  the 
two  ends  of  the  pin  and  made  to  describe  a  figure  8  will  hold  the 
wound  close.     When  the  stitching  is  not  continuous  from  end  to  end 


458  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

of  the  wound  the  apposition  of  the  edges  will  be  rendered  more  per- 
fect by  the  application  of  strips  of  sticking  plaster  in  the  intervals. 

When  efforts  at  primary  union  have  failed  and  pus  has  formed,  or 
fermentative  changes  have  occurred  on  the  raw  surfaces  and  the  lips 
gape  more  or  less,  some  antiseptic  dressing  will  be  required,  as  in  the 
case  of  lacerated  and  contused  wounds. 

In  cases  where  an  incised  wound  has  had  foreign  bodies  or  septic 
ferments  introduced  into  it  these  should  first  be  removed.  A  current 
of  water  that  has  been  boiled  and  cooled  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
cleansing  a  wound,  and  there  is  no  objection  to  the  addition  of  one- 
twentieth  of  its  amount  of  carbolic  acid,  as  this  will  tend  to  destroy 
any  germ  life  that  might  otherwise  prove  fatal  to  the  healing  process. 
Then  the  wound  may  be  stitched  up  as  if  it"  had  been  clean,  and  a 
daily  dressing  of  carbolic  acid  1  part  and  sweet  oil  10  parts  may  be 
applied. 

For  a  wound  on  the  convex  surface  of  a  joint,  where  stitches  are 
not  sufficient  to  keep  the  lips  accurately  applied  to  each  other,  the 
movement  of  the  joint  may  be  temporarily  abolished  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  splint  and  bandage,  and  in  any  such  case  the  bandage  should 
be  applied  uniformly  from  the  hoof  upward,  as  otherwise  the  limb 
below  the  bandage  is  liable  to  swell  or  even  die. 

The  treatment  of  contused^  punctured^  and  lacerated  wounds  de- 
mands cleansing  and  antiseptic  applications  as  for  an  incised  wound, 
but  as  primary  adhesion  is  next  to  impossible,  the  same  accurate  appo- 
sition of  the  lips  by  stitching  is  not  so  essential.  If  portions  of  skin 
or  other  tissue  are  so  detached  or  crushed  that  they  can  not  possibly 
live,  they  may  be  cut  oflf,  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  on  this  matter  the 
injured  portion  should  be  left  and  every  attempt  should  be  made  to 
preserve  it.  Such  portions  of  the  wound  as  are  free  from  such  fatally 
injured  parts  may  be  disinfected  by  the  carbolic  lotion  referred  to 
above  and  stitched  up  like  a  clean  wound.  The  severely  injured  parts 
may  be  left  open  to  discharge,  and  the  whole  may  be  dressed  daily 
with  the  carbolized  oil  or  with  a  solution  of  1  part  of  mercuric  chlo- 
ride in  1,000  of  water. 

Granulating  wounds  may  be  irrigated  with  the  mercuric  chloride 
solution,  and  if  the  granulations  become  inflamed  (soft,  flabby,  exu- 
berant, rising  above  the  edges  of  the  wound),  they  may  be  touched 
lightly  with  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic,  so  as  to  leave  them  covered  with 
a  white  film. 

In  all  wounds  that  fail  to  heal  by  primary  union  an  elaborate  anti- 
septic treatment  is  desirable,  but  the  difficulty  of  applying  this  suc- 
cessfully to  the  horse  in  an  ordinary  stable  would  seem  to  forbid  a 
lengthy  description  in  a  book  of  this  kind. 


WOUNDS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 

By  Ch.  B.  Micheneb,  V.  S. 

[Revised  In  1903  by  John  R.  Mohler,  V.  M.  D.,  A.  M.] 

DESCRIPTION    OF    WOUNDS. 

A  wound  is  an  injury  to  any  part  of  the  body  involving  a  solution 
of  continuity  or  disruption  of  the  affected  parts  and  is  caused  by 
violence,  with  or  without  laceration  of  the  skin.  In  accordance  with 
this  definition  we  have  the  following  varieties  of  wounds:  Incised, 
punctured,  contused,  lacerated,  gunshot,  and  poisoned.  They  may 
further  be  classified  as  superficial,  deep,  or  penetrating,  and  also  as 
unclean,  if  hair,  dirt,  or  splinters  of  wood  are  present;  as  infected, 
when  contaminated  with  germs ;  and  as  aseptic,  if  the  wound  does  not 
contain  germs. 

An  incised  wound  is  a  simple  cut  made  with  a  sharp  body,  like  a 
knife,  producing  merely  a  division  of  the  tissues.  The  duller  the 
body,  the  more  force  is  required,  the  more  tissues  destroyed,  and  a 
greater  time  will  be  required  for  healing.  In  a  cut  wound  the  edges 
are  even  and  definite,  while  those  of  a  lacerated  wound  are  irregular 
and  torn.  Three  conditions  are  present  as  a  result  of  an  incised 
wound:  (1)  Pain,  (2)  hemorrhage,  (3)  gaping  of  the  wound.  The 
first  pain  is  due  to  the  crushing  and  tearing  of  the  nerve  fibers.  In 
using  a  sharp  knife  and  by  cutting  quickly,  the  animal  suffers  less 
pain  and  healing  occurs  more  rapidly.  The  secondary  pain  is  usu- 
ally due  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  inflammatory  processes.  When 
air  is  kept  from  the  wound  pain  ceases  soon  after  the  lesion  is  pro- 
duced. Hemorrhage  is  absent  only  in  wounds  of  nonvascular  tissues, 
as  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  the  cartilage  of  joints,  and  other  similar 
structures.  Bleeding  may  be  from  the  arteries,  veins,  or  capillaries. 
In  the  latter  form  of  bleeding  the  blood  oozes  from  the  part  in  drops. 
Hemorrhage  from  the  veins  is  dark  red  and  issues  in  a  steady  stream 
without  spurting.  In  arterial  bleeding  the  blood  is  bright  red  and 
spurts  with  each  heart  beat.  This  latter  variety  of  hemorrhage  is 
the  most  dangerous,  and  should  be  stopped  at  once  before  attempting 
any  further  treatment.  Bleeding  from  small  veins  and  capillaries 
ceases  in  a  short  time  spontaneously,  while  larger  vessels,  especially 
arteries,  require  some  form  of  treatment  to  cause  complete  stoppage 
of  the  hemorrhage. 

459 


460  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

HEMOSTASIA. 

By  this  term  is  meant  the  checking  of  the  flow  of  blood.  It  may  be 
accomplished  by  several  methods,  such  as  compress  bandages,  torsion, 
hot  iron,  and  ligatures.  The  heat  from  a  hot  iron  will  cause  the  im- 
mediate clotting  of  the  blood  in  the  vessels,  and  this  clot  is  further 
supported  by  the  production  of  a  scab,  or  crust,  over  the  portion 
seared.  The  iron  should  be  at  a  red  heat.  If  at  a  white  heat,  the  tissue 
is  charred,  which  makes  it  brittle  and  the  bleeding  is  apt  to  be  re- 
newed. If  the  iron  is  at  a  black  heat,  the  tissue  will  stick  to  the  iron 
and  will  pull  away  from  the  surface  of  the  wound.  Cold  water  and 
ice  bags  quickly  stop  capillary  bleeding,  while  hot  water  is  preferable 
in  more  excessive  hemorrhages.  Some  drugs,  called  styptics,  possess 
the  power  of  contracting  the  walls  of  blood  vessels  and  also  of  clot- 
ting the  blood.  A  solution  of  the  chloride  of  iron  placed  on  a  wound 
alone  or  by  means  of  cotton  drenched  in  the  liquid  produces  a  rapid 
and  hard  clot.  Tannic  acid,  alum,  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  and  oil  of  tur- 
pentine are  all  more  or  less  active  in  this  respect.  To  check  bleeding 
from  large  vessels  compression  may  be  adopted.  When  it  is  rapid 
and  dangerous  and  from  an  artery,  the  fingers  may  be  used  for  press- 
ing between  the  w^ound  and  the  heart  (digital  compression),  but  if 
from  a  vein,  the  pressure  should  be  exerted  on  the  other  side  of  the 
wound.  Tourniquet  may  also  be  used  by  passing  a  strap  around  the 
part  and  tightening  after  placing  a  pad  over  the  hemorrhage.  The 
rubber  ligature  has  now  replaced  the  tourniquet  and  is  bound  tightly 
around  the  limb  to  arrest  the  bleeding.  Tampons,  such  as  cotton,  tow, 
or  oakum,  may  be  packed  tightly  in  the  wound  and  then  sewed  up. 
After  remaining  there  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours  they  are 
removed.  Bleeding  may  sometimes  be  easily  checked  by  passing  a 
pin  under  the  vessel  and  by  taking  a  horsehair  and  forming  a  figure 
8  by  running  it  above  and  below  the  pin,  thus  causing  pressure  on  the 
vessel.  Torsion  is  the  twisting  of  the  blood  vessel  until  the  walls 
come  together  and  form  a  barrier  to  the  flow  of  blood.  It  may  be  ac- 
complished by  the  fingers,  forceps,  or  by  running  a  pin  through  the 
vessel,  turning  it  several  times,  and  then  running  the  point  into  the 
tissue  to  keep  it  in  a  fixed  position. 

Ligation  is  the  third  method  for  stopping  a  hemorrhage.  Seize 
the  blood  vessel  with  the  artery  forceps,  pass  a  clean  thread  of  silk 
around  it,  and  tie  about  one-half  inch  from  its  end.  The  silk  should 
be  sterilized  by  placing  it  in  an  antiseptic  solution  so  as  not  to  impede 
the  healing  process  or  cause  blood  poisoning  or  lockjaw,  which  often 
follows  the  ligation  of  a  vein  with  unstcrilized  material.  Sometimes 
it  will  be  impossible  to  reach  the  bleeding  vessel,  so  it  is  necessary  to 
pass  the  ligature  around  a  mass  of  tissue  which  includes  the  blood 
vessel.     Ligation  is  the  most  useful  method  of  arresting  hemorrhage. 


.  WOUNDS    AND    THEIR   TREATMENT,  461 

since  it  disturbs  healing  least  and  gives  the  greatest  security  against 
secondary  hemorrhage. 

SUTURES. 

After  the  bleeding  has  been  controlled  and  all  foreign  bodies 
removed  from  the  wound,  the  gaping  of  the  wound  is  noticeable.  It 
is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  and  elastic  fibers,  and  its 
degree  depends  on  the  extent,  direction,  and  nature  of  the  cut.  This 
gaping  will  hinder  the  healing  process  so  that  it  must  be  overcome  by 
bringing  the  edges  together  by  some  sort  of  sutures  or  pins,  or  by  a 
bandage  applied  from  below  upward.  As  suture  material,  ordinary 
cotton  thread  is  good  if  well  sterilized,  as  is  also  horsehair,  catgut, 
silk,  and  various  kinds  of  wire.  If  the  suture  is  made  too  tight,  the 
subsequent  swelling  may  cause  the  stitch  to  tear  out.  In  order  to 
make  a  firm  suture  the  depth  of  the  stitch  should  be  the  same  as 
the  distance  the  stitch  is  from  the  edge  of  the  wound.  The  deeper 
the  suture  the  more  tissue  is  embraced  and  the  fewer  the  number  of 
stitches  required.  In  tying  a  suture  use  the  square  or  reef  knot. 
Closure  of  wounds  by  means  of  adhesive  plaster,  collodion,  and  metal 
clamps  is  not  practiced  to  any  great  extent  in  veterinary  practice. 

PROCESS    OF    HEALING. 

In  those  cases  where  perfect  stoppage  of  bleeding,  perfect  coapta- 
tion of  the  edges  of  the  wound,  and  perfect  cleanliness  are  obtained, 
healing  occurs  within  three  days,  without  the  formation  of  granula- 
tions, pus,  or  proud  flesh,  by  what  is  termed  first  intention.  If  wounds 
do  not  heal  in  this  manner  they  will  gap  somewhat  and  become  warm 
and  painful.  Healing  then  occurs  by  granulation  or  suppuration, 
which  is  termed  healing  by  second  intention.  The  sides  of  the  wound 
become  covered  with  granulation  tissue  which  may  fill  the  wound  and 
sometimes  overlap  the  lips,  forming  a  fungoid  growth  called  proud 
flesh.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  edges  of  the  wound  appear  to 
grow  together  by  the  end  of  the  first  week,  and  the  whole  surface 
gradually  becomes  dry,  and  finally  covered  with  pigmented  skin,  when 
the  wound  is  healed.  The  cause  of  pus  formation  in  wounds  is  usually 
due  to  the  presence  of  germs.  For  this  reason  the  utmost  care  should 
be  adopted  to  keep  clean  wounds  aseptic,  or  free  from  germs,  and  to 
make  unclean  wounds  antiseptic  by  using  antiseptic  fluids  to  kill  the 
microbes  present  in  the  wound.  The  less  the  injurious  action  of  this 
fluid  on  the  wound,  and  the  greater  its  power  to  kill  germs,  the  more 
valuable  it  becomes.  All  antiseptics  are  not  equally  destructive,  and- 
some  germs  are  more  susceptible  to  one  antiseptic  than  to  another. 
The  most  important  are  (1)  bichloride  of  mercury,  which  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred on  horses.  It  becomes  weakened  in  its  action  if  placed  in  a 
wooden  pail  or  on  an  oily  or  greasy  surface.    It  is  used  in  the  strength 


462  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

of  1  part  of  bichloride  to  1,000  to  5,000  parts  of  water,  according  to 
the  delicacy  of  the  tissue  to  which  it  is  applied.  (2)  Carbolic  acid  in 
from  2  to  5  per  cent  solution  is  used  on  infected  wounds  and  for  clean- 
ing instruments,  dressings,  and  sponges.  It  unites  well  with  oil  and 
is  preferred  to  the  bichloride  of  mercury  on  a  greasy  surface.  A  5 
per  cent  solution  in  oil  is  often  used  under  the  name  of  carbolized  oil. 
(3)  Aluminum  acetate  is  an  eflScient  and  cheap  antiseptic,  and  is  com- 
posed of  1  part  alum  and  5  parts  acetate  of  lead,  mixed  in  20  parts  of 
water.  (4)  Boracic  acid  is  good  in  a  2  to  4  per  cent  solution  to  cleanse 
wounds  and  wash  eyes.  Creolin  and  lysol  may  be  used  in  a  2  to  5  per 
cent  solution  in  water.  Iodoform  is  one  of  the  most  used  of  the  anti- 
septics and  it  also  acts  as  an  anodyne,  stimulates  granulation,  and 
checks  wound  secretion.  A  very  efficacious  and  inexpensive  powder 
is  made  by  taking  5  parts  of  iodoform  and  95  parts  of  sugar,  making 
what  is  called  iodoform  sugar.  Tannic  acid  is  a  useful  drug  in  the 
treatment  of  wounds,  in  that  it  arrests  hemorrhage,  checks  secre- 
tion, and  favors  the  formation  of  a  scab.  A  mixture  of  1  part  tannic 
acid  and  3  parts  iodoform  is  good  in  suppurating  wounds.  lodol, 
white  sugar,  ground  and  roasted  coffee,  and  powdered  charcoal  are  all 
used  as  protectives  and  absorbents  on  suppurating  surfaces.  More 
depends  on  the  care  and  the  method  of  application  of  the  drug  than  on 
the  drug  itself.  On  aseptic  wounds  use  only  those  antiseptics  that  do 
not  irritate  the  tissue.  If  care  is  used  in  the  application  of  the  anti- 
septic, corrosive  sublimate  or  carbolic  acid  is  to  be  recommended, 
but  in  the  hands  of  irresponsible  parties  lysol  or  creolin  is  safer.  In 
order  to  keep  air  from  the  wound  and  to  absorb  all  wound  secretions 
rapidly,  a  dressing  should  be  applied.  If  the  wound  is  aseptic,  the 
dressing  should  be  likewise,  such  as  cotton  gauze,  sterile  cotton, 
oakum,  or  tow.  This  dressing  should  be  applied  with  uniform  pres- 
sure at  all  times  and  secured  by  a  bandage.  Allow  it  to  remain  for  a 
week  or  ten  days  if  the  wound  is  aseptic  or  if  the  dressing  does  not 
become  loose  or  misplaced  or  become  drenched  with  secretions  from 
the  wound,  or  if  pain,  fever,  or  loss  of  appetite  does  not  develop. 
The  dressing  should  then  be  removed,  the  wound  treated  antiseptically, 
and  a  sterilized  dressing  applied. 

HEALING  UNDER  A  SCAB. 

This  often  occurs  in  small  superficial  wounds  that  have  been  kept 
aseptic.  In  order  for  a  scab  to  form,  the  wound  must  not  gap, 
secrete  freely,  or  become  infected  with  germs.  The  formation  of  scab 
is  favored  by  astringents  and  styptics,  such  as  tannic  acid,  iodoform, 
and  6  per  cent  solution  of  zinc  chloride.  In  case  of  large  hollow 
wounds  that  can.  not  be  dressed,  such  as  fistulous  withers,  open  joints, 
etc.,  antisepsis  may  be  obtained  by  warm  water  irrigation  with  or 
without  an  antiseptic  fluid.     It  should  continue  day  and  night,  and 


LACEBATED   AND    CONTUSED    WOUNDS.  463 

never  be  interrupted  for  more  than  eight  hours,  for  germs  will  then 
have  gained  headway  and  will  be  difficult  to  remove.  Four  or  five 
days  of  irrigation  will  be  sufficient,  for  granulations  will  then  have 
formed  and  pus  will  remain  on  the  outside  if  it  forms.  For  perma- 
nent irrigation  the  stream  should  be  very  small,  or  drop  by  drop,  but 
should  play  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  wound.  It  is  always  better 
to  heal  an  infected  wound  under  a'  scab,  or  treat  it  as  an  open  wound, 
than  it  is  to  suture  the  wound,  thus  favoring  the  growth  of  the  in- 
closed germs  and  retarding  ultimate  healing.  In  the  latter  case  pus 
may  develop  in  the  wound,  form  pockets  by  sinking  into  the  tissues, 
and  cause  various  complications.  Such  pockets  should  be  well  drained, 
either  through  incisions  at  the  bottom  or  by  drainage  tubes  or  setons. 
They  should  then  be  frequently  syringed  out  or  continuously  irrigated. 
In  case  proud  flesh  appears  it  should  be  kept  down  either  by  pressure 
or  by  caustics,  as  powdered  bluestone,  silver  nitrate,  chloride  of 
antimony,  or  by  astringents,  such  as  burnt  alum.  If  they  prove 
resistant  to  this  treatment  they  may  be  removed  by  scissors  or  the 
knife  or  by  searing  with  the  hot  iron.  The  following  rules  for  the 
treatment  of  wounds  should  be  followed:  (1)  See  that  the  wound  is 
clean,  removing  all  foreign  bodies.  (2)  For  this  purpose  use  a  clean 
finger  rather  than  a  probe.  (3)  Arrest  all  hemorrhage  before  closing 
the  wound.  (4)  Antiseptics  should  only  be  used  if  you  suspect  the 
wound  to  be  infected.  (5)  When  pus  is  present  treat  without  closing 
the  wound.  (6)  This  may  be  accomplished  by  drainage  tubes,  absorb- 
ent dressings,  setons,  or  continuous  irrigations.  (7)  Protect  the 
wound  against  infection  while  healing. 

LACERATED   AND   CONTUSED   WOUNDS. 

Lacerated  and  contused  wounds  may  be  described  together, 
although  there  is,  of  course,  this  difference,  that  in  contused  wounds 
there  is  no  break  or  laceration  of  the  skin.  Lacerated  wounds,  how- 
ever, are,  as  a  rule,  also  contused — the  surrounding  tissues  are  bruised 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent.  While  such  wounds  may  not  appear 
at  first  sight  to  be  as  serious  as  incised  wounds,  they  are  commonly 
very  much  more  so.  Lacerations  and  contusions,  when  extensive,  are 
always  to  be  regarded  as  dangerous.  Many  horses  die  from  sei^tic 
infection  or  mortification  as  a  result  of  these  injuries.  We  find  in 
severe  contusions  an  infiltration  of  blood  into  the  surrounding  tissues ; 
disorganization  and  mortification  follow'  and  involve  often  the  deeper 
seated  structures.  Abscesses,  single  or  multiple,  may  also  result  and 
call  for  special  treatment. 

In  wounds  that  are  lacerated  the  amount  of  hemorrhage  is  mostly 
inconsiderable ;  even  very  large  blood  vessels  may  be  torn  apart  with- 
out inducing  a  fatal  result.  The  edges  of  the  wound  are  ragged  and 
uneven.     These  wounds  are  produced  by  barbed  wire  or  some  blunt 


464  DISEASES   OP   THE    HORSE. 

object,  as  where  a  horse  runs  against  fences,  board  piles,  the  comers 
of  buildings,  or  where  he  is  struck  by  ihe  pole  or  shafts  of  another 
team,  falling  on  rough  irregular  stones,  etc. 

Contused  wounds  are  caused  by  blunt  instruments  moving  with 
sufficient  velocity  to  bruise  and  crush  the  tissues,  as  running  against 
objects,  kicks,  or  falling  on  large,  hard  masses. 

Treatment. — In  lacerated  wounds*  great  care  must  at  first  be  exer- 
cised in  examining  or  probing  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  rent  or  tear, 
to  see  if  any  foreign  body  be  present.  Very  often  splinters  of  wood 
or  bits  of  stone  or  dirt  are  thus  lodged,  and  unless  removed  prevent 
the  wound  from  healing;  or  if  it  should  heal  the  wound  soon  opens 
again,  discharging  a  thin,  gluey  matter  that  is  characteristic  of  the 
presence  of  some  object  in  the  part.  After  a  thorough  exploration 
these  wounds  are  to  be  carefully  and  patiently  fomented  with  warm 
water,  to  which  has  been  added  carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion  of  1 
part  to  100  of  water.  Rarely,  if  ever,  are  stitches  to  be  inserted  in 
lacerated  wounds.  The  surrounding  tissues  and  skin  are  so  weakened 
in  vitality  and  structure  by  the  contusions  that  stitches  will  not  hold ; 
they  only  irritate  the  parts.  It  is  better  to  endeavor  to  secure  coap- 
tation by  means  of  bandages,  plasters,  or  collodion.  One  essential  in 
the  treatment  of  lacerated  wounds  is  to  secure  a  free  exit  for  the  pus. 
If  the  orifice  of  the  wound  is  too  high,  or  if  pus  is  found  to  be  bur- 
rowing in  the  tissues  beneath  the  opening,  we  must  then  make  a 
counter  opening  as  low  as  possible.  This  will  admit  of  the  wound 
being  thoroughly  washed  out,  at  first  with  warm  water,  and  after- 
wards injected  with  some  mild  astringent  and  antiseptic  wash,  as 
chloride  of  zinc,  1  dram  to  a  pint  of  water.  A  dependent  opening 
must  be  maintained  until  the  wound  ceases  to  discharge.  Repeated 
hot  fomentations  over  the  region  of  lacerated  wounds  afford  much 
relief  and  should  be  persisted  in. 

BRUISES. 

Bruises  are  nothing  but  contused  wounds  where  the  skin  has 
not  been  ruptured.  There  is  often  considerable  solution  of  con- 
tinuity of  the  parts  under  the  skin,  subcutaneous  hemorrhage, 
etc.,  which  may  result  in  local  death  (mortification)  and  slough  of 
the  bruised  parts.  If  the  bruise  or  contusion  is  not  so  severe,  many 
cases  are  quickly  cured  by  constant  fomentation  with  hot  water  for 
from  two  to  four  hours.  The  water  should  be  allowed  about  this 
time  to  gradually  become  cool  and  then  cold.  Cold  fomentation  must 
then  be  kept  up  for  another  hour  or  two.  Dry  the  parts  thoroughly 
and  quickly  and  bathe  them  freely  with  camphor.  1  ounce,  sweet  oil 
8  ounces,  or  with  equal  parts  of  lead  water  and  laudanum.  A  dry, 
light  bandage  should  then  be  applied,  the  horse  allowed  to  rest, 
and  if  necessary  the  treatment  may  be  repeated  each  day  for  two  or 


PUNCTUBED    WOUNDS,  465 

three  days.  If,  however,  the  wound  is  so  severe  that  sloughing  must 
ensue,  we  should  encourage  this  by  poultices  made  of  linseed  meal, 
wheat  bran,  turnips,  onions,  bread  and  milk,  or  hops.  Charcoal  is 
to  be  sprinkled  over  the  surface  of  the  poultice  when  the  wound  is 
bad  smelling.  After  the  slough  has  fallen  off  the  wound  is  to  be 
dressed  with  warm  antiseptic  washes  of  carbolic  acid,  chloride  of 
zinc,  permanganate  of  potash,  etc.  If  granulating  (filling  up)  too 
fast,  use  burnt  alum  or  air-slaked  lime.  Besides  this  local  treatment, 
we  find  that  the  constitutional  symptoms  of  fever  and  inflammation 
call  for  measures  to  prevent  or  control  them.  This  is  best  done  by 
placing  the  injured  animal  on  soft  or  green  food.  A  physic  of  Bar- 
bados aloes,  1  ounce,  should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
accident.  Sedatives,  such  as  tincture  of  aconite  root,  15  drops, 
three  times  a  day,  or  ounce  doses  of  saltpeter  every  four  hours,  may 
also  be  administered.  When  the  symptoms  of  fever  are  abated,  and 
if  the  discharges  from  the  wound  are  abundant,  the  strength  of  the 
patient  must  be  supported  by  good  food  and  tonics.  One  of  the 
best  tonics  is  as  follows:  Powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  powdered  gen- 
tian, and  powdered  ginger,  of  each  4  ounces.  Mix  thoroughly  and 
give  a  heaping  tablespoonful  twice  a  day,  on  the  feed  or  as  a  drench. 

PUNCTURED  WOUNDS. 

Punctured  wounds  are  produced  by  the  penetration  of  a  sharp  or 
blunt  pointed  substance,  such  as  a  thorn,  fork,  nail,  etc.,  and  the 
orifice  of  these  wounds  is  always  small  in  proportion  to  their  depth. 
In  veterinary  practice  punctured  wounds  are  much  more  common 
than  the  others.  They  involve  the  feet  most  frequently,  next  the 
legs,  and  often  the  head  and  face  from  nails  protruding  through  the 
stalls  and  trough.  They  are  not  only  the  most  frequent,  but  they  are 
also  the  most  serious,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  thorough 
disinfection.  Another  circumstance  rendering  them  so  is  the  lack  of 
attention  that  they  at  first  receive.  The  external  wound  is  so  small 
that  but  little  or  no  importance  is  attached  to  it,  yet  in  a  short  time 
swelling,  pain,  and  acute  inflammation,  often  of  a  serious  character, 
are  manifested. 

Considering  the  most  common  of  the  punctured  wounds,  we  must 
give  precedence  to  those  of  the  feet.  Horses  worked  in  cities,  about 
iron  works,  around  building  places,  etc.,  are  most  likely  to  receive 
"  nails  in  the  feet."  The  animal  treads  upon  nails,  pieces  of  iron 
or  screws,  and  forces  them  into  the  soles  of  the  feet.  If  the  nail,  or 
whatever  it  is  that  has  punctured  the  foot,  is  fast  in  some  large  or 
heavy  body,  and  is  withdrawn  as  the  horse  lifts  his  foot,  lameness 
may  last  for  only  a  few  steps;  but  unless  properly  attended  to  at 
once  he  will  be  found  in  a  day  or  two  to  be  very  lame  in  the  injured 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 30 


466  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

member.  If  the  foreign  body  remains  in  the  foot,  he  gradually  grows 
worse  from  the  time  of  puncture  until  the  cause  is  discovered  and 
removed.  If,  when  shoeing,  a  nail  is  driven  into  the  "  quick  "  (sensi- 
tive laminae)  and  allowed  to  remain,  the  horse  gradually  evinces  more 
pain  from  day  to  da}^ ;  but  if  the  nail  has  at  once  been  removed  by  the 
smith,  lameness  does  not,  as  a  rule,  show  itself  for  some  days ;  or,  if 
the  nail  is  simply  driven  "  too  close,"  not  actually  pricking  the  horse, 
he  may  not  show  any  lamenass  for  a  week  or  even  much  longer.  At 
this  point  it  is  due  the  blacksmith  to  say  that,  considering  how  thin 
the  walls  of  some  feet  are,  the  uneasiness  of  many  horses  while  shoe- 
ing, the  ease  with  which  a  nail  is  diverted  from  its  course  by  striking 
an  old  piece  of  nail  left  in  the  wall,  or  from  the  nail  itself  splitting, 
the  wonder  is  not  that  so  many  horses  are  pricked  or  nails  driven 
"  too  close,"  but  rather  that  many  more  are  not  so  injured.  It  is  not 
always  carelessness  or  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  smith,  by  any 
means,  that  is  to  account  for  this  accident.  Bad  and  careless  shoers 
we  do  meet  with,  but  let  us  be  honest  and  say  that  the  rarity  of  these 
accidents  points  rather  to  the  general  care  and  attention  given  by 
these  much-abused  mechanics. 

From  the  construction  of  the  horse's  foot  (being  incased  in  an  im- 
permeable horny  box),  and  from  the  elasticity  of  the  horn  closing  the 
orifice,  punctured  wounds  of  the  feet  are  almost  always  productive 
of  lameness.  Inflammation  results,  and  as  there  is  no  relief  afforded 
by  swelling  and  no  escape  for  the  product  of  inflammation,  this  mat- 
ter must  and  does  burrow  between  the  sole  or  wall  and  the  sensitive 
parts  within  it  until  it  generally  opens  "  between  hair  and  hoof." 
We  can  thus  see  why  pain  is  so  much  more  severe,  why  tetanus  (lock- 
jaw) more  frequently  follows  wounds  of  the  feet,  and  why,  from  the 
extensive,  or  at  times  complete,  separation  and  "  casting  "  of  the  hoof, 
these  wounds  must  always  be  regarded  with  grave  apprehension. 

Symptoms  and  treatment. — A  practice  which,  if  never  deviated 
from — that  of  picking  up  each  foot,  cleaning  the  sole,  and  thoroughly 
examining  the  foot  each  and  every  time  the  horse  comes  into  the 
stable — will  enable  us  to  reduce  the  serious  consequences  of  punctured 
wounds  of  the  feet  to  the  minimum.  If  the  wound  has  resulted  from 
pricking,  lameness  follows  soon  after  shoeing;  if  from  the  nails  being 
driven  too  close,  it  usually  appears  from  four  to  five  days  or  a  week 
after  receiving  the  shoe.  We  should  always  inquire  as  to  the  time  of 
shoeing,  examine  the  shoe  carefully,  and  see  whether  it  has  been  par- 
tially pulled  and  the  horse  stepped  back  upon  some  of  the  nails  or  the 
clip.  The  pain  from  these  wounds  is  lancinating;  the  horse  is  seen 
to  raise  and  lower  the  limb  or  hold  it  from  the  ground  altogether; 
often  he  points  the  foot,  flexes  the- leg,  and  knuckles  at  the  fetlock. 
Swelling  of  the  fetlock  and  back  tendons  is  also  frequently  seen  and 


WOUNDS   OP   JOINTS.  467 

is  apt  to  mislead  us.  The  foot  must  be  carefully  examined,  and  this 
can  not  be  properly  done  without  removing  the  shoe.  The  nails 
should  be  drawn  separately  and  carefully  examined.  If  there  is  no 
escape  of  pus  from  the  nail  holes,  or  if  the  nails  themselves  are  not 
moist,  we  must  continue  our  examination  of  the  foot  by  carefully 
pinching  or  tapping  it  at  all  parts.-  With  a  little  practice  we  can  de- 
tect the  spot  where  pain  is  the  greatest  or  discover  the  delicate  line  or 
scar  left  at  the  point  of  entrance  of  the  foreign  body.  The  entire  sole 
is  then  to  be  thinned,  after  which  we  are  to  carefully  cut  down  upon 
the  point  where  pain  is  greatest  upon  pressure,  and,  finally,  through 
the  sole  at  this  spot.  "When  the  matter  has  escaped,  the  sole,  so  far 
as  it  was  undermined  by  pus,  is  to  be  removed.  The  foot  must  now 
be  poulticed  for  one  or  two  days  and  afterwards  dressed  with  a  com- 
press of  oakum  saturated  with  carbolic-acid  solution  or  other  anti- 
septic dressing. 

If  we  discover  a  nail  or  other  object  in  the  foot,  the  principal  direc- 
tion, after  having  removed  the  offending  body,  is  to  cut  away  the 
sole,  in  a  funnel  shape,  down  to  the  sensitive  parts  beneath.  This  is 
imperative,  and  if  a  good  free  opening  has  been  made  and  is  main- 
tained for  a  few  days,  hot  fomentations  and  antiseptic  dressings 
applied,  the  cure  is  mostly  easy,  simple,  quick,  and  permanent.  The 
horse  should  be  shod  with  a  leather  sole  under  the  shoe,  first  of  all 
applying  tar  and  oakum  to  prevent  any  dirt  from  entering  the  wound. 
In  some  instances  nails  may  puncture  the  flexor  tendons,  the  coffin 
bone,  or  enter  the  coffin  joint.  Such  injuries  are  always  serious,  their 
recovery  slow  and  tedious,  and  the  treatment  so  varied  and  difficult 
that  the  services  of  a  veterinarian  will  be  necessary. 

PUNCTURED  WOUNDS  OF  JOINTS,  OR  OPEN  JOINTS. 

These  wounds  are  more  or  less  frequent.  They  are  always  serious, 
and  often  result  in  anchylosis  (stiffening)  of  the  joint  or  death  of  the 
animal.  The  joints  mostly  punctured  are  the  hock,  fetlock,  or  knee, 
though  other  joints  may,  of  course,  suffer  this  injury.  As  the  symp- 
toms and  treatment  are  much  the  same  for  all,  only  the  accident  as  it 
occurs  in  the  hock  joint  will  be  described.  Probably  the  most  com- 
mon mode  of  injury  is  from  the  stab  of  a  fork,  but  it  may  result  from 
the  kick  of  another  horse  that  is  newly  shod,  or  in  many  other  ways. 
At  first  the  horse  evinces  but  slight  pain  or  lameness.  The  owner 
discovers  a  small  wound  scarcely  larger  than  a  pea,  and  pays  but  little 
attention  to  it.  In  a  few  days,  however,  the  pain  and  lameness  be- 
come excessive;  the  horse  can  no  longer  bear  any  weight  upon  the 
injured  leg;  the  joint  is  very  much  swollen  and  painful  upon  pres- 
sure; there  are  well-marked  symptoms  of  constitutional  disturbance — 
quick  pulse,  hurried  breathing,  high  temperature,  103°  to  106°  F.,  the 


468  DISEASES    OF    THE   HORSE. 

appetite  is  lost,  thirst  is  present,  the  horse  reeks  with  sweat,  and 
sliows  by  an  anxious  countenance  the  pain  he  suffers.  He  may  lie 
down,  though  mostly  he  persists  in  standing,  and  the  opposite  limb 
becomes  greatly  swollen  from  bearing  the  entire  weight  and  strain 
for  so  long  a  time.  The  wound,  which  at  first  appeared  so  insignifi- 
cant, is  now  constantly  discharging  a  thin  whitish  or  yellowish  fluid — 
joint  oil  or  water,  which  becomes  coagulated  about  the  mouth  of  the 
wound  and  adheres  to  the  part  in  clots  like  jelly,  or  resembling  some- 
what the  white  of  an  egg.  Not  infrequently  the  joint  opens  at  dif- 
ferent places,  discharging  at  first  a  thin  bloody  fluid  that  soon  as- 
sumes the  character  above  described. 

Treatment  of  these  wounds  is  most  difficult  and  unsatisfactory. 
We  can  do  much  to  prevent  this  array  of  symptoms  if  the  case  is 
seen  early — within  the  first  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours  after 
the  injury;  but  when  inflammation  of  the  joint  is  once  fairly  estab- 
lished the  case  becomes  one  of  grave  tendencies.  Whenever  a  punc- 
tured wound  of  a  joint  is  noticed,  even  though  apparently  of  but 
small  moment,  we  should,  without  the  least  delay,  apply  a  strong 
cantharides  blister  over  the  entire  joint,  being  even  careful  to  fill  the 
orifice  of  the  wound  with  the  blistering  ointment.  This  treatment  is 
almost  always  effectual.  It  operates  to  perform  a  cure  in  two  ways — 
first,  the  swelling  of  the  skin  and  tissues  underneath  it  completely 
closes  the  wound  and  prevents  the  ingress  of  air;  second,  by  the 
superficial  inflammation  established  it  acts  to  check  and  abate  all 
deep-seated  inflammation.  In  the  great  majority  of  instances,  if 
pursued  soon  after  the  accident,  this  treatment  performs  a  cure  in 
about  one  week,  but  should  the  changes  described  as  occurring  later 
in  the  joint  have  already  taken  place,  we  must  then  treat  by  cooling 
lotions  and  the  application  to  the  wound  of  chloride  of  zinc,  10 
grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  or  a  paste  made  up  of  flour  and  alum. 
A  bandage  is  to  hold  these  applications  in  place,  wliicli  is  only  to  be 
removed  when  swelling  of  the  leg  or  increasing  febrile  symptoms 
demand  it.  In  the  treatment  of  open  joints  our  chief  aim  must  be 
to  close  the  orifice  as  soon  as  possible.  For  this  reason  repeated  prob- 
ing or  even  injections  are  contraindicated.  The  only  probing  of  an 
open  joint  that  is  to  be  sanctioned  is  on  our  first  visit,  when  we  shoidd 
carefully  examine  the  wound  for  foreign  bodies  or  dirt,  and  after 
removing  them  the  probe  must  not  again  be  used.  The  medicines 
used  to  coagulate  the  synovial  discharge  are  best  simply  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  wound,  on  pledgets  of  tow,  and  held  in  place  by 
bandages.  Internal  treatment  is  also  indicated  in  those  cases  of 
open  joints  where  the  suffering  is  great.  At  first  we  should  admin- 
ister a  light  physic  and  follow  this  up  with  sedatives  and  anodynes, 
as  directed  for  contused  wounds.  Later,  however,  we  should  give 
quinine,  or  salicylic  acid  in  1-dram  doses  two  or  three  times  a  day. 


WOUNDS   AND    THEIR   TREATMENT.  469 

WOUNDS    OF    THE    TENDON    SHEATHS. 

Wounds  of  tendon  sheaths  are  similar  to  open  joints  in  that  there 
is  an  escape  of  synovial  fluid,  "  sinew  water."  Where  the  tendons  are 
simply  punctured  by  a  thorn,  hail,  or  fork,  we  must,  after  a  thorough 
exploration  of  the  wound  for  any  remaining  foreign  substance,  treat 
with  the  flour-and-alum  paste,  bandages,  etc.,  as  for  open  joint. 
Should  the  skin  and  tendons  be  divided  the  case  is  even  niore  serious 
and  often  incurable.  There  is  always  a  large  bed  of  granulations 
(proud  flesh)  at  the  seat  of  injury,  and  a  thickening  more  or  less  pro- 
nounced remains.  When  the  back  tendons  of  the  leg  are  severed  we 
should  apply  at  once  a  high-heel  shoe  (which  is  to  be  gradually 
lowered  as  healing  advances)  and  bandage  firmly  with  a  compress 
moistened  with  a  10-grain  chloride  of  zinc  solution.  "WTien  proud 
flesh  appears  this  is  best  kept  under  control  by  repeated  applications 
of  a  red-hot  iron.  Mares  that  are  valuable  as  brood  animals  and  stock 
horses  should  always  be  treated  for  this  injury,  as,  even  though 
blemished,  their  vakie  is  not  seriously  impaired.  The  length  of  time 
required  and  the  expense  of  treatment  will  cause  us  to  hesitate  in 
attempting  a  cure,  if  the  subject  is  old  and  comparatively  valueless. 

GUNSHOT    WOUNDS. 

These  wounds  vary  in  size  and  character,  depending  on  the  size 
and  quality  of  the  projectile  and  also  the  tissue  injured.  They  are  so 
seldom  met  with  in  our  animals  that  an  extended  reference  to  them 
seems  unnecessary.  If  a  wound  has  been  made  by  a  bullet  a  careful 
examination  should  be  made  to  ascertain  if  the  ball  has  passed 
through  or  out  of  the  body.  If  it  has  not  we  must  then  probe  for  the 
ball,  and  if  it  can  be  located  it  is  to  be  cut  out  when  practicable  to  do 
so.  Oftentimes  a  ball  may  be  so  lodged  that  it  can  not  be  removed, 
and  it  then  may  become  encysted  and  remain  for  years  without  giving 
rise  to  any  inconvenience.  It  is  often  difficult  to  locate  a  bullet,  as  it 
is  very  readily  deflected  by  resistances  met  with  after  entering  the 
body. 

The  entering  wound  is  the  size  of  the  projectile,  the  edges  are 
inverted  and  often  scorched.  The  wound  produced  in  case  of  the 
bullet's  exit  is  larger  than  the  projectile,  the  edges  are  turned  out  and 
ragged.  A  bullet  heated  by  the  friction  of  the  barrel  or  air  often 
softens  and  becomes  flattened  on  striking  a  bone  or  other  tissue. 
Modern  bullets  that  have  an  outer  steel  layer  may  pass  through  bone 
without  splintering  it.  Leaden  bullets  may  split,  producing  two  exit 
wounds.  Spent  bullets  may  only  produce  a  bruise.  Should  bones  be 
struck  by  a  ball  they  are  sometimes  shattered  and  splintered  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  warrant  us  in  having  the  animal  destroyed.  A  gun- 
shot wound,  when  irreparable  injury  has  not  been  done,  is  to  be 


470  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

treated  the  same  as  punctured  wounds,  i.  e.,  stop  the  hemorrhage, 
remove  the  foreign  body  if  possible,  and  apply  hot  fomentations  or 
poultices  to  the  wound  until  suppuration  is  fairly  established.  Anti- 
septic and  disinfectant  injections  may  then  be  used.  Should  pus 
accumulate  in  the  tissues,  openings  must  be  made  at  the  most  depend- 
ing parts  for  its  escape.  Wounds  from  shotguns  fired  close  to  the 
animals  are  serious.  They  are  virtually  lacerated  and  contused 
wounds.  Remove  all  the  shot  possible  from  the  wound,  and  treat  as 
directed  for  contusions.  When  small  shot  strike  the  horse  from  a 
distance  they  stick  in  the  skin  or  only  go  through  it.  The  shot  grains 
must  be  picked  out,  but  as  a  rule  this  "  peppering"  of  the  skin 
amounts  to  but  little. 

POISONED  WOUNDS. 

These  injuries  are  the  result  of  bites  of  snakes,  rabid  dogs,  stings  of 
bees,  wasps,  etc.  A  single  sting  is  not  dangerous,  but  an  animal  is 
often  stung  by  a  swarm  of  insects,  when  the  chief  danger  occurs  from 
the  swelling  produced.  If  stung  about  the  head,  the  nostrils  may  be 
closed  as  a  result  of  the  swelling,  causing  labored  breathing  and  pos- 
sibly asphyxiation.  Intoxication  may  be  produced  by  the  absorption 
of  this  poison  and  is  manifested  by  staggering  gait,  spreading  of  the 
legs,  paralysis  of  the  muscles,  difficult  respiration,  and  a  rise  of  tem- 
perature.    Death  may  follow  in  five  to  ten  hours. 

Treatment. — Douse  animal  with  cold  water  and  apply  any  alkaline 
liquid,  such  as  soapsuds,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  or  weak  solution  of 
ammonia.  Internally  give  alcohol,  ether,  or  camphor  to  strengthen 
the  heart.  In  case  of  bites  by  rattlesnakes,  moccasin,  or  other  poi- 
sonous snakes,  a  painful  swelling  occurs  about  the  bitten  part,  which 
is  followed  by  labored  breathing,  weakness,  retching,  fever,  and 
death  from  collapse.  The  animal  usually  recovers  if  it  can  be  kept 
alive  over  the  third  day.  In  treating  the  animal,  a  tight  ligature 
should  be  passed  about  the  part  above  the  wound  to  keep  the  poison 
from  entering  the  general  circulation.  Wash  out  the  wound  thor- 
oughly with  antiseptics  and  then  apply  a  caustic,  such  as  sih^er  ni- 
trate, or  bum  with  a  hot  instrument.  A  subcutaneous  injection  of 
one-fourth  dram  of  1  per  cent  solution  of  chromic  acid  above  the 
wound  is  also  beneficial.  Cold  water  may  be  applied  to  the  wound 
to  combat  the  inflammation.  Bites  of  rabid  dogs  produce  an  infected 
•wound,  and  the  virus  of  rabies  introduced  in  this  manner  should  be 
removed  or  destroyed  in  the  wound.  Therefore  produce  considerable 
bleeding  by  incising  the  wound,  wash  out  thoroughly  with  10  per 
cent  solution  of  zinc  chloride,  and  then  apply  caustics  or  the  actual 
cautery. 

HARNESS   GALLS    (SITFASTS). 

Wounds  or  abrasions  of  the  skin  are  frequently  caused  by  ill-fitting 
harness  or  saddles.    When  a  horse  has  been  resting  from  steady  work 


SITFASTS,    BURNS,    AND    SCALDS.  471 

for  some  time,  particularly  after  being  kept  idle  in  a  stable  on  a 
scanty  allowance  of  grain,  as  in  winter,  he  is  soft  and  tender  and 
sweats  easily  when  put  to  work  again.  In  this  condition  he  is  apt 
to  sweat  and  chafe  under  the  harness,  especially  if  it  is  hard  and 
poorly  fitted.  This  chafing  is  likely  to  cause  abrasions  of  the  skin, 
and  thus  pave  the  way  for  an  abscess,  or  for  a  chronic  blemish,  unless 
attended  to  very  promptly.  Besides  causing  the  animal  considerable 
pain,  chafing,  if  long  continued,  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  callosity. 
This  may  be  superficial,  involving  only  the  skin,  or  it  may  be  deep- 
seated,  involving  the  subcutaneous  fibrous  tissue  and  sometimes  the 
muscle  and  even  the  bone.  This  causes  a  dry  slough  to  form,  which 
is  both  inconvenient  and  unsightly.  Sloughs  of  this  kind  are  com- 
monly called  "  sitfasts  "  and,  while  they  occur  in  other  places,  are 
most  frequently  found  under  the  saddle.     (See  also  page  448.) 

Treatment. — Abrasions  are  best  prevented  by  bringing  the  animal 
gradually  into  working  shape  after  it  has  had  a  prolonged  rest,  in 
order  that  the  muscles  will  be  hard  and  the  skin  tough.  The  harness 
should  be  well  fitted,  neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  and  it  should  be 
cleaned  and  oiled  to  remove  all  dirt  and  to  make  it  soft  and  pliable. 
Saddles  should  be  properly  fitted  so  as  to  prevent  direct  pressure  on 
the  spine,  and  the  saddle  blankets  should  be  clean  and  dry.  Parts  of 
the  horse  where  chafing  is  likely  to  occur,  as  on  the  back  under  the 
saddle,  should  be  cleaned  and  brushed  free  of  dirt. 

The  remedies  for  simple  harness  galls  are  numerous.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  alcohol,  1  pint,  in  which  are  well  shaken  the  whites 
of  two  eggs ;  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  10  grains  to  the  ounce  of 
water;  sugar  of  lead  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains  to  an  ounce  of 
water;  carbolic  acid,  1  part  in  15  parts  of  glycerin,  and  so  on  almost 
without  end.  Any  simple  astringent  wash  or  powder  will  effect  a 
cure,  provided  the  sores  are  not  irritated  by  friction. 

If  a  sitfast  has  developed,  the  dead  hornlike  slough  must  be  care- 
fully dissected  out  and  the  wound  treated  carefully  with  antiseptics. 
During  treatment  it  is  always  best  to  allow  the  animal  to  rest,  but  if 
this  is  inconvenient  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
abraded  or  wounded  surface  by  padding  the  harness  so  that  chafing 
can  not  occur. 

BURNS   AND    SCALDS. 

These  wounds  of  domestic  animals  are  fortunately  of  rare  occur- 
rence; however,  when  they  do  occur,  if  at  all  extensive,  they  prove 
quite  troublesome  and  in  many  cases  are  fatal.  According  to  the 
severity  of  the  burn  we  distinguish  three  degrees:  First  degree, 
where  there  is  a  simple  reddening  of  the  skin ;  second  degree,  where 
there  is  a  formation  of  vesicles,  or  blisters ;  third  degree,  where  there 
is  a  complete  destruction  of  vitality  of  the  tissues,  such  as  would 
occur  in  charring  from  direct  contact  with  flames  or  from  escaping 


472  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

steam.  Besides  the  burns  caused  by  flames  and  steam,  there  are  other 
causative  agents,  such  as  chemicals  (caustic  alkalis  and  acids),  light- 
ning stroke,  and  occasionally  the  broken  trolley  wires  of  electric  rail- 
ways. When  a  large  surface  of  the  skin  is  burned  or  scalded,  the  ani- 
mal (if  he  does  not  die  at  once  from  shock)  will  soon  show  signs  of 
fever — shivering,  coldness  of  the  extremities,  weakness,  restlessness, 
quick  and  feeble  pulse,  and  labored  breathing.  No  matter  which 
agent  is  a  factor  in  the  production  of  burns,  the  lesions  are  practi- 
cally of  the  same  nature.  The  extent  and  site  of  the  burn  should  lead 
one  in  the  determination  and  course  of  treatment.  Burns  of  the 
shoulder  and  those  about  the  region  of  the  elbow  or  other  parts 
where  there  is  much  movement  of  the  tissues  are  grave,  and,  if  at  all 
extensive,  treatment  should  not  be  attempted,  but  the  immediate 
destruction  of  the  animal  is  advised.  A  burn  of  the  third  degree, 
where  there  is  a  destruction  of  the  vitality  of  large  areas  of  tissue, 
even  on  parts  not  subject  to  much  motion,  is  extremely  tedious  to 
treat;  in  fact,  it  is  questionable  whether  the  treatment  and  keep  of 
the  animal  will  ever  be  compensated  for,  even  though  recovery  does 
take  place,  which,  in  any  event,  will  require  at  least  six  or  eight 
weeks.  Those  due  to  lightning  stroke  and  trolley  wires  are  likely  to 
occur  in  irregular  lines,  and,  unless  death  occurs  at  once,  they  are  not 
likely  to  prove  serious. 

Treatment— Treaiment  should  be  prompt  and  effective.  If  the 
bums  are  extensive  the  constitutional  symptoms  should  be  combated 
with  whisky  and  milk  and  eggs,  or  ammonia  carbonate,  strychnine, 
caffein,  and  other  stimulants  to  prevent  shock.  In  the  local  treat- 
ment, to  alleviate  the  pain,  the  application  of  cold  water  in  some  form 
and  the  hypodermic  injection  of  morphine  are  to  be  recommended. 
In  burns  of  the  first  degree,  where  there  is  only  a  superficial  inflam- 
mation, lead  carbonate  (white  lead)  ointment  is  very  good.  Carron 
oil  (limewater  and  linseed  oil,  equal  parts)  is  a  standard  remedy, 
but  a  modification  of  it  known  as  Stahl's  liniment  is  perhaps  better; 
this  liniment  is  composed  of  linseed  oil  and  limewater  each  200  parts, 
bicarbonate  soda  100  parts,  and  thymol  1  part.  This  liniment  should 
be  applied  freely  to  the  scorched  surface  and  covered  with  a  layer 
of  bora  ted  gauze  or  absorbent  cotton  to  protect  it  from  the  air.  Re- 
new the  application  frequently.  Carbolated  vaseline  may  be  used 
in  place  of  the  above.  In  case  the  bum  is  more  extensive,  the  fol- 
lowing solution  may  be  used:  Picric  acid  2  parts,  alcohol  40  parts, 
water  400  parts.  The  lesion  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  with  this 
solution  used  on  absorbent  cotton.  The  vesicles,  if  any  appear, 
should  be  opened  with  a  clean  needle,  allowing  the  skin  to  remain. 
Strips  of  gauze  or  absorbent  cotton  saturated  with  the  solution  should 
now  be  applied  and  renewed  only  occasionally.  In  burns  of  the  sec- 
ond and  third  degrees  more  satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained  with 


GANGRENE,  OE    MORTIFICATION.  473 

nonpoisonous  dry  dressing  powder,  such  as  is  used  in  ordinary  open 
wounds,  as  tannic  acid  8  parts  and  iodoform  1  part,  or  a  salve  made 
of  this  powder  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vaseline.  When  slough- 
ing of  the  tissues  takes  place  the  wounds  should  be  cleansed  with  a 
warm  3  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  all  loose  fragments  of  tissue 
removed,  and  either  a  dry  antiseptic  dressing  powder  or  carbolated 
vaseline  ointment  applied  to  exclude  the  air.  Granulation  tissue 
(proud  flesh)  should  be  controlled  by  the  application  of  silver  nitrate 
in  the  form  of  a  caustic  pencil. 

Burns  due  to  mineral  acids  may  be  first  treated  by  flushing  the 
parts  with  a  copious  quantity  of  cold  water  or  by  the  application  of 
whiting  or  chalk.  Either  use  a  large  quantity  of  water  at  the  start  or 
use  the  chalk  first,  then  wash  with  water.  If  the  irritant  has  been  a 
caustic  alkali,  such  as  potash,  lye,  ammonia,  or  soda,  then  vinegar 
should  be  the  first  application.  Stahl's  liniment  is  probably  the  best 
general  application  for  all  burns  for  the  first  week ;  then  this  should 
be  followed  by  the  ordinary  antiseptic  wound  dressings. 

GANGRENE. 

Gangrene,  or  mortification,  denotes  the  death  of  the  affected  part, 
and  is  mostly  found  attacking  soft  tissue  near  the  surface  of  the 
body.  Gangrenous  areas  may  occur  as  a  result  of  shutting  off  their 
blood  supply.  Constitutional  diseases,  such  as  ergotism,  anthrax,  and 
septicemia,  predispose  to  gangrene.  As  external  causes  we  have  acids 
and  alkalies,  freezing  and  burning,  contusions  and  continuous  pres- 
sure that  interrupt  the  circulation.  There  are  two  forms  of  gan- 
grene— dry  and  moist.  Dry  gangrene  is  most  often  seen  in  horses 
from  continuous  lying  down  (decubitus)  or  from  uneven  pressure  of 
some  portion  of  the  harness. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  lack  of  sensation  due  to  the  death  of  nerves. 
In  dry  gangrene  the  skin  is  leathery  and  harsh,  while  in  moist  gan- 
grene the  tissues  are  soft,  wrinkled,  and  friable;  the  hair  is  dis- 
turbed, and  the  skin  is  usually  moist  and  soapy  and  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  blebs.  The  tissue  surrounding  the  moist  gangrenous  patch 
is  usually  inflamed,  swollen,  and  hot,  but  this  is  less  noticeable  in  the 
case  of  dry  gangrene.  Moist  gangrene  often  spreads  and  involves 
deeper  tissue,  sheaths  of  tendons  and  joints  producing  septic  syno- 
vitis or  septic  arthritis  leading  to  pyemia  and  death.  Dry  gangrene 
is  seldom  dangerous,  but  the  rapidity  of  its  spread  will  indicate  its 
virulence. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  avoiding  all  the 
influences  that  tend  to  disturb  the  nutrition  of  the  tissues,  such  as 
excessive  cold  or  heat  or  continuous  pressure.  Gangrene  following 
decubitus  may  be  prevented  by  using  soft  bedding  and  frequently 
turning  the  animal  from  one  side  to  the  other.    In  dry  gangrene  moist 


474  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

heat  in  the  form  of  poultices  or  anointing  the  tissue  with  oils  and 
fats  will  be  found  beneficial  in  hastening  the  dead  tissue  to  slough 
off.  When  the  outer  skin  begins  to  suppurate,  seize  it  with  a  pair  of 
pincers  and  draw  it  away.  After  this  treat  the  patch  as  an  open 
wound.  In  moist  gangrene  the  tissue  should  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected with  creolin,  lysol,  or  particularly  an  alcoholic  tincture  of  cam- 
phor. Continuous  irritation  with  antiseptic  fluids  prevents  the  accu- 
mulation and  absorption  of  poisonous  liquids.  Incisions  into  the  dead 
tissue  may  be  made,  and  when  sloughing  commences  the  tissue  should 
be  removed  with  forceps  and  the  resulting  wound  treated  as  in  dry 
gangrene. 

ULCERATION. 

An  ulcer  is  a  circumscribed  area  of  necrosis  occurring  on  the  skin 
or  mucous  membrane  and  covered  with  granulation  tissue.  It  is  a 
process  of  destruction,  and  when  this  process  is  going  on  faster  than 
regeneration  can  take  place,  we  have  a  gnawing,  or  eating,  ulcer. 
"When  such  an  ulcer  increases  rapidly  in  size  it  is  termed  a  phagedenic 
ulcer.  A  fungoid  ulcer  is  one  in  which  the  bottom  of  the  ulcer  pro- 
jects beyond  the  edge  of  the  skin.  These  ulcers  secrete  milky  or 
bloody-white  liquid  called  ichor.  ^Mien  the  ulcer  is  of  an  ashen  or 
leaden  color,  with  the  bottom  and  sides  formed  of  dense,  hard  con- 
nective tissue  which  gives  but  little  discharge  and  is  not  sensitive,  it 
is  termed  callous,  torpid,  or  indolent  ulcer. 

Causes. — As  in  the  case  of  gangrene,  disturbances  of  circulation  are 
among  the  most  frequent  causes.  A  wound  to  a  tissue  with  slight 
recuperative  power  may  be  followed  by  ulceration,  as  in  tumors. 
Certain  germs  may  produce  ulcers,  as  the  glanders  bacilli,  which  cause 
the  ulcerations  on  the  nasal  septum  in  glanders. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  removing  at  once  the  exciting  cause. 
The  secretions  of  the  ulcer  should  be  washed  off  with  antiseptic  solu- 
tions and  the  formation  of  granulation  tissues  stimulated  by  antisep- 
tic salves,  such  as  carbolated  vaseline,  lead  ointment,  or  by  dressings 
of  camphor.  Air  should  be  kept  from  the  ulcer  by  occlusive  dress- 
ings. Where  the  ulcers  are  inflamed,  warm  lead  water  or  lead  water 
and  laudanum  will  be  found  efficacious.  Callous  ulcers  are  best  re- 
moved by  a  curet,  knife,  or  hot  iron  and  then  treated  like  a  common 
wound.    Mechanical  irritation  should  be  avoided. 

ABSCESSES. 

These  consist  of  accumulations  of  pus  within  circumscribed  walls, 
at  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  may  be  classed  as  acute,  and  cold, 
or  chronic,  abscesses. 

When  an  abscess  occurs  about  a  hair  follicle  it  is  called  a  boil  or 
furuncle;   when  several  hair  follicles  are  involved,  resulting  in  the 


ABSCESSES.  475 

formation  of  more  than  one  exit  for  the  inflammatory  products,  it  is 
called  a  carbuncle. 

ACUTE   ABSCESSES. 

Acute  abscesses  follow  as  the  result  of  local  inflammation  in  glands, 
muscular  tissue,  or  even  bones.  They  are  very  common  in  the  two 
former.  The  abscesses  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  horse  (and 
the  ones  which  will  be  here  described)  are  those  of  the  salivary  glands, 
occurring  during  the  existence  of  "  strangles,"  or  "  colt  distemper." 
The  glands  behind  or  under  the  jaw  are  seen  to  slowly  increase  in 
size,  becoming  firm,  hard,  hot,  and  painful.  At  first  the  swelling  is 
uniformly  hard  and  resisting  over  its  entire  surface,  but  in  a  little 
while  becomes  soft — fluctuating — at  some  portion,  mostly  in  the 
center.  From  this  time  on  the  abscess  is  said  to  be  "  pointing,"  or 
"  coming  to  a  head,"  which  is  shown  by  a  small  elevated  or  projecting 
prominence,  which  at  first  is  dry,  but  soon  becomes  moist  with  trans- 
uded serum.  The  hairs  over  this  part  loosen  and  fall  off,  and  in  a 
short  time  the  abscess  opens,  the  contents  escape,  and  the  cavity  grad- 
ually fills  up — heals  by  granulations. 

Abscesses  in  muscular  tissue  are  usually  the  result  of  bruises  or 
injuries.  In  all  cases  where  abscesses  are  forming  we  should  hurry 
the  ripening  process  by  frequent  hot  fomentations  and  poultices. 
Wlien  they  are  very  tardy  in  their  development  a  blister  over  their 
surface  is  advisable.  '  It  is  a  common  rule  with  surgeons  to  open  an 
abscess  as  soon  as  pus  can  be  plainly  felt,  but  this  practice  can 
scarcely  be  recommended  to  owners  of  stock  indiscriminately,  since 
this  little  operation  frequently  requires  an  exact  knowledge  of  anat- 
omy. It  will  usually  be  found  the  better  plan  to  encourage  the  full 
ripening  of  an  abscess  and  allow  it  to  open  of  itself.  This  is  impera- 
tive if  the  abscess  is  in  the  region  of  joints,  etc.  When  open,  we 
must  not  squeeze  the  walls  of  the  abscess  to  any  extent.  They  may 
be  very  gently  pressed  with  the  fingers  at  first  to  remove  the  clots — 
inspissated  pus — but  after  this  the  orifice  is  simply  to  be  kept  open 
by  the  introduction  of  a  clean  probe,  should  it  be  disposed  to  heal  too 
soon.  If  the  opening  is  at  too  high  a  level  another  should  be  made 
into  the  lowest  portion  of  the  abscess  so  as  to  permit  the  most  com- 
plete drainage.  Hot  fomentations  or  poultices  are  sometimes  required 
for  a  day  or  two  after  an  abscess  has  opened,  and  are  particularly 
indicated  when  the  base  of  the  abscess  is  hard  and  indurated. 

The  cavity  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  stimulating  anti- 
septic solutions,  such  as  3  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  3  to  5  per 
cent  solution  of  creolin,  1  to  1,000  bichloride  of  mercury,  or  1  per 
cent  permanganate  of  potash  solution.  If  the  abscesses  are  foul 
and  bad  smelling,  their  cavities  should  first  be  syringed  with  1  part 
of  hydrogen  peroxide  to  2  parts  of  water  and  then  followed  by  the 
injection  of  any  of  the  above-mentioned  antiseptics. 


476  DISEASES   OF    THE    HORSE. 


COLD     ABSCESSES. 


Cold  abscess  is  the  term  applied  to  those  large,  indolent  swellings 
that  are  the  result  of  a  low,  or  chronic,  form  of  inflammation,  in  the 
center  of  which  there  is  a  small  collection  of  pus.  They  are  often 
seen  near  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  forming  the  so-called  breast  boil. 
The  swelling  is  diffuse  and  of  enormous  extent,  but  slightly  hotter 
than  surrounding  parts,  and  not  very  painful  upon  pressure.  There 
is  a  pronounced  stiffness,  rather  than  pain,  evinced  upon  moving  the 
animal.  Such  abscesses  have  the  appearance  of  a  hard  tumor,  sur- 
rounded by  a  softer  edematous  swelling,  involving  the  tissues  to  the 
extent  of  a  foot  or  more  in  all  directions  from  the  tumor.  This  dif- 
fused swelling  gradually  subsides  and  leaves  the  large,  hardened  mass 
somewhat  well  defined.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  cold  abscesses 
is  their  tendency  to  remain  in  the  same  condition  for  a  gi-eat  length 
of  time.  There  is  neither  heat  nor  soreness ;  no  increase  nor  lessening 
in  the  size  of  the  tumor ;  it  remains  statu  quo.  If,  however,  the  ani- 
mal should  be  put  to  work  for  a  short  time  the  irritation  of  the  collar 
causes  the  surrounding  tissues  to  again  assume  an  edematous  condi- 
tion, which  after  a  few  days'  rest  disappears,  leaving  the  tumor  as 
before  or  but  slightly  larger.  Upon  careful  manipulation  we  may 
discover  what  appears  to  be  a  fluid  deep  seated  in  the  center  of  the 
mass.  The  quantity  of  matter  so  contained  is  very  small — often  not 
more  than  a  tablespoonful — and  for  this  reason  it  can  not,  in  all 
cases,  be  detected. 

Cold  abscesses  are  mostly,  if  not  always,  caused  by  the  long-con- 
tinued irritation  of  a  loose  and  badly  fitting  collar.  There  is  a  slow 
inflammatory  action  going  on,  which  results  in  the  formation  of  a 
small  quantity  of  matter  inclosed  in  very  thick  and  but  partially 
organized  walls,  that  are  not  as  well  defined  as  is  the  circumference 
of  fibrous  tumors,  which  they  most  resemble. 

Treatment. — The  means  recommended  to  bring  the  acute  abscess 
"  to  a  head  "  are  but  rarely  effectual  with  this  variety ;  or,  if  successful, 
too  much  time  has  been  occupied  in  the  cure.  We  must  look  for  other 
and  more  rapid  methods  of  treatment.  These  consist,  first  of  all,  in 
carefully  exploring  the  tumor  for  the  presence  of  pus.  The  incisions 
must  be  made  over  the  softest  part  and  carried  deep  into  the  tumor 
(to  its  very  bottom  if  necessary),  and  the  matter  allowed  to  escape. 
After  this,  and  whether  we  have  found  matter  or  not,  we  must  induce 
an  active  inflammation  of  the  tumor  in  order  to  promote  solution  of 
the  thick  walls  of  the  abscess.  This  may  be  done  by  inserting  well 
into  the  incision  a  piece  of  oakum  or  cotton  saturated  with  turpentine, 
carbolic  acid,  tincture  of  iodine,  etc.,  or  we  may  pack  the  incision  with 
powdered  sulphate  of  zinc  and  keep  the  orifice  plugged  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  These  agents  set  up  a  destructive  inflammation  of  the 
walls.     Suppuration  follows,  and  this  should  now  be  encouraged  by 


ABSCESSES   AND   FISTULAS.  477 

hot  fomentations  and  poultices.  The  orifice  must  be  kept  open,  and 
should  it  be  disposed  to  heal  we  must  again  introduce  some  of  the 
agents  above  described.  A  favored  treatment  with  many,  and  it  is 
probably  the  best,  is  to  plunge  a  red-hot  iron  to  the  bottom  of  the 
incision  and  thoroughly  sear  all  parts  of  the  walls  of  the  abscess. 
This  .is  to  be  repeated  after  the  first  slough  has  taken  place,  if  the 
walls  remain  thickened  and  indurated. 

It  is  useless  to  waste  time  with  fomentations,  poultices,  or  blisters 
in  the  treatment  of  cold  abscesses,  since,  though  apparently  removed 
by  such  methods,  they  almost  invariably  return  when  the  horse  is  put 
to  work.  Extirpation  by  the  knife  is  not  practicable,  as  the  walls  of 
the  tumor  are  not  sufficiently  defined.  If  treated  as  aoove  directed, 
and  properly  fitted  with  a  good  collar  after  healing,  there  will  not 
remain  any  track  or  trace  of  the  large,  unsightly  mass. 

FISTULAS. 

Definition. — The  word  fistula  is  applied  to  any  ulcerous  lesion  upon 
the  external  surface  of  the  body  which  is  connected  by  ducts,  or 
passages,  with  some  internal  cavity.  Because  of  this  particular 
formation  the  term  fistulous  tract  is  often  used  synonymously  with 
the  word  fistula.  Fistulas  may  exist  in  any  part  of  the  body,  but  the 
name  has  come  to  be  commonly  accepted  as  applicable  only  to  such 
lesions  when  found  upon  the  withers.  Poll  evil  is  a  fistula  upon  the 
poll,  and  in  no  sense  differs  from  fistulous  withers  except  in  location. 
The  description  of  fistula  will  apply,  then,  in  the  main,  to  poll  evil 
equally  well.  Quittor  presents  the  characteristic  tubular  passages  of 
a  fistula  and  may  therefore  be  considered  and  treated  as  fistula  of  the 
foot.  Fistulous  passages  may  also  be  developed  upon  the  sides  of  the 
face,  through  which  saliva  is  discharged  instead  of  flowing  into  the 
mouth,  and  are  called  salivary  fistulas.  A  dental  fistula  may  arise 
from  the  necrosis  of  the  root  of  a  tooth.  Again,  a  fistula  is  sometimes 
noted  at  the  umbilicus  associated  with  hernia,  and  recto-vaginal 
fistulas  have  been  developed  in  mares,  following  difficult  parturition. 
Fistulas  may  arise  from  wounds  of  glandular  organs  or  their  ducts, 
and  thus  we  have  the  so-called  mammary,  or  lachrymal,  fistulas. 

Fistulous  tracts  are  lined  with  a  false,  or  adventitious,  membrane 
and  show  no  disposition  to  heal.  They  constantly  afford  means  of 
exit  to  the  jdus  or  ichorous  material  discharged  by  the  unhealthy 
parts  below.  They  are  particularly  liable  to  develop  at  the  withers 
or  poll  because  of  the  exposed  positions  which  these  parts  occupy, 
and,  having  once  become  located  there,  they  usually  assert  a  tend- 
ency to  further  extension,  because  the  vertical  and  laminated  forma- 
tion of  the  muscles  and  tendons  of  these  parts  allows  the  forces  of 
gravitation  to  assist  the  pus  in  gaining  the  deeper-lying  structures 
and  also  favors  its  retention  among  them. 


478  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

Causes. — Fistulas  follow  as  a  result  of  abscesses,  bruises,  wounds, 
or  long-continued  irritation  by  the  harness.  Among  the  more  com- 
mon causes  of  fistula  of  the  poll  (poll  evil)  are  chafing  by  the  halter 
or  heavy  bridle;  blows  from  the  butt  end  of  the  whip;  the  horse 
striking  his  head  against  the  hayrack,  beams  of  the  ceiling,  low  doors, 
etc.  Fistulous  withei*s  are  seen  mostly  in  those  horses  that  have 
thick  necks  as  well  as  those  that  are  very  high  in  the  withers;  or, 
among  saddle  horses,  those  that  are  very  low  on  the  withers,  the 
saddle  here  riding  forward  and  bruising  the  parts.  They  are  often 
caused  by  bad-fitting  collars  or  saddles,  by  direct  injuries  from  blows, 
and  from  the  horse  rolling  upon  rough  or  sharp  stones.  In  either 
of  these  locations  ulcers  of  the  skin,  or  simple  abscesses,  if  not  prop- 
erly and  punctually  treated,  may  become  fistulas.  The  pus  burrows 
and  finds  lodgment  deep  down  between  the  muscles,  and  escapes  only 
when  the  sinus .  becomes  surcharged  or  when,  during  motion  of  the 
parts,  the  matter  is  forced  to  the  surface. 

Symptoms. — These,  of  course,  will  vary  according  to  the  progress 
made  by  the  fistula.  Following  an  injury  we  may  often  notice  sore- 
ness or  stiffness  of  the  front  legs,  and  upon  careful  examination  of 
the  withers  we  will  see  small  tortuous  lines  running  from  the  point  of 
irritation  downward  and  backward  over  the  region  of  the  shoulder. 
These  are  superficial  lymphatics,  and  are  swollen  and  painful  to  the 
touch.  In  a  day  or  two  a  swelling  is  noticed  on  one  or  both  sides  of 
the  dorsal  vertebrae,  which  is  hot  and  painful  and  rapidly  enlarging. 
The  stiffness  of  the  limbs  may  disappear  at  this  time,  and  the  heat 
and  soreness  of  the  parts  may  become  less  noticeable,  but  the  swelling 
remains  and  continues  to  enlarge. 

A  fistulous  ulcer  of  the  poll  may  be  first  indicated  by  the  opposition 
which  the  animal  offers  to  the  application  of  stable  brush  or  bridle. 
At  this  time  the  parts  are  so  sore  and  sensitive  that  there  is  some 
danger  that  the  patient  will  acquire  disagreeable  stable  habits  unless 
handled  with  the  greatest  care.  The  disease  in  its  early  stages  may  be 
recognized  as  a  soft,  fluctuating  tumor  surrounded  by  inflammatory 
swelling,  with  the  presence  of  enlarged  lymphatic  vessels  and  stiffness 
of  the  neck.  Later  the  inflammation  of  the  surrounding  tissues  may 
disappear,  leaving  a  prominent  tumor.  The  swelling,  whether  situ- 
ated upon  the  head  or  the  withers,  may  open  and  form  a  running 
ulcer,  or  its  contents  may  dry  up  and  leave  a  tumor  which  gradually 
develops  the  common  characteristics  of  a  fibrous  tumor.  When  the 
enlargement  has  opened  we  should  carefully  examine  its  cavity,  as 
upon  its  condition  will  wholly  depend  our  treatment. 

Treatment. — In  the  earliest  stage,  when  there  is  soreness,  enlarged 
lymphatics,  but  no  well-marked  swelling,  the  trouble  may  frequently 
be  aborted.  To  do  this  requires  both  general  and  local  treatment. 
A  physic  should  be  given,  and  the  horse  receive  1  ounce  of  powdered 


PISTTJLAS.  479 

saltpeter  three  times  a  day  in  his  water  or  feed.  If  the  fever  runs 
high,  20-drop  doses  of  tincture  of  aconite  root  every  two  hours  may 
be  administered.  The  local  application  of  cold  water  to  the  inflamed 
spot  for  an  hour  at  a  time  three  or  four  times  a  day  has  often  proved 
very  beneficial,  and  has  afforded  great  relief  to  the  patient. 

Cooling  lotions,  muriate  of  ammonia,  or  saltpeter  and  water ;  seda- 
tive washes,  such  as  tincture  of  opium  and  aconite,  chloroform  lini- 
ment, or  camphorated  oil,  are  also  to  be  frequently  applied.  Should 
this  treatment  fail  to  check  the  progress  of  the  trouble,  the  formation 
of  pus  should  be  hastened  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Hot  fomentations 
and  poultices  are  to  be  constantly  used,  and  as  soon  as  the  presence  of 
pus  can  be  detected,  the  abscess  wall  is  to  be  opened  at  its  lowest  point. 
In  this  procedure  lies  our  hope  of  a  speedy  cure.  As  with  any  simple 
abscess,  if  drainage  can  be  so  provided  that  the  pus  will  run  off  as 
fast  as  formed  without  remaining  within  the  interstices  of  the  tissues, 
the  healing  which  follows  will  be  rapid  and  satisfactory. 

Attention  is  again  called  to  the  directions  given  above  as  to  the 
necessity  of  probing  the  cavity  when  opened.  If  upon  a  careful  ex- 
amination with  the  probe  we  find  that  there  are  no  pockets,  no  sin- 
uses, but  a  simple,  regular  abscess  wall,  the  indication  for  treatment 
is  to  make  an  opening  from  below  so  that  the  matter  must  all  escape. 
Rarely  is  anything  more  needed  than  to  keep  the  orifice  open  and  to 
bathe  or  inject  the  parts  with  some  simple  antiseptic  wash  that  is  not 
irritant  or  caustic.  A  low  opening  and  cleanliness  constitute  the 
essential  and  rational  treatment. 

If  the  abscess  has  already  opened,  giving  vent  to  a  quantity  of  pur- 
ulent matter,  and  the  pipes  and  tubes  leading  from  the  opening  are 
found  to  be  extensive  and  surrounded  with  thick  fungoid  membranes, 
there  is  considerable  danger  that  the  internal  ligaments  or  even  some 
of  the  bones  have  become  alffected,  in  which  case  the  condition  has 
assumed  a  serious  aspect.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  abscess  has 
existed  for  some  time  without  a  rupture,  its  contents  will  frequently 
be  found  to  consist  of  dried  purulent  matter,  firm  and  dense,  and  the 
walls  surrounding  the  mass  will  be  found  greatly  thickened.  In  such 
a  case  we  must  generally  have  recourse  to  the  application  of  caustics 
which  will  cause  a  sloughing  of  all  of  the  unhealthy  tissue,  and  will 
also  stimulate  a  rapid  increase  of  healthy  organized  material  to  re- 
place that  destroyed  in  the  course  of  the  development  and  treatment 
of  the  disease.  Threads  or  cords  soaked  in  gum-arabic  solution  and 
rolled  in  powdered  corrosive  sublimate  may  be  introduced  into  the 
canal  and  allowed  to  remain.  The  skin  on  all  parts  of  the  shoulder 
and  leg  beneath  the  fistula  should  be  carefully  greased  with  lard  or 
oil,  as  this  will  prevent  the  discharge  that  comes  from  the  opening 
after  the  caustic  is  introduced  from  irritating  or  blistering  the  skin 
over  which  it  flows.     In  obstinate  cases  a  piece  of  caustic  potash 


480  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

(fused)  1  to  2  inches  in  length  may  be  introduced  into  the  opening 
and  should  be  covered  with  oakum  or  cotton.  The  horse  should  then 
be  secured  so  that  he  can  not  reach  the  part  with  his  teeth.  After  the 
caustic  plug  has  been  in  place  for  twenty-four  hours,  it  may  be  re- 
moved and  hot  fomentations  applied.  As  soon  as  the  discharge  has 
become  again  established  the  abscess  should  be  opened  from  its  lowest 
extremity,  and  the  passage  thus  formed  may  be  kept  open  by  the  in- 
troduction of  a  seton.  If  the  pipes  become  established  in  the  deep 
tissues  beneath  the  shoulder  blade  or  among  the  spines  of  the  ver- 
tebral column,  it  will  often  be  found  impossible  to  provide  proper 
drainage  for  the  abscess  from  below,  and  treatment  must  consist  of 
caustic  solutions  carefully  injected  into  all  parts  of  the  suppurating 
sinuses.  A  very  effective  remedy  for  this  purpose  consists  of  1  ounce 
of  chloride  of  zinc  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  injected  three  times  during 
a  week,  after  which  a  weak  solution  of  the  same  may  be  occasionally 
injected.  Injections  of  Villate's  solution  or  alcoholic  solution  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  strong  carbolic  acid,  or  possibly  oil  of  turpentine 
will  also  prove  beneficial.  Pressure  should  be  applied  from  below, 
and  endeavors  made  to  heal  the  various  pipes  from  the  bottom. 

Should  the  swelling  become  general,  without  forming  a  well-defined 
tumor,  the  placing  of  20  to  30  grains  of  arsenious  acid,  wrapped  in  a 
single  layer  of  tissue  paper,  in  a  shallow  incision  beneath  the  skin  will 
often  produce  a  sloughing  of  the  affected  parts  in  a  week  or  ten  days, 
after  which  the  formation  of  healthy  tissue  follows.  The  surrounding 
parts  of  the  skin  should  be  protected  from  any  damage  from  escaping 
caustics  by  the  application  of  lard  or  oil,  as  previously  suggested. 

Although  the  successful  treatment  of  fistulas  requires  time  and 
patience,  the  majority  of  cases  are  curable.  The  sinuses  must  be 
opened  at  their  lowest  extremity  and  kept  open.  Caustic  applications 
must  be  thoroughly  used  once  or  twice,  after  which  mild  astringent 
antiseptic  washes  should  be  persistently  used  until  a  cure  is  reached. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  erosions  have  burrowed  so  deepl}'  or 
in  such  a  direction  that  the  opening  of  a  drainage  passage  becomes 
impracticable.  In  other  cases  the  bone?  may  become  attacked  in  some 
inaccessible  location,  or  the  joints  may  be  affected,  and  in  these  cases 
it  is  often  best  to  destroy  the  horse  at  once. 

The  reappearance  of  the  fistula  after  it  has  apparently  healed  is  not 
uncommon.  The  secondary  attack  in  these  cases  is  seldom  serious. 
The  lesion  should  be  carefully  cleansed  and  afterwards  injected  with 
a  solution  of  zinc  sulphate,  20  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  every  sec- 
ond or  third  day  until  a  cure  is  effected. 

In  fistula  ot  the  foot  we  Hee  the  same  tendency  toward  the  burrow- 
ing of  pus  downward  to  lower  structures,  or  in  some  cases  upward 
toward  the  coronet.  Prior  to  the  develojiment  of  a  quittor  there  is 
always  swelling  at   the   coronet,   accompanied   by   heat   and   pain. 


FISTULAS.  481 

Every  effort  should  now  be  made  to  prevent  the  formation  of  an 
abscess  at  the  point  of  injury.  Wounds  caused  by  nails,  gravel,  or 
any  other  foreign  body  which  may  have  become  lodged  in  the  sole  of 
the  foot  should  be  opened  at  once  from  below  so  as  to  allow  free  oxit 
to  all  purulent  discharges.  Should  the  injury  have  occurred  directly 
to  the  coronet  the  application  of  cold  fomentations  may  prove  efficient 
in  preventing  the  formation  of  an  abscess. 

When  a  quittor  becomes  fully  established  it  should  be  treated  pre- 
cisely as  a  fistula  situated  in  any  other  part  of  the  body ;  that  is,  the 
sinuses  should  all  be  opened  from  their  lowest  extremities  so  as  to 
afford  constant  drainage.  All  fragments  of  diseased  tissue  should  be 
trimmed  away,  antiseptic  solutions  injected,  and,  after  covering  the 
wound  with  a  pad  of  oakum  saturated  with  some  good  antiseptic 
wash,  the  whole  foot  may  be  carefully  covered  with  clean  bandages, 
which  will  afford  valuable  assistance  to  the  healing  process  by  exclud- 
ing all  dirt  from  the  affected  part. 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 31 


GENERAL  DISEASES. 

By  Rush  Shippen  Huidekopeb,  M.  D.,  Vet. 

IRevlsed  In  1903  by  Leonard  Pearson,  B.  S.,  V,  M.  D.] 

ANIMAL   TISSUES. 

The  nonprofessional  reader  may  regard  the  animal  tissues,  which 
are  subject  to  inflainmation,  as  excessively  simple  structures,  as  simi- 
lar, simple,  and  fixed  in  their  organization  as  the  joists  and  boards 
which  frame  a  house,  the  bricks  and  iron  coils  of  pipe  which  build  a 
furnace,  or  the  stones  and  mortar  which  make  the  support  of  a  great 
railroad  bridge.  Yet  while  the  principles  of  structure  are  thus  sim- 
ple, for  the  general  understanding  by  the  student  who  begins  their 
study  the  complete  appreciation  of  the  shades  of  variation,  which 
diflferentiate  one  tissue  from  another,  which  define  a  sound  tendon  or 
a  ligament  from  a  fibrous  band — the  result  of  disease  filling  in  an  old 
lesion  and  tying  one  organ  with  another — is  as  complicated  as  the 
nicest  jointing  of  Chinese  woodwork,  the  building  of  a  furnace  for 
the  most  difficult  chemical  analysis,  or  the  construction  of  a  bridge 
which  will  stand  for  ages  and  resist  any  force  or  weight. 

All  tissues  are  composed  of  certain  fundamental  and  similar  ele- 
ments which  are  governed  by  the  same  rules  of  life,  though  they  may 
appear  at  first  glance  to  be  widely  different.  These  are  (a)  amor- 
phous substances,  (h)  fibers,  and  (c)  cells. 

(a)  Amorphous  substances  may  be  in  liquid  form,  as  in  the  fluid 
of  the  blood,  which  holds  a  vast  amount  of  salts  and  nutritive  matter 
in  solution ;  or  they  may  be  in  a  semiliquid  condition,  as  the  plasma 
which  infiltrates  the  loose  meshes  of  connective  tissue  and  lubricates 
the  surface  of  some  membranes;  or  they  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  glue 
or  cement,  fastening  one  structure  to  another,  as  a  tendon  or  muscle 
end  to  a  bone;  or,  again,  they  hold  similar  elements  firmly  together, 
as  in  bone,  where  they  form  a  stiff  matrix  which  becomes  impreg- 
nated with  lime  salts.  Amorphous  substances,  again,  form  the  pro- 
toplasm or  nutritive  element  of  cells  or  the  elements  of  life. 

{b)  Fibers  are  formed  of  elements  of  organic  matter  which  have 
only  a  passive  function.  They  can  be  assimilated  to  little  strings,  or 
cords,  tangled  one  with  another  like  a  mass  of  waste  yarn,  woven 
regularly  like  a  cloth,  or  bound  together  like  a  rope.  They  are  of  two 
kinds — white  connective  tissue  fibers,  only  slightly  extensible,  pliable, 
and  very  strong,  and  yellow  elastic  fibers,  elastic,  curly,  ramified,  and 
very  dense.  These  fibers  once  created  require  the  constant  presence 
of  fluids  around  them  in  order  to  retain  their  functional  condition,  as 

482 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   TISSUES.  483 

a  piece  of  harness  leather  demands  continual  oiling  to  keep  its 
strength,  but  they  undergo  no  change  or  alteration  in  their  form 
until  destroyed  by  death. 

(c)  Cells,  which  may  even  be  regarded  as  low  forms  of  life,  are 
masses  of  protoplasm  or  amorphous  living  matter,  with  a  nucleus  and 
frequently  a  nucleolus,  which  are  capable  of  assimilating  nutriment  or 
food,  propagating  themselves  either  into  others  of  the  same  form  or 
into  fixed  cells  of  another  outward  appearance  and  different  function 
but  of  the  same  constitution.  It  is  simply  in  the  mode  of  grouping 
of  these  elements  that  we  have  the  variation  in  tissues,  as  (1)  loose 
connective  tissue,  (2)  aponeurosis  and  tendons,  (3)  muscles,  (4) 
cartilage,  (5)  bones,  (6)  epithelia  and  endothelia,  (7)  nerves. 

(1)  Loose  connective  tissue  forms  the  great  framework,  or  scaf- 
folding, of  the  body,  and  is  found  under  the  skin,  between  the  muscles 
surrounding  the  bones  and  blood  vessels,  and  entering  into  the 
structures  of  almost  all  of  the  organs.  In  this  the  fibers  are  loosely 
meshed  together  like  a  sponge,  leaving  spaces  in  which  the  nutrient 
fluid  and  cells  are  irregularly  distributed.  This  tissue  we  find  in  the 
skin,  in  the  spaces  between  the  organs  of  the  body  where  fat  accumu- 
lates, and  as  the  framework  of  all  glands. 

(2)  Aponeurosis  and  tendons  are  structures  which  serve  for  the 
termination  of  muscles  and  for  their  contention,  and  for  the  attach- 
ment of  bones  together.  In  these  the  fibers  are  more  frequent  and 
dense,  and  are  arranged  with  regularity,  either  crossing  each  other  or 
lying  parallel,  and  here  the  cells  are  found  in  minimum  quantity. 

(3)  In  the  muscles  the  cells  lie  end  to  end,  forming  long  fibers 
which  have  the  power  of  contraction,  and  the  connective  tissue  is  in 
small  quantity,  serving  the  passive  purpose  of  a  band  around  the  con- 
tractile elements. 

(4)  In  cartilage  a  mass  of  firm  amorphous  substance,  with  no  vas- 
cularity and  little  vitality,  forms  the  bed  for  the  chondroplasts,  or 
cells  of  this  tissue. 

(5)  Bone  differs  from  the  above  in  having  the  amorphous  matter 
impregnated  with  lime  salts,  which  gives  it  its  rigidity  and  firmness. 

(6)  Epithelia  and  endothelia,  or  the  membranes  which  cover  the 
body  and  line  all  of  its  cavities  and  glands,  are  made  up  of  single  or 
stratified  and  multiple  layers  of  cells  bound  together  by  a  glue  of 
amorphous  substance  and  resting  on  a  layer  composed  of  fibers. 
^ATien  the  membrane  serves  for  secreting  or  excreting  purposes,  as 
in  the  salivary  glands  or  the  kidneys,  it  is  usually  simple;  when  it 
serves  the  mechanical  purpose  of  protecting  a  part,  as  over  the  tongue 
or  skin,  it  is  invariably  multiple  and  stratified,  the  surface  wearing 
away  while  new  cells  replace  it  from  beneath. 

(7)  In  nerves,  stellate  cells  are  connected  by  their  rays  to  each 
other,  or  to  fibers  which  conduct  the  nerve  impressions,  or  they  act  as 


484  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

receptacles,  storehouses,  and  transmitters  for  them,  as  the  switch- 
board of  a  telephone  system  serves  to  connect  the  various  wires. 

All  of  these  tissues  are  supplied  with  blood  in  greater  or  less  quan- 
tity. The  vascularity  depends  upon  the  function  which  the  tissue  is 
called  upon  to  perform.  If  this  is  great,  as  in  the  tongue,  the  lungs, 
or  the  sensitive  part  of  the  hoof,  a  large  amount  of  blood  is  required ; 
if  the  labor  is  a  passive  one,  as  in  cartilage,  the  membrane  over  the 
withers,  or  the  tendons  of  the  legs,  the  vessels  only  reach  the  periph- 
ery, and  nutrition  is  furnished  by  imbibition  of  the  fluids  brought  to 
their  surface  by  the  blood  vessels. 

Blood  is  brought  to  the  tissues  by  arterioles,  or  the  small  termina- 
tions of  the  arteries,  and  is  carried  off  from  them  by  the  veinlets,  or 
the  commencement  of  the  veins.  Between  these  two  systems  are 
small  delicate  networks  of  vessels  called  capillaries,  which  subdivide 
into  a  veritable  lacework  so  as  to  reach  the  neighborhood  of  every 
element. 

In  health  the  blood  passes  through  these  capillaries  with  a  regular 
current,  the  red  cells  or  corpuscles  floating  rapidly  in  the  fluid  in  the 
center  of  the  channel,  while  the  white  or  ameboid  cells  are  attracted 
to  the  walls  of  the  vessels  and  move  very  slowly.  The  supply  of 
blood  is  regulated  by  the  condition  of  repose  or  activity  of  the  tissue, 
and  under  normal  conditions  the  outflow  compensates  exactly  the  sup- 
ply. The  caliber  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  consequently  the  amount 
of  blood  which  they  carry,  is  governed  by  nerves  of  the  sympathetic 
system  in  a  healthy  body  with  unerring  regularity,  but  in  a  diseased 
organ  the  flow  may  cease  or  be  greatly  augmented.  In  health  a  tissue 
or  organ  receives  its  proper  quantity  of  blood ;  the  nutritive  elements 
are  extracted  for  the  support  of  the  tissue  and  for  the  product,  which 
the  function  of  the  organ  forms.  The  force  required  in  the  achieve- 
ment of  this  is  furnished  by  combustion  of  the  hydrocarbons  and 
oxygen  brought  by  the  arterial  blood,  then  by  the  veins  this  same 
fluid  passes  off,  less  its  oxygen,  loaded  with  the  waste  products,  which 
are  the  result  of  the  worn-out  and  disintegrated  tissues,  and  of  those 
which  have  undergone  combustion.  The  above  brief  outline  indi- 
cates the  process  of  nutrition  of  the  tissues. 

Hypemutrition,  or  excessive  nutrition  of  a  tissue,  may  l^e  normal  or 
morbid.     If  the  latter,  the  tissue  becomes  congested  or  inflamed. 

CONGESTION. 

Congestion  is  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  blood  in  a  part.  Ex- 
cessive accumulation  of  blood  may  be  normal,  as  in  blushing  or  in  the 
red  face  which  temporarily  follows  a  violent  muscular  effort,  or,  as  in 
the  stomach  or  liver  during  digestion,  or  in  the  lungs  after  severe 
work,  from  which,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  shortly  relieved  by  a  little 
rapid  breathing.  The  term  congestion,  however,  usually  indicates  a 
morbid  condition,  with  more  or  less  lasting  effects.     Congestion  is 


CONGESTION,  485 

active  or  pctssive.  The  former  is  produced  by  an  increased  sup- 
ply of  blood  to  the  part,  the  latter  by  an  obstacle  preventing  the 
escape  of  blood  from  the  tissue.  In  either  case  there  is  an  increased 
supply  of  blood,  and  as  a  result  increased  combustion  and  augmented 
nutrition. 

ACTIVE  CONGESTION. 

Active  congestion  is  caused  by — 

(1)  Functional  activity. — Any  organ  which  is  constantly  or  exces- 
sively used  is  habituated  to  hold  an  unusual  quantity  of  blood ;  the 
vessels  become  dilated;  if  overstrained  the  walls  become  weakened, 
lose  their  elasticity,  and  any  sudden  additional  amount  of  blood  en- 
gorges the  tissues  so  that  they  can  not  contract,  and  congestion  results. 
Example :  The  lungs  of  a  race  horse,  after  an  unusual  burst  of  speed 
or  severe  work,  in  damp  weather. 

(2)  Irritants. — Heat  and  cold,  chemical  or  mechanical.  Any  of 
these,  by  threatening  the  vitality  of  a  tissue,  induce  immediately  an 
augmented  flow  of  blood  to  the  part  to  furnish  the  means  of  repair — a 
liot  iron,  frostbites,  acids,  or  a  blow. 

(3)  Nerve  infliience. — This  may  produce  congestion  either  by  act- 
ing on  the  part  reflexly  or  as  the  result  of  some  central  nerve  dis- 
turbance affecting  the  branch  which  supplies  a  given  organ. 

(4)  Plethora  and  sanguinary  temperament. — Full-blooded  animals 
are  much  more  predisposed  to  congestive  diseases  than  those  of  a 
lymphatic  character  or  those  in  an  anemic  condition.  The  circula- 
tion in  them  is  forced  to  all  parts  with  much  greater  force  and  in 
larger  quantities.  A  well-bred  full-blooded  horse  is  much  more  sub- 
ject to  congestive  diseases  than  a  common,  coarse,  or  old  worn-out 
animal. 

(5)  Fevers. — In  fever  the  heart  works  more  actively  and  forces  the 
current  of  blood  more  rapidly;  the  tissues  are  weakened,  and  it 
requires  but  a  slight  local  cause  at  any  part  to  congest  the  structures 
already  overloaded  with  blood.  Again,  in  certain  fevers,  we  find 
alteration  of  the  blood  itself,  rendering  it  less  or  more  fluid,  which 
interferes  with  its  free  passage  through  the  vessels  and  induces  a 
local  predisposition  to  congestion. 

(6)  Warm  climate  and  summer  heat. — Warmth  of  the  atmosphere 
relaxes  the  tissues;  it  demands  of  the  animals  less  blood  to  keep  up 
their  own  body  temperature,  and  the  extra  quantity  accumulates  in 
the  blood-vessel  system.  It  causes  sluggishness  in  the  performance 
of  the  organic  functions,  and  in  this  way  it  induces  congestion, 
especially  of  the  internal  organs.  So  we  find  founders,  congestive 
colics  and  staggers  more  frequent  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

(7)  Previous  congestion. — Whether  the  previous  congestion  of  any 
organ  has  been  a  continuous  normal  one — that  is,  a  repeated  func- 
tional activity — or  has  been  a  morbid  temporary  overloading,  it  al- 


486  DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 

ways  leaves  the  walls  of  the  vessels  weakened  and  more  predisposed 
to  recurrent  attacks  from  accidental  causes  than  are  perfectly  healthy 
tissues.  Thus  a  horse  which  has  had  a  congestion  of  the  lungs  from 
a  severe  drive  is  apt  to  have  another  attack  from  even  a  lesser  cause. 

The  alterations  of  congestion  are  distention  of  the  blood  vessels, 
accumulation  of  the  cellular  elements  of  the  blood  in  them,  and  effu- 
sion of  a  portion  of  the  liquid  of  the  blood  into  the  fibrous  tissues 
which  surround  the  vessels.  WTiere  the  changes  produced  by  conges- 
tion are  visible,  as  in  the  eye,  the  nostril,  the  mouth,  the  genital 
organs,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  body  in  white  or  unpigmented  ani- 
mals, the  part  appears  red  from  the  increase  of  blood;  it  becomes 
swollen  from  the  effusion  of  liquid  into  the  spongelike  connective 
tissues ;  it  is  at  times  more  or  less  hot  from  the  increased  combustion ; 
the  part  is  frequently  painful  to  the  animal  from  pressure  of  the  effu- 
sion on  the  nerves,  and  the  function  of  the  tissue  is  interfered  with. 
The  secretion  or  excretion  of  glands  may  be  augmented  or  diminished. 
Muscles  may  be  affected  with  spasms  or  may  be  unable  to  contract. 
The  eyes  and  ears  may  be  affected  with  imaginary  sights  and  sounds. 

PASSIVE   CONGESTION. 

Passive  congestion  is  caused  by  interference  with  the  return  of  the 
current  of  blood  from  a  part. 

Old  age  and  debility  weaken  the  tissues  and  the  force  of  the  circu- 
lation, especially  in  the  veins,  and  retard  the  movement  of  the  blood. 
We  then  see  horses  of  this  class  with  stocked  legs,  swelling  of  the 
sheath  of  the  penis  or  of  the  milk  glands,  and  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  belly.  We  find  them  also  with  effusions  of  the  liquid  parts  of  the 
blood  into  the  lymph  spaces  of  the  posterior  extremities  and  organs 
of  the  pelvic  cavity. 

Tumors  or  other  mechanical  obstructions,  by  pressing  on  the  veins, 
retard  the  flow  of  blood  and  cause  it  to  back  up  in  distal  parts  of  the 
body,  causing  passive  congestion. 

The  alterations  of  passive  congestion,  as  in  active  congestion,  con- 
sist of  an  increased  quantity  of  blood  in  the  vessels  and  an  exudation 
of  its  fluid  into  the  tissues  surrounding  them,  but  in  passive  conges- 
tion we  have  a  dark  thick  blood  which  has  lost  its  oxygen,  instead  of 
the  rich  combustible  blood  rich  in  oxygen  which  is  found  in  active 
congestion. 

The  termination  of  congestion  is  by  resolution  or  inflammation.  In 
the  first  case,  the  choked-up  blood  vessels  find  an  outlet  for  the  exces- 
sive amount  of  blood  and  are  relieved ;  the  transuded  serum  or  fluid 
of  the  blood  is  reabsorbed,  and  the  part  returns  almost  to  its  normal 
condition,  with,  however,  a  tendency  to  weakness  predisposing  to  fu- 
ture trouble  of  the  same  kind.  In  the  other  case  further  alterations 
take  place,  and  we  have  inflammation. 


GENERAL    DISEASES.  487 

INFLAMMATION. 

[Synonyms:  Inflammatio,  Latin,  from  inflammare,  to  flame,  to  burn;  phleg- 
masia (pXeyuaSta,  Greek ;  inflammation,  French ;  inflammazione,  Italian ;  lU' 
flamacion,  Spanish  ;  Entzilndung,  German.] 

Inflammation  is  a  hypernutrition  of  a  tissue.  It  is  described  by 
Doctor  Agnew,  the  surgeon,  as  "  a  double-edged  sword,  cutting  either 
way  for  good  or  for  evil."  The  increased  nutrition  may  be  moderate 
and  cause  a  growth  of  new  tissue,  a  simple  increase  of  quantity  at 
first ;  or  it  may  produce  a  new  growth  differing  in  quality ;  or  it  may 
be  so  great  that,  like  luxuriant,  overgrown  weeds,  the  elements  die 
from  their  very  haste  of  growth,  and  we  have  immediate  destruction 
of  the  part.  According  to  the  rapidity  and  intensity  of  the  process 
of  structural  changes  which  takes  place  in  an  inflamed  tissue,  inflam- 
mation is  described  as  acute  or  chronic,  with  a  vast  number  of  inter- 
mediate forms.  When  the  phenomena  are  marked  it  is  termed 
sthenic;  when  less  distinct,  as  the  result  of  a  broken-down  and  feeble 
constitution  in  the  animal,  it  is  called  asthenic.  Certain  inflamma- 
tions are  specific,  as  in  strangles,  the  horsepox,  glanders,  etc.,  where  a 
characteristic  or  specific  cause  or  condition  is  added  to  the  origin, 
character  of  phenomena,  or  alterations  which  result  from  an  ordinary 
inflammation.  An  inflammation  may  be  circumscribed  or  limited, 
as  in  the  abscess  on  the  neck  caused  by  the  pressure  of  a  collar^  in 
pneumonia,  in  glanders,  in  the  small  tumors  of  a  splint  or  a  jack;  or 
it  may  be  diffuse,  as  in  severe  fistulas  of  the  withers,  in  an  extensive 
lung  fever,  in  the  legs  in  a  case  of  grease,  or  in  the  spavins  which 
affect  horses  with  poorly  nourished  bones.  The  causes  of  inflamma- 
tion are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  congestion,  which  is  the 
initial  step  of  all  inflammation. 

The  temperament  of  a  horse  predisposes  the  animal  to  inflamma- 
tion of  certain  organs.  A  full-blooded  animal,  whose  veins  show  on 
the  surface  of  the  body,  and  which  has  a  strong,  bounding  heart 
pumping  large  quantities  of  blood  into  the  vascular  organs  like  the 
lungs,  the  intestines,  and  the  lamina?  of  the  feet,  is  more  apt  to  have 
pneumonia,  congestive  colics,  and  founder,  than  lymphatic,  cold- 
blooded animals  which  have  pleurisies,  inflammation  of  the  bones, 
spavins,  ringbones,  inflammation  of  the  glands  of  the  less  vascular 
skin  of  the  extremities,  greasy  heels,  thrush,  etc. 

Young  horses  have  inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  the  air 
passages  and  digestive  tract,  while  older  animals  are  more  subject  to 
troubles  in  the  closed  serous  sacs  and  in  the  bones. 

The  work  to  which  a  horse  is  put  (saddle  or  harness,  speed  or 
draft)  will  influence  the  predisposition  of  an  animal  to  inflammatory 
diseases.  As  in  congestion,  the  functional  activity  of  a  part  is  an 
important  factor  in  localizing  this  form  of  disease.  Given  a  group 
of  horses  exposed  to  the  same  draft  of  cold  "air  or  other  exciting 


488  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

cause  of  inflammation,  the  one  which  has  just  been  eating  will  be  at- 
tacked with  an  inflammation  of  the  bowels;  the  one  that  has  just 
been  working  so  as  to  increase  its  respiration  will  have  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  throat,  bronchi,  or  lungs;  the  one  that  has  just  been  using 
its  feet  excessively  will  have  a  founder  or  inflammation  of  the  laminae 
of  the  feet. 

The  direct  cause  of  inflammation  is  usually  an  irritant  of  some 
form.  This  may  be  a  pathogenic  organism — a  disease  germ — or  it 
may  be  mechanical  or  chemical',  external  or  internal.  Cuts,  bruises, 
injuries  of  any  kind,  parasites,  acids,  blisters,  heat,  cold,  secretions, 
such  as  an  excess  of  tears  over  the  cheek  or  urine  on  the  legs,  all 
cause  inflammation  by  direct  injury  to  the  part.  Strains  or  wrenches 
of  joints,  ligaments,  and  tendons  cause  trouble  by  laceration  of  the 
tissue. 

Inflanmiations  of  the  internal  organs  are  caused  by  irritants  as 
above,  and  by  sudden  cooling  of  the  surface  of  the  animal,  which 
drives  the  blood  to  that  organ  which  at  the  moment  is  most  actively 
supplied  with  blood.  This  is  called  repercussion.  A  horse  which 
has  been  worked  at  speed  and  is  breathing  rapidly  is  liable  to  have 
pneumonia  if  suddenly  chilled,  while  an  animal  which  has  just  been 
fed  is  more  apt  to  have  a  congestive  colic  if  exposed  to  the  same  in- 
fluence, the  blood  in  this  case  being  driven  from  the  exterior  to  the 
intestines,  while  in  the  former  it  was  driven  to  the  lungs. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  inflammation  are,  as  in  congestion, 
change  of  color,  due  to  an  increased  supply  of  blood ;  swelling,  from 
the  same  cause,  with  the  addition  of  an  effusion  into  the  surrounding 
tissues;  heat,  owing  to  the  increased  combustion  in  the  part;  pain, 
due  to  pressure  on  the  nerves,  and  altered  function.  This  latter  may 
be  augmented  or  diminished,  or  first  one  and  then  the  other.  In 
addition  to  the  local  symptoms,  inflammation  always  produces  more 
or  less  constitutional  disturbance  or  fever.  A  splint  or  small  spavin 
will  cause  so  little  fever  that  it  is  not  appreciable,  while  a  severe 
spavin,  an  inflamed  joint,  or  a  pneumonia  may  give  rise  to  a  marked 
fever. 

The  alterations  in  an  inflamed  tissue  are  first  those  of  congestion, 
distention  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  exudation  of  the  fluid  of  the  blood 
into  the  surrounding  fibers,  with,  however,  a  more  complete  stagna- 
tion of  the  blood;  fibrin,  or  lymph,  a  plastic  substance,  is  thrown  out 
as  well,  and  the  cells,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  living  organisms  in 
themselves,  no  longer  carried  in  the  current  of  the  blood,  migrate 
from  the  vessels  and,  finding  proper  nutriment,  proliferate  or  mul- 
tiply with  greater  or  lesser  rapidity.  The  cells  which  lie  dormant 
in  the  meshes  of  the  surrounding  fibers  are  awakened  into  activity  by 
the  nutritious  lymph  which  surrounds  them,  and  they  also  multiply. 

Whether  the  cell  itt  an  inflamed  part  be  the  white  ameboid  cell  of 


PJL^VT  E  XXKV'n. 


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J   f 


-rii/liinii'd  mesentery  or  t/ic  /'roq,  /■(><>  d/a/netfrs.  rediicr<l  '.■■  a ,  l>.Vi n'ifi- 
fillfd  with  red  and  whitf  rorptisrles-  f/n  ret/  i/i  fhr  rr/t/rr  und  f/i<  n-/ii/i 
rrou-di/ii/  alo/u/  the  walf~-\- r.  r  CafdZ/ary  distrndrd  u/th  nd  nnil  whiti'  riv 
/>usii,'s.  tiitndwr  of~thr  w/ii.'c  nmrti  decreasi'd ,-  d.  (/,  i^o/ifirrf/ic  tissi/r  lii'twn-: 
icnii/f  (I  fid  /tt/dlliiry  fi/irtl  with  ntiijmtrd  itiicofytfs,  r  ,>• ,  Coiinrrti  \<  fr.-s'ff 
with  //.v.v  irUillr<ition ,-  f! Dtirh -t>o/-(iirrd  rif-rrf  tihrt' ,  </,  .Vti/nhrr  ot'n rirfei 
in    s/mnt/ts  i/iriTOSfd . 


I N  V I ,  A  M  M  AT  I  O  X . 


INFLAMMATION.  489 

the  blood  or  the  fixed  connective  tissue  cell  embedded  in  the  fibers,  it 
multiplies  in  the  same  way.  The  nucleus  in  the  center  is  divided  into 
two,  and  then  each  again  into  two,  ad  infinitum.  If  the  process  is 
slow,  each  new  cell  may  assimilate  nourishment  and  become,  like  its 
ancestor,  an  aid  in  the  formation  of  new  tissues;  if,  however,  the 
changing  takes  place  rapidly,  the  brood  of  young  cells  have  not  time 
to  grow  or  use  up  the  surrounding  nourishment,  and,  but  half  devel- 
oped, they  die,  and  we  then  have  destruction  of  tissue,  and  pus  or 
matter  is  formed,  a  material  made  up  of  the  imperfect  dead  elements 
and  the  broken-down  tissue.  Between  the  two  there  is  an  interme- 
diate form,  where  we  have  imperfectly  formed  tissues,  as  in  "  proud 
flesh,"  large,  soft  splints ;  fungous  growths,  greasy  heels,  and  thrush. 

Whether  the  inflamed  tissue  is  one  like  the  skin,  lungs,  or  intes- 
tines, very  loose  in  their  texture,  or  a  tendon  or  bone,  dense  in  struc- 
ture, and  comparatively  poor  in  blood  vessels,  the  principle  of  the 
process  is  the  same.  The  effects,  however,  and  the  appearance  may 
be  widely  different.  After  a  cut  on  the  face  or  an  exudation  into  the 
lungs,  the  loose  tissues  and  multiple  vessels  allow  the  proliferating 
cells  to  obtain  rich  nourishment;  absorption  can  take  place  readily, 
and  the  part  regains  its  normal  condition  entirely,  while  a  bruise  at 
the  heel  or  at  the  withers  finds  a  dense,  inextensible  tissue  where  the 
multiplying  elements  and  exuded  fluids  choke  up  all  communication, 
and  the  parts  die  (necrose)  from  want  of  blood  and  cause  a  serious 
quittor,  or  fistula. 

This  effect  of  structure  of  a  part  on  the  same  process  shows  the 
importance  of  a  perfect  knowledge  in  the  study  of  a  local  trouble,  and 
the  indispensable  part  which  such  knowledge  plays  in  judging  of  the 
gravity  of  an  inflammatory  disease,  and  in  formulating  a  prognosis  or 
opinion  of  the  final  termination  of  it.  It  is  this  which  allows  the  vet- 
erinarian, through  his  knowledge  of  the  intimate  structure  of  a  part 
and  the  relations  of  its  elements,  to  judge  of  the  severity  of  a  disease, 
and  to  prescribe  different  modes  of  treatment  in  two  animals  for  trou- 
bles which  appear  to  the  less  experienced  observer  to  be  absolutely 
identical. 

Termination  of  inf summation. — Like  congestion,  inflammation  may 
terminate  by  resolution.  In  this  case  the  exuded  lymph  undergoes 
chemical  change,  and  the  products  are  absorbed  and  carried  off  by  the 
blood  vessels  and  lymphatics,  to  be  thrown  out  of  the  body  by  the 
kidneys,  liver,  the  glands  of  the  skin,  and  the  other  excretory  organs. 
The  cells,  which  have  wandered  into  the  neighboring  tissues  from  the 
blood  vessels,  gradually  disappear  or  become  transformed  into  fixed 
cells.  Those  which  are  the  result  of  the  tissue  cells,  wakened  into 
active  life,  follow  the  same  course.  The  vessels  themselves  contract, 
and,  having  resumed  their  normal  caliber,  the  part  apparently  reas- 
sumes  its  normal  condition ;  but  it  is  always  Aveakened,  and  a  new 


490  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

inflammation  is  more  liable  to  reappear  in  a  previously  inflamed  part 
than  in  a  sound  one.  The  alternate  termination  is  necrosis,  or  morti- 
fication. If  the  necrosis,  or  death  of  a  part,  is  gradual,  by  small 
stages,  each  cell  losing  its  vitality  after  the  other  in  more  or  less 
rapid  succession,  it  takes  the  name  of  ulceration.  If  it  occurs  in  a 
considerable  part  at  once,  it  is  called  gangrene.  If  this  death  of  the 
tissues  occurs  deep  in  the  organism,  and  the  destroyed  elements  and 
proliferated  and  dead  cells  are  inclosed  in  a  cavity,  the  result  of  the 
process  is  called  an  abscess.  When  it  occurs  on  a  surface,  it  is  an 
ulcer,  and  an  abscess  by  breaking  on  the  exterior  becomes  then  also 
an  ulcer.  Proliferating  and  dying  cells,  and  the  fluid  which  exudes 
from  an  ulcerating  surface  and  the  debris  of  broken-down  tissue  is 
known  as  pus,  and  the  process  by  which  this  is  formed  is  known  as 
suppuration.  A  mass  of  dead  tissue  in  a  soft  part  is  termed  a  slough, 
while  the  same  in  bone  is  called  a  sequestrum.  Such  changes  are 
especially  likely  to  occur  when  the  part  becomes  infected  with  micro- 
organisms that  have  the  property  of  destroying  tissue  and  thus  caus- 
ing the  production  of  pus.  These  are  known  as  pyogenic  micro- 
organisms. There  are  also  bacilli  that  are  capable  of  multiplying  in 
tissues  and  so  irritating  them  as  to  cause  them  to  die  (necrose)  with- 
out forming  pus. 

TBEATMENT    OP    INFLAMMATION. 

The  study  of  the  causes  and  pathological  alterations  of  inflamma- 
tion has  shown  the  process  to  be  one  of  hypernutrition,  attended  by 
excessive  blood  supply,  so  this  study  will  indicate  the  primary  factor 
to  be  employed  in  the  treatment  of  it.  Any  agent  which  will  reduce 
the  blood  supply  and  prevent  the  excessive  nutrition  of  the  elements 
of  the  part  will  serve  as  a  remedy.  The  means  employed  may  be  used 
locally  to  the  part,  or  they  may  be  constitutional  remedies,  which  act 
indirectly. 

Local  treatment  consists  of — 

Removal  of  the  cause^  as  a  stone  in  the  frog,  causing  a  traumatic 
thrush ;  a  badly  fitting  harness  or  saddle,  causing  ulcers  of  the  skin ; 
decomposing  manure  and  urine  in  a  stable,  which,  by  their  vapors, 
irritate  the  air  tubes  and  lungs  and  cause  a  cough.  These  causes,  if 
removed,  will  frequently  allow  the  part  to  heal  at  once. 

Rest. — ^Motion  stimulates  the  action  of  the  blood,  and  thus  feeds  an 
inflamed  tissue.  This  is  alike  applicable  to  a  diseased  point  irritated 
by  movement,  to  an  inflamed  pair  of  lungs  surcharged  with  blood  by 
the  use  demanded  of  them  in  a  working  animal,  or  to  an  inflamed  eye 
exposed  to  light,  or  an  inflamed  stomach  and  intestines  still  further 
fatigued  by  food.  Absolute  quiet,  a  dark  stable,  and  small  quantities 
of  easily  digested  food  will  often  cure  serious  inflammatory  troubles 
without  further  treatment. 


INFLAMMATION.  491 

Gold. — The  application  of  ice  bags  or  cold  water  by  bandages, 
douching  with  a  hose,  or  irrigation  with  dripping  water,  contracts 
the  blood  vessels,  acts  as  a  sedative  to  the  nerves,  and  lessens  the 
vitality  of  a  part;  it  consequently  prevents  the  tissue  change  which 
inflammation  produces. 

Heat. — Either  dry  or  moist  heat  acts  as  a  derivative.  It  quickens 
the  circulation  and  renders  the  chemical  changes  more  active  in  the 
surrounding  parts;  it  softens  the  tissues  and  attracts  the  current  of 
blood  from  the  inflamed  organ ;  it  also  promotes  the  absorption  of  the 
effusion  and  hastens  the  elimination  of  the  waste  products  in  the  part. 
Heat  may  be  applied  by  hand  rubbing  or  active  friction  and  the  ap- 
plication of  warm  coverings  (bandages)  or  by  cloths  wrung  out  of 
warm  water ;  or  steaming  with  warm  moist  vapor,  medicated  or  not, 
will  answer  the  same  purpose.  The  latter  is  especially  applicable  to 
inflammatory  troubles  in  the  air  passages. 

Local  bleeding. — This  treatment  frequently  affords  immediate  relief 
by  carrying  off  the  excessive  blood  and  draining  the  effusion  which 
has  already  occurred.  It  affords  direct  mechanical  relief,  and,  by  a 
stimulation  of  the  part,  promotes  the  chemical  changes  necessary 
for  bringing  the  diseased  tissues  to  a  healthy  condition.  Local  blood- 
letting can  be  done  by  scarifying,  or  making  small  punctures  into  the 
inflamed  part,  as  in  the  eyelid  of  an  inflamed  eye,  or  into  the  sheath 
of  the  penis,  or  into  the  skin  of  the  latter  organ  when  congested,  or 
the  leg  when  acutely  swelled. 

C ounterlrritants  are  used  for  deep  inflammations.  They  act  by 
bringing  the  blood  to  the  surface  and  consequently  lessening  the 
blood  pressure  within.  The  derivation  of  the  blood  to  the  exterior 
diminishes  the  amount  in  the  internal  organs  and  is  often  very  rapid 
in  its  action  in  relieving  a  congested  lung  or  liver.  The  most  com- 
mon counterirritant  is  mustard  flour.  It  is  applied  as  a  soft  paste 
mixed  with  warm  water  to  the  under  surface  of  the  belly  and  to  the 
sides  where  the  skin  is  comparatively  soft  and  vascular.  Colds  in  the 
throat  or  inflammations  at  any  point  demand  the  treatment  applied  in 
the  same  manner  to  the  belly  and  sides  and  not  to  the  throat  or  on  the 
legs,  as  so  often  used.  Blisters,  iodine,  and  many  other  irritants  are 
used  in  a  similar  way. 

Constitutional  treatment  in  inflammation  is  designed  to  reduce  the 
current  of  blood,  which  is  the  fuel  for  the  inflammation  in  the  dis- 
eased part,  to  quiet  the  patient,  and  to  combat  the  fever  or  general 
effects  of  the  trouble  in  the  system,  and  to  favor  the  neutralization  or 
elimination  of  the  products  of  the  inflammation.     It  consists  of — 

Reduction  of  hlood. — ^This  is  obtained  in  various  waj-s.  The  dimi- 
nution of  the  quantity  of  the  blood  lessens  the  amount  of  pressure  on 
the  vessels,  and,  as  a  sequel,  the  volume  of  it  which  is  carried  to  the 
jjoint  of  inflammation ;  it  diminishes  the  body  temperature  or  fever ; 


492  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

it  numbs  the  nervous  system,  which  plays  an  important  part  as  a  con- 
ductor of  irritation  in  diseases. 

Blood-letting  is  the  most  rapid  means,  and  frequently  acts  like  a 
charm  in  relieving  a  commencing  inflammatory  trouble.  One  must 
remember,  however,  that  the  strength  of  the  body  and  repair  depend 
on  the  blood.  Hence  blood-letting  should  be  practiced  only  in  full- 
blooded,  well-nourished  animals  and  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease. 

Cathartics  act  by  drawing  off  a  large  quantity  of  fluid  from  the 
blood  through  the  intestines,  and  have  the  advantage  over  the  last 
remedy  of  removing  only  the  watery  and  not  the  formed  elements 
from  the  circulation.  The  blood  cells  remain,  leaving  the  blood  as 
rich  as  it  was  before.  Again,  the  glands  of  the  intestines  are  stimu- 
lated to  excrete  much  waste  matter  and  other  deleterious  material 
which  may  be  acting  as  a  poison,  in  the  blood. 

Diuretics  operate  through  the  kidneys  in  the  same  way. 

Diaphoretics  aid  depletion  of  the  blood  by  pouring  water  in  the 
form  of  sweat  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  and  stimulating  the  dis- 
charge of  waste  material  out  of  its  glands,  which  has  the  same  effect 
on  the  blood  pressure. 

Antipyretics  are  remedies  to  reduce  the  temperature.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  depressing  the  center  in  the  brain  that  controls  heat 
production.  Some  coal-tar  products  are  very  effective  in  this  way, 
but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  depressing  the  heart,  which  should 
always  be  kept  as  strong  as  possible.  If  they  are  used  it  must  be  with 
knowledge  of  this  fact,  and  it  is  well  to  give  heart  tonics  or  stimu- 
lants with  them.  The  temperature  of  the  body  may  be  lowered  by 
cold  packs  or  by  showering  with  cold  water.  This  is  a  most  useful 
procedure  in  many  diseases. 

Depressants  are  drugs  which  act  on  the  heart.  They  slow  or  weaken 
the  action  of  this  organ  and  reduce  the  quantity  and  force  of  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood  which  is  carried  to  the  point  of  local  disease;  they 
lessen  the  vitality  of  the  animal,  and  for  this  reason  are  now  used 
much  less  than  formerly. 

Anodynes  quiet  the  nervous  system.  Pain  in  the  horse,  as  in  the 
man,  is  one  of  the  important  factors  in  the  production  of  fever,  and 
the  dulling  of  the  former  often  prevents,  or  at  least  reduces,  the  latter. 
Anodynes  produce  sleep,  so  as  to  rest  the  patient  and  allow  recupera- 
tion for  the  succeeding  struggle  of  the  vitality  of  the  animal  against 
the  exhausting  drain  of  the  disease. 

The  diet  of  an  animal  suffering  from  acute  inflammation  is  a  factor 
of  the  greatest  importance.  An  overloaded  circulation  can  be  starved 
to  a  reduced  quantity  and  to  a  less  rich  quality  of  blood  by  reducing 
the  quantity  of  food  given  to  the  patient.  Foods  of  easy  digestion  do 
not  tire  the  already  fatigued  organs  of  an  animal  with  a  torpid  diges- 
tive system.     Nourishment  will  be  taken  by  a  suffering  brute  in  the 


FEVERS.  493 

form  of  slops  and  cooling  drinks  where  it  would  be  totally  refused  if 
offered  in  its  ordinary  form,  as  hard  oats  or  dry  hay,  requiring  the 
labor  of  grinding  between  the  teeth  and  swallowing  by  the  weakened 
muscles  of  the  jaws  and  throat. 

Tonics  and  stimulants  are  remedies  which  are  used  to  meet  special 
indications,  as  in  the  case  of  a  feeble  heart,  and  which  enter  into  the 
after  treatment  of  inflammatory  troubles  as  well  as  into  the  acute 
stages  of  them.  They  brace  up  weakened  and  torpid  glands;  they 
stimulate  the  secretion  of  the  necessary  fluids  of  the  body,  and  hasten 
the  excretion  of  the  waste  material  produced  by  the  inflammatory 
process ;  they  regulate  the  action  of  a  weakened  heart ;  they  promote 
healthy  vitality  of  diseased  parts,  and  aid  the  chemical  changes 
needed  for  returning  the  altered  tissues  to  their  normal  condition. 

FEVERS. 

[Synonyms:  Fehris,  Latin;  pyrexia,  Greek;  fidvre,  French;  fleber,  German; 
febbre,  Italian;   calentura,  Spanish.] 

The  etymology  of  the  word  "  fever,"  from  the  Latin  fevere,  to  boil 
or  to  burn,  and  of  pyrexia,  from  the  Greek  word  irvp,  fire,  defines  in  a 
general  way  the  meaning  of  the  term. 

Fever  is  a  general  condition  of  the  animal  body  in  which  there  is  an 
elevation  of  the  animal  body  temperature,  which  may  be  only  a  de- 
gree or  two  or  may  be  10°  F.  The  elevation  of  the  body  temperature, 
which  represents  tissue  change  or  combustion,  is  accompanied  by  an 
acceleration  of  the  heart's  action,  a  quickening  of  the  respiration,  and 
an  aberration  in  the  functional  activity  of  the  various  organs  of  the 
body.  These  organs  may  be  stimulated  to  the  performance  of  exces- 
sive work,  or  they  may  be  incapacitated  from  carrying  out  their 
allotted  tasks,  or,  in  the  course  of  a  fever,  the  two  conditions  may 
both  exist,  the  one  succeeding  the  other.  Fever  as  a  disease  is  usually 
preceded  by  chills  as  an  essential  symptom. 

Fevers  are  divided  into  essential  fevers  and  symptomatic  fevers. 
In  symptomatic  fever  some  local  disease,  usually  of  an  inflammatorj"^ 
character,  develops  first,  and  the  constitutional  febrile  phenomena  are 
the  result  of  the  primary  point  of  combustion  irritating  the  whole 
body,  either  through  the  nervous  system  or  directly  by  means  of  the 
waste  material  which  is  carried  into  the  circulation  and  through  the 
blood  vessels,  and  is  distributed  to  distal  parts.  Essential  fevers  are 
those  in  which  there  is  from  the  outset  a  general  disturbance  of  the 
whole  economy.  This  may  consist  of  an  elementary  alteration  in  the 
blood  or  a  general  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  tissues.  Fevers 
of  the  latter  class  are  usually  due  to  some  infecting  agent  and  belong, 
therefore,  to  the  class  of  infectious  diseases. 

Essential  fevers  are  subdivided  into  ephemeral  fevers,  which  last 
but  a  short  time  and  terminate  by  critical  phenomena ;   intermittent 


494  DISEASES    OP   THE   HOBSE. 

fevers,  in  which  there  are  alterations  of  exacerbations  of  the  febrile 
symptoms  and  remissions,  in  which  the  body  returns  to  its  normal 
condition  or  sometimes  to  a  depressed  condition,  in  which  the  func- 
tions of  life  are  but  badly  performed;  and  continued  fevers,  which 
include  contagious  diseases,  such  as  glanders,  influenza,  etc.,  the  septic 
diseases,  such  as  pyemia,  septicemia,  etc,  and  the  eruptive  fevers, 
such  as  variola,  etc. 

Whether  the  cause  of  the  fever  has  been  an  injury  to  the  tissues, 
such  as  a  severe  bruise,  a  broken  bone,  an  inflamed  lung,  or  excessive 
work,  which  has  surcharged  the  blood  with  the  waste  products  of  the 
combustion  of  the  tissues,  which  were  destroyed  to  produce  force,  or 
the  toxins  of  influenza  in  the  blood,  or  the  presence  of  irritating  ma- 
terial, either  in  the  form  of  living  organisms  or  of  their  products, 
as  in  glanders  or  tuberculosis — ^the  general  train  of  symptoms  are 
much  the  same,  varying  as  the  amount  of  the  irritant  differs  in 
quantity,  or  when  some  special  quality  in  them  has  a  specific  action 
on  one  or  another  tissue. 

There  is  in  fever  at  first  a  relaxation  of  the  small  blood  vessels, 
which  may  have  been  preceded  by  a  contraction  of  the  same  if  there 
was  a  chill,  and  as  a  consequence  there  is  an  acceleration  of  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood.  There  is,  then,  an  elevation  of  the  peripheral 
temperature,  followed  by  a  lowering  of  tension  in  the  arteries  and 
an  acceleration  in  the  movement  of  the  heart.  These  conditions  may 
be  produced  by  a  primary  irritation  of  the  nerve  centers  of  the  brain 
from  the  effects  of  heat,  as  is  seen  in  thermic  fever,  or  sunstroke,  or  by 
the  entrance  into  the  blood  stream  of  disease-producing  organisms 
or  their  chemical  products,  as  in  anthrax,  rinderpest,  influenza,  etc. 

There  are  times  when  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  exist- 
ence of  fever  as  a  disease  and  a  temporary  feverish  condition  which 
is  the  result  of  excessive  work.  Like  the  condition  of  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  which  is  normal  up  to  a  certain  degree  in  the  lungs  of  a 
race  horse  after  a  severe  race,  and  morbid  when  it  produces  more  than 
temporary  phenomena  or  when  it  causes  distinct  lesions,  the  tem- 
perature may  rise  from  physiological  causes  as  much  as  four  degrees, 
so  fever,  or,  as  it  is  better  termed,  a  feverish  condition,  may  follow 
any  work  or  other  employment  of  energy  in  which  excessive  tissue 
change  has  taken  place;  but  if  the  consequences  are  ephemeral,  and 
no  recognizable  lesion  is  apparent,  it  is  not  considered  morbid.  This 
condition,  however,  may  predispose  to  severe  organic  disturbance 
and  local  inflammations  which  will  cause  disease,  as  an  animal  in  this 
condition  is  liable  to  take  cold  and  develop  lung  fever  or  a  severe 
enteritis,  if  chilled  or  otherwise  exposed. 

Fever  in  all  animals  is  characterized  by  the  same  general  phe- 
nomena, but  we  find  the  intensity  of  the  symptoms  modified  by  the 
species  of  animals  affected,  by  the  races  which  subdivide  the  species. 


FEVERS.  495 

by  the  families  which  form  groups  of  the  races,  and  by  certain  condi- 
tions in  individuals  themselves.  For  example,  a  pricked  foot  in  a 
Thoroughbred  may  cause  intense  fever,  while  the  same  injury  in  the 
foot  of  a  Clydesdale  may  scarcely  cause  a  visible  general  symptom. 
In  the  horse,  fever  produces  the  following  symptoms : 

The  normal  body  temperature,  which  varies  from  99°  to  100°  F., 
is  elevated  from  1°  to  9°.  A  temperature  of  102°  or  103°  F.  is  mod- 
erate fever,  104°  to  105°  F.  is  high,  and  106°  F.  and  over  is  excessive. 
The  temperature  is  accurately  measured  by  means  of  a  clinical  ther- 
mometer inserted  in  the  rectum. 

This  elevation  of  temperature  can  readily  be  felt  by  the  hand 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  animal,  or  in  the  rectum,  and  in  the  cleft 
between  the  hind  legs.  It  is  usually  appreciable  at  any  point  over 
the  surface  of  the  body  and  in  the  expired  air  emitted  from  the  nos- 
trils. The  ears  and  cannons  are  often  as  hot  as  the  rest  of  the  body, 
but  are  sometimes  cold,  which  denotes  a  debility  in  the  circulation  and 
irregular  distribution  of  the  blood.  The  pulse,  which  in  a  healthy 
horse  is  felt  beating  about  42  to  48  times  in  the  minute,  is  increased 
to  60,  70,  90,  or  even  100.  The  respirations  are  increased  from  14  or 
16  to  24,  30,  36,  or  even  more.  With  the  commencement  of  a  fever 
the  horse  usually  has  its  appetite  diminished,  or  it  may  have  total 
loss  of  appetite  if  the  fever  is  excessive.  There  is,  however,  a  vast 
difference  among  horses  in  this  regard.  With  the  same  amount  of 
elevation  of  temperature  one  horse  may  lose  its  appetite  entirely, 
while  others,  usually  of  the  more  common  sort,  will  eat  at  hay 
throughout  the  course  of  the  fever,  and  will  even  continue  to  eat  oats 
or  other  grains.  Thirst  is  usually  increased,  but  the  animal  desires 
only  a  small  quantity  of  water  at  a  time,  and  in  most  cases  of  fever  a 
bucket  of  water  should  be  kept  standing  before  the  patient,  which 
may  be  allowed  to  drink  ad  libitum.  The  skin  becomes  dry  and  the 
hairs  stand  on  end.  Sweating  is  almost  unknown  in  the  early  stage 
of  fevers,  but  frequently  occurs  later  in  their  course,  when  an  out- 
break of  warm  sweat  is  often  a  most  favorable  symptom.  The  mu- 
cous membranes,  which  are  most  easily  examined  in  the  conjunctivae 
of  the  eyes  and  inside  of  the  mouth,  change  color  if  the  fever  is  an 
acute  one ;  without  alteration  of  blood  the  mucous  membranes  become 
of  a  rosy  or  deep-red  color  at  the  outset;  if  the  fever  is  attended  with 
distinct  alteration  of  the  blood,  as  in  influenza,  and  at  the  end  of  two 
or  three  daj^s  in  severe  cases  of  pneumonia  or  other  extensive  inflam- 
matory troubles  the  mucous  membranes  are  tinged  with  yellow,  which 
may  even  become  a  deep  ocher  in  color,  the  result  of  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  blood  corpuscles  and  the  freeing  of  their  coloring  matter, 
which  acts  as  a  stain.  At  the  outset  of  a  fever  the  various  glands 
are  checked  in  their  secretions,  the  salivary  glands  fail  to  secrete  the 
saliva,  and  we  find  the  surface  of  the  tongue  and  inside  of  the  cheeks 


496  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

dry  and  covered  with  a  brownish,  bad-smelling  deposit.  The  excre- 
tion from  the  liver  and  intestinal  glands  is  diminished  and  produces 
an  inactivity  of  the  digestive  organs  which  causes  a  constipation. 
If  this  is  not  remedied  at  an  early  period,  the  undigested  material 
acts  as  an  irritant,  and  later  we  may  have  it  followed  by  an  inflamma- 
tory process,  producing  a  severe  diarrhea. 

The  excretion  from  the  kidneys  is  sometimes  at  first  entirely  sup- 
pressed. It  is  always  considerably  diminished,  and  what  urine  is 
passed  is  dark  in  color,  imdergoes  ammoniacal  change  rapidly,  and 
deposits  quantities  of  salts.  At  a  later  period  the  diminished  excre- 
tion may  be  replaced  by  an  excessive  excretion,  which  aids  in  carrying 
off  waste  products  and  usually  indicates  an  amelioration  of  the  fever. 

While  the  ears,  cannons,  and  hoofs  of  a  horse  suffering  from  fever 
are  usually  found  hot,  they  may  frequently  alternate  from  hot  to  cold, 
or  be  much  cooler  than  they  normally  are.  This  latter  condition 
usually  indicates  great  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  circulatory  system. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  an  aid  in  diagnosing  the  gravity 
of  an  attack  of  fever  and  as  an  indication  in  the  selection  of  its  mode 
of  treatment,  to  recognize  the  exact  cause  of  a  febrile  condition  in  the 
horse.  In  certain  cases,  in  very  nervous  animals,  in  which  fever  is 
the  result  of  nerve  influence,  a  simple  anodyne,  or  even  only  quiet 
with  continued  care  and  nursing,  will  sometimes  be  sufficient  to  dimin- 
ish it.  When  fever  is  the  result  of  local  injury,  the  cure  of  the  cause 
produces  a  cessation  in  the  constitutional  symptoms.  AVhen  fever  is 
the  result  of  a  pneumonia  or  other  severe  parenchymatous  inflamma- 
tion, it  usually  lasts  for  a  definite  time,  and  subsides  with  the  first 
improvement  of  the  local  trouble,  but  in  these  cases  we  constantly  have 
exacerbations  of  fever  due  to  secondary  inflammatory  processes,  such 
as  the  formation  of  small  abscesses,  the  development  of  secondary 
bronchitis,  or  the  death  of  a  limited  amount  of  tissue  (gangi-ene). 

In  specific  cases,  such  as  influenza,  strangles,  and  septicemia,  there 
is  a  definite  poison  contained  in  the  blood-vessel  system,  and  carried 
to  the  heart  and  to  the  nervous  system,  which  produces  a  peculiar 
irritation,  usually  lasting  for  a  specific  period,  during  which  the  tem- 
perature can  be  but  slightly  diminished  by  any  remedy. 

In  cases  attended  with'  complications,  the  diagnosis  becomes  at  times 
still  more  difficult,  as  at  the  end  of  a  case  of  influenza  which  becomes 
complicated  with  pneumonia.  The  high  temperature  of  the  simple 
inflammatory  disease  may  be  grafted  on  that  of  the  specific  trouble, 
and  the  determination  of  the  cause  of  the  fever,  as  between  the  two, 
is  therefore  frequently  a  difficult  matter  but  an  important  one,  as  upon 
it  depends  the  mode  of  treatment. 

Any  animal  suffering  from  fever,  whatever  the  cause,  is  much  more 
susceptible  to  attacks  of  local  inflammation,  which  become  compli- 
cations of  the  original  disease,  than  ar.^  animals  in  sound  health.     In 


FEVERS.  497 

fever  we  have  the  tissues  and  the  walls  of  the  blood  vessels  weakened, 
we  have  an  increased  current  of  more  or  less  altered  blood,  flowing 
through  the  vessels  and  stagnating  in  the  capillaries,  which  need  but 
an  exciting  cause  to  transform  the  passive  congestion  of  fever  into 
an  active  congestion  and  acute  inflammation.  These  conditions  be- 
come still  more  distinct  when  the  fever  is  accompanied  by  a  decided 
deterioration  in  the  blood  itself,  as  is  seen  in  influenza,  septicemia, 
and  at  the  termination  of  severe  pneumonias. 

Fever,  with  its  symptoms  of  increased  temperature,  acceleration  of 
the  pulse,  acceleration  of  respiration,  dry  skin,  diminished  secretions, 
etc.,  must  be  considered  as  an  indication  of  organic  disturbance. 
This  organic  disturbance  may  be  the  result  of  local  inflammation 
or  other  irritants  acting  through  the  nerves  on  nerve  centers;  altera- 
tions of  the  blood,  in  which  a  poison  is  carried  to  the  nerve  centers, 
or  direct  irritants  to  the  nerve  centers  themselves,  as  in  cases  of 
heat  stroke,  injury  to  the  brain,  etc. 

The  treatment  of  fever  depends  upon  its  cause.  One  of  the  im- 
portant factors  in  treatment  is  absolute  quiet.  This  may  be  obtained 
by  placing  a  sick  horse  in  a  box  stall,  away  from  other  animals  and 
extraneous  noises,  and  sheltered  from  excessive  light  and  drafts  of 
air.  Anodynes,  belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  and  opium  act  as  antipy- 
retics simply  by  quieting  ^he  nervous  system.  As  an  irritant  exists 
in  the  blood  in  most  cases  of  fever,  any  remedy  which  will  favor  the 
excretion  of  foreign  elements  from  it  will  diminish  this  cause.  We 
therefore  employ  diaphoretics  to  stimulate  the  sweat  and  excretions 
from  the  skin;  diuretics  to  favor  the  elimination  of  matter  by  the 
kidneys ;  cholagogues  and  laxatives  to  increase  the  action  of  the  liver 
and  intestines,  and  to  drain  from  these  importf^nt  organs  all  the  waste 
material  which  is  aiding  to  choke  up  and  congest  their  rich  plexuses 
of  blood  vessels.  The  heart  becomes  stimulated  to  increased  action 
at  the  outset  of  a  fever,  but  this  does  not  indicate  increased  strength ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  indicates  the  action  of  an  irritant  to  the  heart 
that  will  soon  weaken  it.  It  is  therefore  irrational  to  further  depress 
the  heart  by  the  use  of  such  drugs  as  aconite.  It  is  better  to 
strengthen  the  heart  and  to  favor  the  elimination  of  the  substance 
that  is  irritating  it.  The  increased  blood  pressure  throughout  the 
body  may  be  diminished  by  lessening  the  quantity  of  blood.  This 
is  obtained  in  some  cases  with  advantage  where  the  disease  is  but 
starting  and  the  animal  is  plethoric  by  direct  abstraction  of  blood, 
as  in  bleeding  from  the  jugular  or  other  veins;  or  by  derivatives, 
such  as  mustard,  turpentine,  or  blisters  applied  to  the  skin;  or  by 
setons,  which  draw  to  the  surface  the  fluid  of  the  blood,  thereby 
lessening  its  volume,  without  having  the  disadvantage  of  impoverish- 
ing the  elements  of  the  blood  found  in  bleeding.  Antipyretics  given 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 32 


498  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

by  the  mouth  and  cold  applied  to  the  skin  are  most  useful  in  many 
cases. 

When  the  irritation  which  is  the  cause  of  fever  is  a  specific  one, 
either  in  the  form  of  bacteria  (living  organisms),  as  in  glanders, 
tuberculosis,  influenza,  septicemia,  etc.,  or  in  the  form  of  a  foreign 
element,  as  in  rheumatism,  gout,  hemaglobinuria,  and  other  so-called 
diseases  of  nutrition,  we  employ  remedies  which  have  been  found  to 
have  a  direct  specific  action  on  them.  Among  the  specific  remedies 
for  various  diseases  are  counted  quinine,  carbolic  acid,  salicylic  acid, 
antipyrine,  mercury,  iodine,  the  empyreumatic  oils,  tars,  resins,  aro- 
matics,  sulphur,  and  a  host  of  other  drugs,  some  of  which  are  of  known 
effect  and  others  of  which  are  theoretical  in  action.  Certain  remedies, 
like  simple  aromatic  teas,  vegetable  acids,  such  as  vinegar,  lemon  juice, 
etc.,  alkalines  in  the  form  of  salts,  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  etc.,  which 
are  household  remedies,  are  always  useful,  because  they  act  on  the 
excreting  organs  and  ameliorate  the  effects  of  fever.  Other  remedies, 
which  are  to  be  used  to  influence  the  cause  of  fever,  must  be  selected 
with  judgment  and  from  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the 
disease. 

INFLUENZA. 

[Synonyms:  Pinkeye,  typhoid  fever,  epizooty,  epihippic  fever,  hepatic  fever, 
bilious  fever,  etc.;  fievre  typhoide,  grippe,  French;  pferdestaube,  German; 
gastro-cnteritis  of  Vatel  and  d'Arboval ;  febris  erysipelatodes,  Zundel ;  typhus 
of  Delafond.] 

Definition. — Influenza  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  specific  fever 
of  the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  with  alterations  of  the  blood,  stupefac- 
tion of  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  great  depression  of  the  vital 
forces,  and  frequent  inflammatory  complications  of  the  important 
vascular  organs,  especially  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  brain,  and  lamina3 
of  the  feet.  One  attack  usually  protects  the  animal  from  future 
ones  of  the  same  disease,  but  not  always.  An  apparent  complete 
recovery  is  sometimes  followed  by  serious  sequela)  of  the  nervous  and 
blood-vessel  systems.  The  disease  is  very  apt,  under  certain  condi- 
tions of  the  atmosphere  or  from  unknown  causes,  to  assume  an  epi- 
zootic form,  with  tendency  to  complications  of  especial  organs,  as, 
at  one  period,  the  lungs,  at  another  the  intestines,  etc. 

The  first  description  of  influenza  is  given  by  Laurentius  Rusius  in 
1301,  when  it  spread  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Italy,  causing 
great  loss  among  the  war  horses  of  Rome  and  the  surrounding  district. 
Later,  in  1648,  an  epizootic  of  this  disease  visited  Germany  and 
spread  to  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  1711,  under  the  name  of  "  epi- 
demica  equorum^''  it  followed  the  tracks  of  the  great  armies  all  over 
Europe,  causing  immense  losses  among  the  horses,  while  the  rinder- 
pest was  scourging  the  cattle  of  the  same  regions.  The  two  diseases 
were  confounded  with  each  other,  and  were,  by  the  scientists  of  the 


INFLUENZA.  499 

day,  allied  to  the  typhus,  which  was  a  plague  to  the  human  race  at 
the  same  time.  We  find  the  first  advent  of  this  disease  to  the  British 
Islands  in  an  epizootic  among  the  horses  of  London  and  the  southern 
counties  of  England,  in  1732,  which  is  described  by  Gibson.  In  1758, 
Robert  Whytt  recounts  the  devastation  of  the  horses  of  the  north  of 
Scotland  from  the  same  trouble.  Throughout  the  eighteenth  century 
a  number  of  epizootics  occurred  in  Hanover  and  other  portions  of 
Germany  and  in  France,  which  were  renewed  early  in  the  present 
century,  with  complications  of  the  intestinal  tract,  which  obtained  for 
it  its  name  of  gastro-enteritis.  In  1766  it  first  attacked  the  horses  in 
North  America,  but  is  not  described  as  again  occurring  in  a  severe 
form  until  1870-1872,  when  it  spread  over  the  entire  country,  from 
Canada  south  to  Ohio,  and  then  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  and  west- 
ward to  California.  It  is  now  a  permanent  disease  in  our  large  cities, 
selecting  for  the  continuance  of  its  virulence  young  or  especially  sus- 
ceptible horses  which  pass  through  the  large  and  ill-ventilated  and 
uncleaned  stables  of  dealers,  and  assumes  from  time  to  time  an  en- 
zootic form,  when  from  some  reason  its  virulence  increases.  It  as- 
sumes this  form  also  when,  from  reasons  of  rural  economy  and  com- 
merce, large  numbers  of  young  and  more  susceptible  animals  are 
exposed  to  its  contagion. 

Etiology. — As  one  attack  is  self-protective,  numbers  of  old  horses, 
having  had  an  earlier  attack,  are  not  capable  of  contracting  it  again ; 
but,  aside  from  this,  young  horses,  especially  those  about  four  or  five 
years  of  age,  are  much  more  predisposed  to  be  attacked,  while  the 
older  ones,  even  if  they  have  not  had  the  disease,  are  less  liable  to  it. 
Again,  the  former  age  is  that  in  which  the  horse  is  brought  from  the 
farm,  where  it  has  been  free  from  the  risk  of  exposure,  and  is  sold  to 
pass  through  the  stables  of  the  country  taverns,  the  dirty,  infected 
railway  cars,  and  the  foul  stockyards  and  damp  stables  of  dealers  in 
our  large  cities.  Want  of  training  is  a  predisposing  cause.  Overfed, 
fat,  young  horses  which  have  just  come  through  the  sales  stables  are 
much  more  susceptible  to  contagion  than  the  same  horses  are  after  a 
few  months  of  steady  work. 

Pilger,  in  1805,  was  the  first  to  recognize  infection  as  the  direct 
cause  of  the  disease.  Roll  and  others  studied  the  contagiousness  of 
influenza,  and,  finding  it  so  much  more  virulent  and  j^onnanent  in 
old  stables  than  elsewhere,  classed  it  as  a  "  stall  miasm."  The  at- 
mosphere is  the  most  common  carrier  of  the  infection  from  sick  ani- 
mals to  healthy  ones,  and  through  it  may  be  carried  for  a  considerable 
distance.  The  contagion  will  remain  in  the  straw  bedding  and 
droppings  of  the  animal  and  in  the  feed  in  an  infected  stable  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  if  these  are  removed  to  other  localities  it  may 
be  carried  in  them.  It  may  be  carried  in  the  clothing  of  those  who 
have  been  in  attendance  on  horses  suffering  from  the  disease.     The 


500  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

drinking  water  in  troughs  and  even  running  water  may  hold  the  virus 
and  be  a  means  of  its  communication  to  other  animals,  even  at  a 
distance.  The  studies  of  Dieckerhoflf,  in  1881,  in  regard  to  the  con- 
tagion of  influenza  were  especially  interesting.  He  found  that  dur- 
ing a  local  enzootic,  produced  by  the  introduction  of  horses  suffering 
from  influenza  into  an  extensive  stable  otherwise  perfectly  healthy, 
the  infection  took  place  in  what  at  first  seemed  to  be  a  most  irregular 
manner,  but  which  was  shown  later  to  be  dependent  on  the  ventilation 
and  currents  of  air  through  the  various  buildings.  His  experiments 
showed  that  the  virus  of  influenza  is  excessively  diffusible,  and  that  it 
will  spread  rapidly  to  the  roof  of  a  building  and  pass  by  the  apertures 
of  ventilation  to  others  in  the  neighborhood.  The  writer  has  seen 
cases  that  have  appeared  to  spread  through  a  brick  wall  and  attack 
animals  on  the  opposite  side  before  others  even  in  the  same  stable 
were  affected.  Brick  walls,  old  woodwork,  and  the  dirt  which  is  too 
frequently  left  about  the  feed  boxes  of  a  horse  stall  will  all  hold 
the  contagion  for  some  days,  if  not  weeks,  and  communicate  it  to 
susceptible  animals  when  placed  in  the  same  locality.  A  four-year- 
old  colt,  belonging  to  the  writer,  stood  at  the  open  door  of  a  stable 
where  two  cases  of  influenza  had  developed  the  day  before,  fully  40 
feet  from  the  stall,  for  about  ten  minutes  on  two  successive  mornings, 
and  in  six  days  developed  the  disease.  On  the  morning  when  the 
trouble  in  the  colt  was  recognized  it  stood  in  an  infirmary  with  a 
dozen  horses  being  treated  for  various  diseases,  but  was  immediately 
isolated;  within  one  week  two-thirds  of  the  other  horses  had  con- 
tracted the  disease. 

Symptomg. — After  the  exposure  of  a  susceptible  horse  to  infection 
a  period  of  incubation  of  from  four  to  seven  days  elapses,  during 
which  the  animal  seems  in  perfect  health,  before  any  symptom  is 
visible.  When  the  symptoms  of  influenza  develop  they  may  be  in- 
tense or  they  may  be  so  moderate  as  to  occasion  but  little  alarm,  but 
the  latter  condition  frequently  exposes  the  animal  to  use  and  to  the 
danger  of  the  exciting  causes  of  complications  which  would  not  have 
happened  had  the  animal  been  left  quietly  in  its  stall  in  place  of 
being  worked  or  driven  out  to  show  to  prospective  purchasers.  The 
disease  may  run  a  simple  course  as  a  specific  fever,  with  alterations 
only  of  the  blood,  or  it  may  become  at  any  period  complicated  by 
local  inflammatory  troubles,  the  gravity  of  which  is  augmented  by 
developing  in  an  animal  with  an  impoverished  blood  and  already 
irritated  and  rapid  circulation  and  defective  nutritive  and  reparative 
functions. 

The  first  symptoms  are  those  of  a  rapidly  developing  fever,  which 
becomes  intense  within  a  very  short  period.  The  animal  becomes 
dejected  and  inattentive  to  surrounding  objects;  stands  with  its  head 
down,  and  not  back  on  the  halter  as  in  serious  lung  diseases.    It  has 


INFLUENZA.  501 

chills  of  the  flanks,  the  muscles  of  the  croup,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulders,  or  of  the  entire  body,  lasting  from  fifteen  to  thirty  min- 
utes, and  frequently  a  grinding  of  the  teeth  which  warns  one  that  a 
severe  attack  may  be  expected.  The  hairs  become  dry  and  rough  and 
stand  on  end.  The  body  temperature  increases  to  104°,  104.5°,  and 
105°  F.,  or  even  in  severe  cases  to  107°  F.,  within  the  first  twelve  or 
eighteen  hours.  The  horse  becomes  stupid,  stands  immobile  with  its 
head  hanging,  the  ears  listless,  and  it  pays  but  little  attention  to  the 
surrounding  attendants  or  the  crack  of  a  whip.  The  stupor  becomes 
rapidly  more  marked,  the  eyes  become  puffy  and  swollen  with  ex- 
cessive lachrymation,  so  that  the  tears  run  from  the  internal  canthus 
of  the  eye  over  the  cheeks  and  may  blister  the  skin  in  its  course.  The 
respiration  becomes  accelerated  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  a  minute, 
and  the  pulse  is  quickened  to  seventy,  eighty,  or  even  one  hundred, 
moderate  in  volume  and  in  force.  There  is  great  depression  of  mus- 
cular force ;  the  animal  stands  limp,  as  if  excessively  fatigued.  There 
is  diminution,  or  in  some  cases  total  loss,  of  sensibility  of  the  skin, 
so  that  it  may  be  pricked  or  handled  without  attracting  the  attention 
of  the  animal.  On  movement,  the  horse  staggers  and  shows  a  want  of 
coordination  of  all  of  the  muscles  of  its  limbs.  The  senses  of  hearing, 
sight,  and  taste  are  diminished,  if  not  entirely  abolished.  The  visible 
mucous  membranes  (as  the  conjunctiva),  from  which  it  is  known  as 
the  pinkeye,  and  the  mouth  and  the  natural  openings  becpme  of  a 
deep  saffron,  ocher,  or  violet-red  color.  This  latter  is  especially 
noticeable  on  the  rim  of  the  gums  and  is  a  condition  not  found  in  any 
other  disease,  so  that  it  is  an  almost  diagnostic  symptom.  In  some 
outbreaks  there  is  much  more  swelling  of  the  lids  and  weeping  from 
the  eyes  than  in  others.  If  the  animal  is  bled  at  this  period  the  blood 
is  found  more  coagulable  than  normal,  but  at  a  later  period  it  be- 
comes of  a  dark  color  and  less  coagulable.  There  is  great  diminution 
or  total  loss  of  appetite  with  an  excessive  thirst,  but  in  many  cases 
in  cold-blooded  horses  the  animal  may  retain  a  certain  amount  of 
appetite,  eating  slowly  at  its  hay,  oats,  or  other  feed.  There  is  some 
irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory  tract  as  shown 
by  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nose,  and  by  cough.  Pregnant  mares 
are  apt  to  abort. 

We  have,  following  the  fever,  a  tumefaction,  or  edema,  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues  at  the  fetlocks,  of  the  under  surface  of  the  belly,  and 
of  the  sheath  of  the  penis,  which  may  be  excessive.  The  infiltration 
is  noninflammatory  in  character  and  produces  an  insensibility  of  the 
skin  like  the  excessive  stocking  which  we  see  in  debilitated  animals 
after  exposure  to  cold.  In  ordinary  cases  the  temperature  has  reached 
its  maximum  of  105°  or  106°  F.  in  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours  from  the  origin  of  the  fever.  It  remains  stationary  for  a  period 
of  from  three  to  four  days  without  so  much  variation  between  morn- 


502  DISEASES   CfF   THE   HOBSE. 

ing  and  evening  temperature  as  we  have  in  pneumonia  or  other  seri- 
ous diseases  of  the  lungs.  At  the  termination  of  the  specific  course  of 
the  disease,  which  is  generally  from  six  to  ten  days,  the  fever  abates, 
the  swelling  of  the  legs  and  under  surface  of  belly  diminishes,  the  ap- 
petite returns,  the  strength  is  rapidly  regained,  the  mucous  mem- 
branes lose  their  yellowish  color,  which  they  attain  so  rapidly  at  the 
commencement  of  the  disease,  and  the  animal  convalesces  promptly 
to  its  ordinary  good  condition  and  health,  and  rapidly  regains  the 
large  amount  of  w-eight  which  it  lost  in  the  early  part  of  the  disease, 
a  loss  which  frequently  reaches  30,  50,  or  even  75  pounds  each  twenty- 
four  hours.  For  the  first  three  days  of  the  high  temperature  there  is 
a  great  tendency  to  constipation,  which  should  be  avoided  if  possible 
by  the  use  of  the  means  recommended  below,  for,  if  it  has  been 
marked,  it  may  be  followed  by  a  troublesome  diarrhea. 

Terminations. — ^The  termination  of  simple  influenza  may  be  death 
by  extreme  fever,  with  failure  of  the  heart's  action;  from  excessive 
coma,  due  generally  to  a  rapid  congestion  of  the  brain ;  to  the  poison- 
ous effects  of  the  debris  of  the  disintegrated  blood  corpuscles  and  the 
toxin  of  the  disease;  to  an  asphyxia,  following  congestion  of  the 
lungs ;  or  the  disease  terminates  by  subsidence  of  the  fever,  return  of 
the  appetite  and  nutritive  functions  of  the  organs,  and  rapid  con- 
valescence ;  or,  in  an  unfortunately  large  number  of  cases,  the  course 
of  the  disease  is  complicated  by  local  inflammatory  troubles,  whose 
gravity  is  greater  in  influenza  than  it  is  when  they  occur  as  sporadic 
diseases. 

Complications. — The  complications  are  congestions,  followed  by 
inflammatory  phenomena  in  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  but  they 
are  most  commonly  located  in  the  intestines,  lungs,  brain,  or  vascular 
laminae  of  the  feet.  Atmospheric  influence  or  other  surrounding 
influences  of  unknown  quality  seem  to  be  an  important  factor  in  the 
determination  of  the  local  lesions.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
and  in  certain  epizootics,  we  find  40  and  50  per  cent  or  even  a  greater 
percentage  of  the  cases  rendered  more  serious  by  complication  of  the 
intestines ;  at  other  seasons  of  the  year,  or  in  other  epizootics,  we  find 
the  same  percentage  of  cases  complicated  by  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  while  at  the  same  time  a  small  percentage  of  them  are  com- 
plicated by  troubles  of  the  other  organs;  inflammatory  changes  of 
the  brain,  of  the  laminse,  more  rarely  commence  in  epizootic  form, 
but  are  to  be  found  in  a  certain  small  percentage  of  cases  in  all 
epizootics. 

Exciting  causes  are  important  factors  in  complicating  individual 
cases  of  influenza,  or  in  localizing  special  lesions  either  during  enzo- 
otics or  epizootics.  These  exciting  or  determining  causes  act  much  as 
they  would  in  sporadic  inflammatory  diseases,  but  in  this  case  we  find 
the  animal  much  more  susceptible  and  predisposed  to  be  acted  upon 


INFLUENZA.  603 

than  ordinary  healthy  animals.  With  a  temperature  already  ele- 
vated, with  the  heart's  action  driving  the  blood  in  increased  quantity 
into  the  distended  blood  vessels,  which  become  dilated  and  lose  their 
contractility,  with  a  congestion  of  all  of  the  vascular  organs  already 
established,  it  takes  but  little  additional  irritation  to  carry  the  con- 
gestion one  step  further  and  produce  inflammation. 

Complication  of  the  intestines. — When  any  cause  acts  as  an  irritant 
to  the  intestinal  tract  during  the  course  of  this  specific  fever  it  may 
produce  inflammation  of  the  organs  belonging  to  it.  This  cause  may 
be  constipation,  which  can  find  relief  only  in  a  congestion  which  offers 
to  increase  the  function  of  the  glands  and  relieve  the  inertia  caused  by 
a  temporary  cessation  of  activity;  or  irritant  medicines,  especially 
any  increased  use  of  antimony,  turpentine,  or  the  more  active  reme- 
dies ;  the  taking  of  indigestible  food,  or  of  food  in  too  great  quantities, 
or  food  altered  in  any  way  by  fungus  or  other  injurious  alterations; 
the  swallowing  of  too  cold  water;  or  any  other  irritant  may  cause 
congestion.  This  complication  is  ushered  in  by  colics.  The  animal 
paws  with  the  fore  feet  and  evinces  a  great  sensibility  of  the  belly ;  it 
looks  with  the  head  from  side  to  side,  and  may  lie  down  and  get  up, 
not  with  violence,  but  with  care  for  itself,  perfectly  protecting  the  sur- 
face of  the  belly  from  any  violence.  At  first  we  find  a  decided  con- 
stipation ;  the  droppings  if  passed  are  small  and  hard,  coated  with  a 
viscous  varnish  or  even  with  false  membranes.  In  from  thirty-six 
to  forty  hours  the  constipation  is  followed  by  diarrhea.  The  alimen- 
tary discharge  becomes  mixed  with  a  seromucous  exudation,  which  is 
followed  by  a  certain  amount  of  suppurative  matter.  The  animal  be- 
comes rapidly  exhausted  and  unstable,  staggers  on  movement,  losing 
the  little  appetite  which  may  have  remained,  and  has  exacerbations  of 
fever.  The  pulse  becomes  softer  and  weaker,  the  respiration  becomes 
gradually  more  rapid,  the  temperature  is  about  1°  to  1.5°  F.  higher. 
If*  a  fatal  result  is  not  produced  by  the  extensive  diarrhea  the  dis- 
charge becomes  arrested  in  from  five  to  ten  days  and  a  rapid  recovery 
takes  place. 

Complication  of  the  lungs. — If  at  any  time  during  the  course  of  the 
fever  the  animal  is  exposed  to  cold  or  drafts  of  air,  or  in  any  other 
way  to  the  causes  of  repercussion,  the  lungs  may  become  affected.  In 
the  majority  of  cases,  however,  after  three,  four,  or  five  days  of  the 
fever,  congestion  of  the  lungs  commences  without  anj^  exposure  or 
apparent  exciting  cause.  Unless  this  congestion  of  the  lungs  is 
soon  relieved  it  is  followed  by~an  inflammation  constituting  pneumo- 
nia. This  pneumonia,  while  it  is  in  its  essence  the  same,  differs  from 
an  ordinary  pneumonia  at  the  commencement  by  an  insidious  course. 
The  animal  commences  to  breathe  heavily,  which  becomes  distinctly 
visible  in  the  heaving  of  the  flanks,  the  dilatation  of  the  nostrils,  and 
frequently  in  the  swaying  movement  of  the  unsteady  body.     The  res- 


504  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

pirations  increase  in  number,  what  little  appetite  remained  is  lost,  the 
temperature  increases  from  1°  to  2°,  the  pulse  becomes  more  rapid, 
and  at  times,  for  a  short  period,  more  tense  and  full,  but  the  previous 
poisoning  of  the  specific  disease  has  so  weakened  the  tissues  that  it 
never  becomes  the  characteristic  full,  tense  pulse  of  a  simple  pneu- 
monia. 

On  percussion  of  the  chest  dullness  is  found  over  the  inflamed 
areas ;  on  auscultation  at  the  base  of  the  neck  over  the  trachea  a  tubu- 
lar murmur  is  heard.  The  crepitant  rales  and  tubular  murmurs  of 
pneumonia  are  heard  on  the  sides  of  the  chest  if  the  pneumonia  is 
peripheral,  but  in  pneumonia  complicating  influenza  the  inflamed 
portions  are  frequently  disseminated  in  islands  of  variable  size  and 
are  sometimes  deep  seated,  in  which  case  the  characteristic  auscultory 
symptoms  are  sometimes  wanting.  From  this  time  on  the  symptoms 
of  the  animal  are  those  of  an  ordinary  grave  pneumonia,  rendered 
more  severe  by  occurring  in  a  debilitated  animal.  The  cough  is  at 
first  hacky  and  aborted;  later,  more  full  and  moist.  There  is  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils,  which  may  be  mucopurulent,  purulent,  or 
hemorrhagic.  As  in  simple  pneumonia,  in  the  outset  this  discharge 
may  be  "rusty,"  due  to  capillary  hemorrhages.  We  find  that  the 
blood  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  matter,  staining  it  evenly,  instead 
of  being  mixed  with  it  in  the  form  of  clots.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  complication  the  animal  may  be  subject  to  chills,  which  may  again 
occur  in  the  course  of  the  disease,  in  which  case,  if  severe,  an  unfa- 
vorable termination  by  gangrene  may  be  looked  for.  If  gangrene 
occurs  it  is  shown  by  preliminary  chills,  a  rapid  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture, a  tumultuous  heart,  a  flaky  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and  a 
fetid  breath;  the  sj^mptoms  are  identical  with  those  which  occur  in 
gangrene  complicating  other  diseases. 

Complication  of  the  hrain. — At  any  time  during  the  course  of  the 
disease  congestion  of  the  brain  may  occur;  at  an  early  period  if  ^lie 
fever  has  been  intense  from  the  outset,  but  in  ordinary  cases  more 
frequently  after  three  or  four  days.  The  animal,  which  has  been 
stupid  and  immobile,  becomes  suddenly  restless,  walks  forward  in  the 
stall  until  it  fastens  its  head  in  the  corner.  If  in  a  box  stall  and  it  be- 
comes displaced  from  its  position,  it  follows  the  wall  with  the  nose 
and  eyes,  rubbing  it  along  until  it  reaches  the  corner  and  again  fastens 
itself.  It  may  become  more  violent,  and  rear  and  plunge.  If  dis- 
turbed by  the  entrance  of  the  attendant  or  any  loud  noise  or  bright 
light,  it  will  stamp  with  its  fore  feet  and  strike  with  its  hind  feet,  but 
is  not  definite  in  fixing  the  object  which  it  is  resisting,  which  is  a 
diagnostic  point  between  meningitis  and  rabies  and  which  renders 
the  animal  with  the  former  disease  less  dangerous  to  handle.  If  fas- 
tened by  a  rope  to  a  stake  or  post,  the  animal  will  wander  in  a  circle 


INFLUENZA.  505 

at  the  end  of  the  rope.  It  wanders  almost  invariably  in  one  direction. 
The  pupils  may  be  dilated  or  contracted,  or  we  may  find  one  condition 
in  one  eye  and  the  opposite  in  the  other. 

The  period  of  excitement  is  followed  by  one  of  profound  coma,  in 
which  the  animal  is  immobile,  the  head  hanging  and  placed  against 
the  corner  of  the  stall,  the  body  limp,  and  the  motion,  if  demanded  of 
the  animal,  unsteady.  Little  or  no  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  sur- 
rounding noises,  the  crack  of  a  whip,  or  even  a  blow  on  the  surface  of 
the  body.  The  respiration  becomes  slower,  the  pulsations  are  dimin- 
ished, the  coma  lasts  for  variable  time,  to  be  followed  by  excesses  of 
violence,  after  which  the  two  alternate,  but  if  severe  the  period  of 
coma  becomes  longer  and  longer  until  the  animal  dies  of  spasms  of 
the  lungs  or  of  heart  failure.  It  may  die  from  injuries  which  occur 
in  the  ungovernable  attacks  of  violence. 

Com'plication  of  the  feet. — The  feet  are  the  organs  which  are  next 
in  frequency  predisposed  to  congestion.  This  congestion  takes  place 
in  the  laminae  (podophyllous  structures)  of  the  feet.  The  stupefied 
animal  is  roused  from  its  conditio^  by  excessive  pain  in  the  feet,  and 
assumes  the  position  of  a  foundered  horse;  that  is,  if  the  fore  feet 
alone  are  affected  they  are  carried  forward  until  they  rest  on  the  heels, 
and  if  the  hind  feet  afe  affected  all  of  the  feet  are  carried  forward, 
resting  on  their  heels,  the  hind  ones  as  near  the  center  of  gravity  as 
possible.  In  some  cases  the  stupor  of  the  animal  is  so  gi-eat  that  the 
pain  is  not  felt,  and  little  or  no  alternation  of  the  position  of  the 
animal  is  noticeable.  The  foot  is  found  hot  to  the  touch,  and  after  a 
given  time  the  depressed  convex  sole  of  typical  founder  is  recognized. 

Pleurisy. — This  is  a  rare  complication,  but  when  it  does  occur  it  is 
ushered  in  by  the  usual  symptoms  of  depression,  rapid  pulse,  small 
respiration,  elevation  of  the  temperature,  subcutaneous  edema  of  the 
legs  and  under  surface  of  the  belly,  and  we  find  a  line  of  dullness  on 
either  side  of  the  chest  and  an  absence  of  resj^iratory  murmur  at  the 
lower  part.  If  it  is  severe  there  may  be  an  effusion  filling  one-fourth 
to  one-third  of  the  thoracic  cavity  in  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight 
hours. 

Pericarditis  is  an  occasional  complication  of  influenza.  It  is 
ushered  in  by  chills,  elevation  of  the  temperature ;  the  pulse  becomes 
rapid,  thready,  and  imperceptible.  The  heart  murnuirs  become  in- 
distinct or  can  not  be  heard.  A  venous  pulse  is  seen  on  the  line  of  the 
jugular  veins  along  the  neck.  Respiration  becomes  more  difficult  and 
rapid.  If  the  animal  is  moved  the  symptoms  become  more  marked, 
or  it  may  drop  suddenly  dead  from  heart  failure. 

Peritonitis.,  or  inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  the  belly  and 
covering  the  organs  contained  in  it,  sometimes  takes  place.  The  gen- 
eral symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  a  commencing  pericarditis. 


506  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

The  local  symptoms  are  those  of  pain,  especially  to  pressure  on  side 
of  the  flanks  and  belly;  distention  of  the  lattw,  and  sometimes  the 
formation  of  flatus,  or  gas,  and  constipation. 

Other  occasional  complications  are  nephritis,  hepatitis,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  flexor  tendons  and  rupture  of  them,  and  abscesses. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  of  influenza  is  based  upon  continued 
fever,  with  great  depression  and  symptoms  of  stupor  and  coma;  the 
rapidly  developing,  dark-saffron,  ocher,  yellowish  discoloration  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  swelling  of  the  legs  and  soft  tissues  of  the  geni- 
tals. Wlien  these  symptoms  have  become  manifested  the  diagnosis 
of  a  local  complication  is  based  upon  the  same  symptoms  that  are 
produced  in  the  local  diseases  from  other  causes,  but  in  influenza 
the  local  symptoms  are  frequently  masked  or  even  entirely  hidden 
by  the  intense  stupor  of  the  animal,  which  renders  it  insensible  to 
pain.  The  evidence  of  colic  and  congestion,  which  is  followed  by 
diarrhea,  indicates  enteritis.  The  rapid  breathing  or  difficulty  of 
respiration  points  to  a  complication  of  the  lungs,  but,  as  we  have 
seen  in  the  study  of  the  symptoms,  the  local  evidences  of  lung  lesions 
are  frequently  hidden.  Again,  we  have  seen  that  inflammation  of 
the  feet,  or  founder,  complicating  influenza  is  frequently  not  shown 
on  account  of  the  insensibility  to  pain  on  the  part  of  the  animal, 
which  indicates  the  importance  of  running  the  hand  daily  over  the 
hoofs  to  detect  any  sudden  elevation  of  temperature  on  their  surface. 

The  diagnosis  of  brain  trouble  is  based  upon  the  excessive  violence 
which  occurs  in  the  course  of  the  disease,  for  during  the  intervening 
period  or  coma  there  is  no  means  of  determining  that  it  is  due  to  this 
complication.  Severe  cases  of  influenza  may  simulate  anthrax  in  the 
horse.  In  both  we  have  stupor,  the  intense  coloration  of  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  eyes,  and  a  certain  amount  of  swelling  of  the  legs 
and  under  surface  of  the  belly.  The  diagnosis  here  can  be  made  only 
by  microscopic  examination  of  the  blood.  In  strangles,  equine  variola, 
and  scalma  we  have  an  intense  red,  rosy  coloration  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  full,  tense  pulse,  and,  although  in  these  diseases  we  may 
have  depression,  we  do  not  have  the  stupor  and  coma  except  in  severe 
cases  which  have  lasted  for  some  days.  In  influenza  we  have  no  evi- 
dence of  the  formation  of  pus  on  the  mucous  membranes  as  in  the 
other  diseases,  except  sometimes  in  the  conjunctiva)  of  the  eyes. 

In  severe  pneumonia  (lung  fever)  we  may  find  profound  coma, 
dark  yellowish  coloration  of  the  mucous  membranes,  and  swelling  of 
the  under  surface  of  the  belly  and  legs;  but  in  pneumonia  we  have  the 
history  of  the  difficulty  of  breathing  and  an  acute  fever  of  a  sthenic 
type  from  the  outset,  and  the  other  symptoms  do  not  occur  for  sev- 
eral days;  while  in  influenza  we  have  the  history  of  characteristic 
symptoms  for  several  days  before  the  rapid  breathing  and  difficulty 
of  respiration  indicate  the  appearance  of  the  complication.     Without 


INFLUENZA.  507 

the  history  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  diagnose  a  case  of  influenza  of 
several  days'  standing,  complicated  by  pneumonia,  from  a  case  of 
severe  pneumonia  of  five  to  six  days'  standing,  but  from  a  prognostic 
point  of  view  it  is  immaterial,  as  the  treatment  of  both  are  identical. 
The  fact  that  other  horses  in  the  same  stable  or  neighborhood  have 
influenza  may  aid  in  the  diagnosis. 

Prognosis. — Influenza  is  a  serious  disease  chiefly  on  account  of  its 
numerous  complications.  Uncomplicated  influenza  is  a  compara- 
tively simple  malady,  and  is  fatal  in  but  1  to  5  per  cent  of  all  cases. 
In  some  outbreaks,  however,  complications  of  one  kind  or  another 
preponderate;  in  such  instances  the  rate  of  mortality  is  much 
increased. 

Alterations. — The  chief  alteration  of  influenza  occurs  in  the  di- 
gestive tract,  and  consists  in  hyperemia,  infiltration,  and  swelling  of 
the  mucous  membrane,  and  especially  of  the  Peyers'  patches  near  the 
ileocecal  valve.  The  tissues  throughout  the  body  are  found  stained, 
and  of  a  more  or  less  yellowish  hue.  There  is  always  found  a  con- 
gested condition  of  all  the  organs,  muscles,  and  interstitial  tissues  of 
the  body.  The  coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  partake  in 
the  congested  and  discolored  condition  of  the  rest  of  the  tissues. 

Other  alterations  are  dependent  entirely  upon  the  complications. 
If  the  lungs  have  been  affected,  we  find  effusions  identical  in  their 
intimate  nature  with  those  of  simple  pneumonia,  but  they  differ 
somewhat  in  their  general  appearance  in  not  being  so  circumscribed 
in  their  area  of  invasion.  The  alterations  of  meningitis  and  lami- 
nitis  are  identical  with  those  of  sporadic  cases  of  founder  and  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain. 

Treatment. — ^Vhile  the  appetite  remains  the  patient  should  have  a 
moderate  quantity  of  sound  hay,  good  oats,  and  bran ;  or  even  a  little 
fresh  clover,  if  obtainable,  can  be  given  in  small  quantities.  It  is 
not  so  important  that  a  special  diet  shall  be  observed  as  that  the  horse 
shall  eat  a  moderate  quantity  of  nourishing  food,  and  he  may  be 
tempted  with  any  food  of  good  quality  that  he  relishes.  The  sick 
horse  should  be  placed  in  a  well-ventilated  box  stall  away  from  other 
horses.  Grass,  roots,  apples,  and  milk  may  be  offered  and,  if  relished, 
allowed  freely.  To  reduce  the  temperature,  the  safest  simple  plan  is 
to  inject  large  quantities  of  cold  water  into  the  rectum.  Antipyrene 
may  be  used  with  alcohol  or  strychnia.  Derivatives  in  the  form  of 
essential  oils  and  mustard  poultices,  baths  of  alcohol,  turpentine, 
and  hot  water,  after  which  the  animal  must  be  immediatelj'-  dried  and 
blanketed,  serve  to  waken  the  animal  up  from  the  stupor  and  relieve 
the  congestion  of  the  internal  organs.  This  treatment  is  especially 
indicated  when  complication  by  congestion  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  or 
of  the  brain  is  threatened.  Quinine  and  salicylic  acid  in  1-dram 
doses  will  lower  the  temperature,  but  too  continuous  use  of  quinine 


508  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

in  some  cases  increases  the  after  depression.  Iodide  of  potash  re- 
duces the  excessive  nutrition  of  the  congested  organs  and  thereby 
reduces  the  temperature;  again,  this  drug  in  moderate  quantities  is 
a  stimulant  to  the  digestive  tract  and  acts  as  a  diuretic,  causing  the 
elimination  of  waste  matter  by  the  kidneys.  Small  doses  of  Glauber's 
salts  and  bicarbonate  of  soda,  used  from  the  outset,  stimulate  the 
digestive  tract  and  prevent  constipation  and  its  evil  results. 

In  cases  of  severe  depression  and  weakness  of  the  heart  digitalis 
can  be  used  with  advantage.  At  the  end  of  the  fever,  and  when  con- 
valescence is  established,  alcohol  in  one-half  pint  doses  and  good  ale 
in  1-pint  doses  may  be  given  as  stimulants;  to  these  may  be  added 
1-dram  doses  of  turpentine. 

In  complication  of  the  intestines  camphor  and  asafetida  are  most 
frequently  used  to  relieve  the  pain  causing  the  colics ;  diarrhea  is  also 
relieved  by  the  use  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  nitrate  of  potash,  and 
drinks  made  from  boiled  rice  or  starch,  to  which  may  be  added  small 
doses  of  laudanum. 

In  complication  of  the  lungs  iodide  of  potash  and  digitalis  are  most 
frequently  indicated,  in  addition  to  the  remedies  used  for  the  disease 
itself. 

Founder  occurring  as  a  complication  of  influenza  is  difficult  to  treat. 
It  is,  unfortunately,  frequently  not  recognized  until  inflammatory 
changes  have  gone  on  for  some  days.  If  recognized  at  once,  local 
bleeding  and  the  use  of  hot  or  cold  water,  as  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal will  permit,  are  most  useful,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
stupefied  animal  is  unable  to  be  moved  satisfactorily  or  to  have  one 
foot  lifted  for  local  treatment,  and  the  only  treatment  consists  in  local 
bleeding  above  the  coronary  bands  and  the  application  of  poultices. 

During  convalescence  small  doses  of  alkalines  may  be  kept  up  for 
some  little  time,  but  the  greatest  care  must  be  used,  while  furnishing 
the  animal  with  plenty  of  nutritious,  easily  digestible  food,  not  to 
overload  the  intestinal  tract,  causing  constipation  and  consequent 
diarrhea.  Special  care  must  be  taken  for  some  weeks  not  to  expose 
the  animal  to  cold. 

AFTER  EFFECTS   OF  INFLUENZA. 

Anasarca,  or  purpura  hemorrhagica. — A  previous  attack  of  influ- 
enza is  a  common  predisposing  cause  of  this  disease,  which  appears 
most  frequently  a  few  weeks  after  convalescence  is  established.  It 
occurs  more  frequently  in  those  animals  which  have  made  a  rapid 
convalescence  and  are  apparently  perfectly  well  than  it  does  in  those 
which  have  made  a  slower  recovery. 

Anasarca  commences  by  symptoms  which  are  excessively  variabk\ 
The  local  lesions  may  be  confined  to  a  small  portion  of  the  animal's 
body  and  the  constitutional  phenomena  be  nil.  The  appearance  and 
gravity  of  the  local  lesions  may  be  so  unlike,  from  difference  of  loca- 


ANASARCA,  OR   PURPURA   HEMORRHAGICA.  509 

tion,  that  they  seem  to  belong  to  a  separate  disease,  and  complica- 
tions may  completely  mask  the  original  trouble. 

In  the  simplest  form  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  a  swelling,  or 
several  swellings,  occurring  on  the  surface  of  the  body — on  the  fore- 
arm, the  leg,  the  under  surface  o:rthe  belly,  or  the  side  of  the  head. 
The  tumefaction  is  at  first  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg ;  not  hot,  little  sen- 
sitive, and  distinctly  circumscribed  by  a  marked  line  from  the  sur- 
rounding healthy  tissue.  These  tumors  gradually  extend  until  they 
coalesce,  and  in  a  few  hours  we  have  swelling  up  of  the  legs,  legs  and 
belly,  or  the  head,  to  an  enormous  size;  they  have  always  the  char- 
acteristic constricted  border,  which  looks  as  if  it  had  been  tied  with  a 
cord.  In  the  nostrils  are  found  small  reddish  spots,  or  petechise, 
which  gradually  assume  a  brownish  and  frequently  a  black  color. 
Examination  of  the  mouth  will  frequently  reveal  similar  lesions  on 
the  surface  of  the  tongue,  along  the  lingual  gutter,  and  on  the 
frainum.  If  the  external  swelling  has  been  on  the  head,  the  pete- 
chise  of  the  mucous  membranes  are  apt  to  be  more  numerous  and  to 
coalesce  into  patches  of  larger  size  than  when  the  dropsy  is  confined 
to  the  legs.  The  animal  may  be  rendered  stiff  by  the  swelling  of  the 
legs,  or  be  annoyed  by  the  awkward  swollen  head,  which  at  times  may 
be  so  enormous  as  to  resemble  that  of  a  hippopotamus  rather  than 
that  of  a  horse.  During  this  period  the  temperature  remains  nor- 
mal; the  pulse,  if  altered  at  all,  is  only  a  little  weaker;  the  respira- 
tion is  only  hurried  if  the  swelling  of  the  head  infringes  on  the 
caliber  of  the  nostrils.  The  appetite  remains  normal.  The  animal 
is  attentive  to  all  that  is  going  on,  and,  except  for  the  swelling, 
apparently  in  perfect  health. 

In  from  two  to  four  days,  in  severe  cases,  the  tissues  can  no  longer 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  exuded  fluid.  Over  the  surface  of  the  skin 
which  covers  the  dropsy  we  find  a  slight  serous  sweating,  which 
loosens  the  epidermis  and  dries  so  as  to  simulate  the  eruption  of  some 
cutaneous  disease.  If  this  is  excessive  we  may  see  irritated  spots 
which  are  suppurating.  In  the  nasal  fossae  the  hemorrhagic  spots 
have  acted  as  irritants,  and,  inviting  an  increased  amount  of  blood 
to  the  Schneiderian  membrane,  produce  a  coryza  or  even  a  catarrh. 
We  may  now  find  some  enlargement  and  peripheral  edema  of  the 
lymphatic  glands,  which  are  fed  from  the  affected  part.  The  ther- 
mometer indicates  a  slight  rise  in  the  body  temperature,  while  the 
pulse  and  respiration  are  somewhat  accelerated.  The  appetite  usu- 
ally remains  good.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  the  temperature  may 
have  reached  102°,  103°,  or  104°  F. 

Fever  is  established,  not  an  essential  or  specific  fever  in  any  way, 
but  a  simple  secondary  fever  produced  by  the  dead  material  from  the 
surface  or  superficial  suppuration,  and  by  the  oxidization  and  absorp- 
tion of  the  colloid  mass  contained  in  the  tissues.    The  skin  may  sup- 


510  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

purate  or  slough  more  or  less  over  the  areas  of  greatest  tension  or 
where  it  is  irritated  by  blows  or  pressure.  The  great  swelling  about 
the  head  may  by  closure  of  the  nostrils  interfere  seriously  with  breath- 
ing.' Internal  edema  may  occur  in  the  throat,  lungs,  or  intestines. 
Septicemia,  or  blood  poisoning,  ma^  result  from  anasarca. 

Terminations. — The  simple  form  of  the  disease  most  frequently 
terminates  favorably  on  the  eighth  or  tenth  day  by  resolution  or  ab- 
sorption of  the  effusion,  with  usually  a  profuse  diuresis,  and  with  or 
without  diarrhea.  The  appetite  remains  good  or  is  at  times  ca- 
pricious. 

Death  may  occur  from  mechanical  asphyxia,  produced  by  closure  of 
the  nostrils  or  closure  of  the  glottis.  Metastasis  to  the  lungs  is  almost 
invariably  fatal,  causing  death  by  asphyxia.  Metastasis  to  the  intes- 
tines may  cause  death  from  pain,  enteritis,  or  hemorrhage. 

Excessive  suppuration,  lymphangitis,  and  gangrene  are  causes  of  a 
fatal  termination  by  exhaustion.  Mortal  exhaustion  is  again  pro- 
duced by  inability  to  swallow  in  cases  of  excessive  swelling  of  the 
head. 

Peritonitis  may  arise  secondary  to  the  enteric  edema,  or  by  perfora- 
tion of  the  stomach  or  intestines  by  a  gangrenous  spot.  Septicemia 
terminates  fatally  with  its  usual  train  of  symptoms. 

Alterations. — The  essential  alterations  of  anasarca  are  exceedingly 
simple ;  the  capillaries  are  dilated,  the  lymphatic  spaces  between  the 
fibers  of  the  connective  tissue  are  filled  with  serum,  and  the  coagulable 
portion  of  the  blood  presents  a  yellowish  or  citrine  mass,  jellylike  in 
consistency,  which  has  stretched  out  the  tissue  like  the  meshes  of  a 
sponge.  ^\Tiere  the  effusion  has  occurred  between  the  muscles,  as  in 
the  head,  these  are  found  dissected  and  separated  from  each  other 
like  those  of  a  hog's  head  by  the  masses  of  fat.  The  surface  of  the 
skin  is  desquamated  and  frequently  denuded  of  the  hair.  Frequently 
there  are  traces  of  suppuration  and  of  ulceration.  The  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  is  found  studded  with  small,  hemorrhagic  spots, 
sometimes  red,  more  frequently  brown  or  black,  often  coalesced  with 
each  other  in  irregular-sized  patches  and  surrounded  by  a  reddish 
zone,  the  product  of  irritation.  If  edema  of  the  intestines  "has  oc- 
curred, the  membrane  is  found  four  or  five  times  its  normal  thickness, 
reddish  in  color,  with  hemorrhages  on  the  free  surface.  Edema  of 
the  lungs  leaves  these  organs  distended.  The  secondaiy  alterations 
vary  according  to  the  complications.  There  are  frequently  the  lesions 
of  asphyxia;  externally  we  find  ulcers,  abscesses,  and  gangrenous 
spots  and  the  deep  ulcers  resulting  from  the  latter.  The  lymphatic 
cords  and  glands  are  found  with  all  the  lesions  of  lymphangitis. 
Again  are  found  the  traces  of  excessive  emaciation,  or  the  lesions  of 


ANASARCA,  OR   PURPURA   HEMORRHAGICA.  511 

septicemia.  Except  from  the  complications  the  blood  is  not  altered 
in  anasarca. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  of  anasarca  must  principally  be  made 
from  farcy  or  glanders.  In  anasarca  the  swelling  is  nonsensitive, 
while  sensitive  in  the  acute  swelling  of  farcy.  The  nodes  of  farcy 
are  distinct  and  hard  and  never  circumscribed,  as  in  the  other  disease. 
The  eruption  of  glanders  on  the  mucous  membranes  is  nodular,  hard, 
and  pelletlike.  The  redness  disappears  on  pressure.  In  case  of 
excessive  swelling  of  the  head  in  anasarca,  there  may  occur  an  ex- 
tensive serofibrinous  exudation  from  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
nose,  poured  out  as  a  semifluid  mass  or  as  a  cast  of  the  nasal  fossae, 
never  having  the  appearance  or  typical  oily  character  which  it  has 
in  glanders.  The  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  cords  and  glands 
in  anasarca  does  not  produce  the  hard,  indurated  character  which  is 
found  in  farcy. 

Prognosis. — While  anasarca  is  not  an  excessively  fatal  disease,  the 
prognosis  must  always  be  guarded.  The  majority  of  cases  run  a 
simple  course  and  terminate  favorably  at  the  end  of  eight  or  ten 
days,  or  possibly,  after  one  to  two  relapses,  requiring  several  weeks 
for  complete  recovery.  Effusion  into  the  head  renders  the  prognosis 
much  more  grave  from  the  possible  danger  of  mechanical  asphyxia. 
Threatened  mechanical  asphyxia  is  especially  dangerous  on  account 
of  the  risk  of  blood  poisoning  after  an  operation  of  tracheotomy. 
Edema  of  the  viscera  is  a  most  serious  complication.  The  prognosis 
is  based  on  the  complications,  their  extent,  and  their  individual  grav- 
ity, existing,  as  they  do  here,  in  an  already  debilitated  subject. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  anasarca  may  be  as  variable  as  are 
the  lesions.  The  indications  are  at  once  shown  by  the  alterations 
and  mechanism  of  the  disease,  which  we  have  just  studied. 

Hygiene  comes  into  play  as  the  most  important  factor.  Oats,  oat 
and  hay  tea,  milk,  eggs — anything  which  the  stomach  or  rectum  can 
be  coaxed  to  take  care  of — must  be  employed  to  give  the  nutriment, 
which  is  the  only  thing  that  will  permanently  strengthen  the  tissues, 
and  they  must  be  strengthened  in  order  to  keep  the  capillaries  at  their 
proper  caliber. 

Laxatives,  diaphoretics,  and  diuretics  must  be  used  to  stimulate 
the  emunctories,  so  that  they  shall  carry  off  the  large  amount  of  the 
products  of  decomposition  which  result  from  the  stagnated  effusions 
of  anasarca.  Of  these  the  sulphate  of  soda  in  small  repeated  doses, 
and  the  nitrate  of  potash  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  small  quantity, 
and  the  chlorate  of  potash  in  single  large  doses  will  be  found  useful. 
Williams  cites  the  chlorate  of  potash  as  an  antiputrid.  Stimulants 
and  astringents  are  directly  indicated.  Spirits  of  turpentine  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  a  cardiac  stimulant  and  a  powerful,  warm  diu- 


512  DISEASES   OF  THE   HOBSE. 

luetic,  for  the  kidneys  in  this  disease  will  stand  a  wonderful  amount 
of  work.  Camphor  can  be  used  with  advantage.  Coffee  and  tea 
are  two  of  the  diffusible  stimulants  which  are  too  much  neglected  in 
veterinary  medicine;  both  are  valuable  adjuncts  in  treatment  in 
anasarca,  as  they  are  during  convalescence  at  the  end  of  any  grave 
disease  which  has  tended  to  render  the  patient  anemic.  Dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  perhaps  the  best  examples  of 
a  combination  of  stimulant,  astringent,  and  tonic  which  can  be 
employed.  The  simple  astringents  of  mineral  origin,  sulphates  of 
iron,  copper,  etc.,  are  useful  as  digestive  tonics ;  I  doubt  if  they  have 
any  constitutional  effect.  The  vegetable  astringents,  tannic  acid, 
etc,  have  not  proved  efficacious  in  my  hands.  Iodide  of  potash  in 
small  doses  serves  the  triple  purpose  of  digestive  tonic,  denutritive 
for  inflammation,  and  diuretic.  Among  the  newer  forms  of  treat- 
ment are  diluted  Lugol's  solution  injected  into  the  trachea,  anti- 
streptococcus  serum  and  colloidal  silver  solution  injected  into  the 
circulation.  No  one  but  a  qualified  veterinarian  would  be  competent 
to  apply  these  remedies. 

Externally. — Sponging  the  swollen  parts,  especially  the  head,  when 
the  swelling  occurs  there,  is  most  useful.  The  bath  should  be  at  an 
extreme  of  temperature — either  ice  cold  to  constrict  the  tissues  or  hot 
water  to  act  as  an  emollient  and  to  favor  circulation.  Vinegar  may  be 
added  as  an  astringent.  \Mien  we  have  excessively  denuded  surfaces, 
suppuration,  or  open  wounds,  disinfectants  should  be  added  to  the 
wash. 

In  cases  of  excessive  swelling,  especially  of  the  head,  mechanical 
relief  may  be  required.  Punctures  of  the  part  should  be  made  with 
the  hot  iron  even  in  country  practice,  as  no  other  disease  so  predis- 
poses to  septic  contamination.  When  mechanical  asphyxia  is  threat- 
ened tracheotomy  may  be  demanded.  With  the  first  evidence  of 
dyspnea,  not  due  to  closing  of  the  nostrils  or  glottis,  or  with  the  first 
pawing  which  gives  rise  to  a  suspicion  of  colic,  a  mustard  plaster 
should  be  applied  over  the  whole  belly  and  chest.  The  sinapism  will 
draw  the  current  of  the  circulation  to  the  exterior,  the  metastasis  to 
the  lungs  or  intestines  is  prevented,  and  the  enfeebled  nervous  system 
is  stimulated  to  renewed  vigor  by  the  peripheral  irritation.  The 
organs  are  encouraged  by  it  to  renewed  functional  activity ;  the  local 
inflammation  produced  by  it  favors  absorption  of  the  exudation.  The 
objection  to  the  use  of  blisters  is  their  more  severe  action  and  the 
danger  of  mortification.  Septicemia,  when  occurring  as  a  complica- 
tion, requires  the  ordinary  treatment  for  the  putrid  diseases,  with 
little  hope  of  a  good  result. 

After  recovery  the  animal  regains  its  ordinary  health,  and  there  is 
no  predisposition  to  a  return  of  the  disease. 


GENERAL   DISEASES.  513 

STRANGLES. 

[Synonyms:  Distemper,  colt-ill,  cartarrhal  fever,  one  form  of  shipping  fever, 

Febris  pyogenica.] 

Definition. — Strangles  is  an  infectious  disease  of  the  horse,  mule, 
and  ass ;  seen  most  frequently  in  young  animals,  and  usually  leaving 
an  animal  which  has  had  one  attack  protected  from  future  trouble  of 
the 'same  kind.  It  appears  as  a  fever,  lasting  for  a  few  days,  with 
formation  of  matter,  or  pus,  in  the  air  tubes  and  lungs,  and  fre- 
quently the  formation  of  abscesses  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  both 
near  the  surface  and  in  the  internal  organs.  It  usually  leaves  the 
animal  after  convalescence  perfectly  healthy  and  as  good  as  it  was 
before,  but  sometimes  leaves  it  a  roarer  or  is  followed  by  the  devel- 
opment of  deep-seated  abscesses,  which  may  prove  fatal. 

Causes. — The  cause  of  strangles  is  infection  by  direct  contact  with 
an  animal  suffering  from  the  disease,  or  indirectly  through  contact 
with  the  discharges  from  an  infected  animal,  or  by  means  of  the 
atmosphere  in  which  an  infected  animal  has  been.  There  are  many 
predisposing  causes  which  render  some  animals  much  more  subject  to 
contract  the  disease  than  others.  Early  age,  which  has  given  it  the 
popular  name  of  colt-ill,  offers  many  more  subjects  than  the  later 
periods  of  life  do,  for  the  animal  can  contract  the  disease  but  once, 
and  the  large  majority  of  adult  and  old  animals  have  derived  an 
immunity  from  previous  attacks.  At  3,  4,  or  5  years  of  age  tJie  colt, 
which  has  been  at  home,  safe  on  a  meadow  or  in  a  cozy  barnyard,  far 
from  all  intercourse  with  other  animals  or  sources  of  contagion,  is 
first  put  to  work  and  driven  to  the  market  town  or  county  fairs  to  be 
exposed  to  an  atmosphere  or  to  stables  contaminated  by  other  horses 
suffering  from  disease  and  serving  as  infecting  agents.  If  it  fails  to 
contract  it  there,  it  is  sold  and  shipped  in  foul,  undisinfected  railway 
cars  to  dealers'  stables,  equally  unclean,  where  it  meets  many  oppor- 
tunities of  infection.  If  it  escapes  so  far,  it  reaches  the  time  for 
heavier  work  and  daily  contact  on  the  streets  of  towns  or  large  cities, 
with  numerous  other  horses  and  mules,  some  of  which  are  sure  to  be 
the  bearers  of  the  germs  of  this  or  some  other  infectious  disease,  and 
at  last  it  succumbs. 

The  period  of  the  eruption  of  the  last  permanent  teeth  or  the  end 
of  the  period  of  development  from  the  colt  to  an  adult  horse,  at 
which  time  the  animals  usually  have  a  tendency  to  fatten  and  be  ex- 
cessively full-blooded,  also  seems  to  be  a  predisposing  period  for  the 
contraction  of  this  as  well  as  of  the  other  infectious  diseases. 
Thoroughbred  colts  are  very  susceptible,  and  frequently  contract 
strangles  at  a  somewhat  earlier  age  than  those  of  more  humble  origin. 
Mules  and  asses  are  much  less  susceptible  and  are  but  rarely  affected. 
Other  animals  are  not  subject  to  this  disease,  but  there  is  a  certain 
analogy  between  it  and  distemper  in  dogs.  After  exposure  to  infec- 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 33 


514  DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 

tion  there  is  a  period  of  incubation  of  the  disease,  lasting  from  two 
to  four  days,  during  which  the  animal  enjoys  its  ordinary  health. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  at  first  is  a  little  sluggish  if  used,  or  when 
placed  in  its  stable  is  somewhat  dejected,  paying  but  moderate  atten- 
tion to  the  'Various  disturbing  surroundings.  Its  appetite  is  somewhat 
diminished  in  many  cases,  while  in  some  cases  the  animal  eats  well 
throughout.  Thirst  is  increased,  but  not  a  great  deal  of  water  is 
taken  at  one  time.  If  a  bucket  of  water  is  placed  in  the  manger  the 
patient  will  dip  its  nose  into  it  and  swallow  a  few  mouthfuls,  allow- 
ing some  of  it  to  drip  back,  and  then  stop,  to  return  to  it  in  a  short 
time.  The  coat  becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand  on  end.  At  times 
the  horse  will  have  chills  of  one  or  the  other  leg,  the  fore  quarters, 
or  hind  quarters,  or  in  severe  cases  of  the  whole  body,  with  trembling 
of  the  muscles  and  dryness  of  the  skin. 

If  the  eyes  and  mouth  are  examined  the  membranes  are  found  red- 
dened to  a  bright  rosy  color.  The  pulse  is  quickened  and  the  breath- 
ing may  be  slightly  accelerated.  At  the  end  of  a  couple  of  days  a  cough 
is  heard  and  a  discharge  begins  to  come  from  the  nostrils.  This  dis- 
charge is  at  first  watery ;  it  then  becomes  thicker,  somewhat  bluish  in 
color,  and  sticky,  and  finally  it  assumes  the  yellowish  color  of  matter 
and  increases  greatly  in  quantity. 

At  the  outset  the  colt  may  sneeze  occasionally  and  a  cough  is  heard. 
The  cough  is  at  first  repeated  and  harsh,  but  soon  becomes  softer  and 
moist  as  the  discharge  increases.  Again  the  cough  varies  according 
to  the  source  of  the  discharge,  for  in  light  cases  this  may  be  only  a 
catarrh  of  the  nasal  canals,  or  it  may  be  from  the  throat,  the  wind- 
pipe, or  the  air  tubes  of  the  lungs,  or  even  from  the  lungs  themselves. 
According  to  the  organ  affected  the  symptoms  and  character  of  cough 
will  be  similar  to  those  of  a  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  or  lung  fever 
caused  by  ordinary  cold. 

Shortly  after  the  discharge  is  seen  a  swelling  takes  place  under  the 
jaw,  or  in  the  intermaxillary  space.  This  is  at  first  puffy,  swollen, 
somewhat  hot  and  tender,  and  finally  becomes  distinctly  so,  and  an 
abscess  is  felt,  or  having  broken  itself  the  discharge  is  seen  dripping 
from  a  small  opening.  When  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  has 
fully  developed  the  fever  usually  disappears  and  the  animal  regains 
its  app>etite,  unless  the  swelling  is  sufficient  to  interfere  with  the  func- 
tion of  the  throat,  causing  pain  on  any  attempt  to  swallow.  At  the 
end  of  four  or  six  days  the  discharge  lessens,  the  soreness  around  the 
throat  diminishes,  the  horse  regains  its  appetite,  and  in  two  weeks  has 
regained  its  usual  condition.  Old  and  strong  horses  may  have  the 
disease  in  so  light  a  form  that  the  fever  is  not  noticeable;  they  may 
continue  to  eat  and  perform  their  ordinary  work  as  usual  and  no 
symptom  may  be  seen  beyond  a  slight  discharge  from  the  nose  and  a 
rare  cough,  which  is  not  suflScient  to  worry  any  but  the  most  particu- 


STRANGLES.  515 

lar  owner.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  disease  may  assume  a  malig- 
nant form  or  become  complicated  so  as  to  become  a  most  serious 
disease,  and  even  prove  fatal  in  many  cases.  Inflammation  of  the 
larynx  and  bronchi,  if  excessive,  will  produce  violent,  harsh  coughing, 
which  may  almost  asphyxiate  the  animal.  The  large  amount  of  dis- 
charge may  be  mixed  with  air  by  the  difficult  breathing,  and  the 
nostrils,  the  front  of  the  animal,  manger,  and  surrounding  objects 
become  covered  with  a  white  foam.  The  inflammation  may  be  in  the 
lung  itself  (lobular  pneumonia)  and  cause  the  animal  to- breathe 
heavily,  heave  at  the  flanks,  and  show  great  distress.  In  this  condi- 
tion marked  symptoms  of  fever  are  seen,  the  appetite  is  lost,  the  coat 
is  dry,  the  horse  stands  back  in  its  stall  at  the  end  of  the  halter  strap 
with  its  neck  extended  and  its  legs  propped  apart  to  favor  breathing. 
This  condition  may  end  by  resolution,  leaving  the  horse  for  some 
time  with  a  severe  cough,  or  the  animal  may  die  from  choking  up  of 
the  lungs  (asphyxia). 

The  swelling  under  the  jaw  may  be  excessive,  and  if  the  abscess  is 
not  opened  it  burrows  toward  the  throat  or  to  the  side  and  causes 
inflammation  of  the  parotid  glands  and  breaks  in  annoying  fistulas  at 
the  sides  of  the  throat  and  even  up  as  high  as  the  ears.  Roaring  may 
occur  either  during  a  moderately  severe  attack  from  inflanunation  of 
the  .throat  (larynx),  or  at  a  later  period  as  the  result  of  continued 
lung  trouble.  Abscesses  may  develop  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  in 
the  poll,  in  the  withers,  or  in  the  spaces  of  loose  tissue  under  the 
arms,  in  the  fold  of  the  thigh,  and,  in  entire  horses,  in  the  testicles. 

During  the  course  of  the  disease,  or  later,  when  the  animal  seems  to 
be  on  the  road  to  perfect  recovery,  abscesses  may  form  in  the  internal 
organs  and  produce  symptoms  characteristic  of  disease  of  those  parts. 

Roaring,  plunging,  wandering  in  a  circle,  or  standing  with  the  head 
wedged  in  a  corner  of  the  stall  indicate  the  collection  of  matter  in  the 
brain.  Sudden  and  severe  lung  symptoms,  without  previous  dis- 
charge, point  to  an  abscess  between  the  lungs,  in  the  mediastinum; 
colic,  which  is  often  continuous  for  days,  is  the  result  of  the  forma- 
tion of  an  abscess  in  some  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  usually  in  the 
mesentery. 

Pathology. — The  lesions  of  strangles  are  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  mucous  membranes,  essentially  of  the  respiratory  system,  and  in 
the  loose  connective  tissue  fibers  of  the  internal  organs  and  glands, 
and  consist  of  acute  inflammatory  changes,  tending  to  the  formation 
of  matter.  The  blood  is  unaltered,  though  it  is  rich  in  fibrin,  and  if 
the  animal  has  died  of  asphyxia  it  is  found  dark  colored  and  uncoagu- 
lated  when  the  body  is  first  opened.  If  the  animal  has  died  while 
suffering  from  high  fever  the  ordinary  alterations  throughout  the 
body,  which  are  produced  by  any  fever  not  attended  by  alteration  of 
blood,  are  found. 


516  DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Treatment. — Ordinary  light  cases  require  but  little  treatment  be- 
yond diet,  warm  washes,  moistened  hay,  warm  coverings,  and  pro- 
tection from  exposure  to  cold.  The  latter  is  urgently  called  for,  as 
lung  complications,  severe  bronchitis,  and  laryngitis  are  often  the 
results  of  neglect  of  this  precaution.  If  the  fever  is  excessive,  the 
horse  may  receive  small  quantities  of  Glauber's  salts  (handful  three 
times  a  day),  as  a  laxative,  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  niter  in  1-dram 
doses  every  few  hours,  and  small  doses  of  antimony,  iodide  of  potash, 
aconite,  or  quinine.  Steaming  the  head  with  the  vapor  of  warm 
water  poured  over  a  bucket  of  bran  and  hay,  in  which  belladonna 
leaves  or  tar  have  been  placed,  will  allay  the  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membranes  and  greatly  ease  the  cough. 

The  swelling  of  the  glands  should  be  promptly  treated  by  bathing 
with  warm  water  and  flaxseed  poultices,  and  as  soon  as  there  is  any 
evidence  of  the  formation  of  matter  it  should  be  opened.  Prompt 
action  in  this  will  often  save  serious  complications.  Blisters  and  irri- 
tating liniments  should  Tiot  be  applied  to  the  throat.  When  lung 
complications  show  themselves  the  horse  should  have  mustard  applied 
to  the  belly  and  to  the  sides  of  the  chest.  When  convalescence  begins 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  animal  to  cold,  which  may 
bring  on  relapses,  and  while  exercise  is  of  great  advantage  it  must  not 
be  turned  into  work  until  the  animal  has  entirely  regained  its 
strength. 

SCALMA. 

The  diflferentiation  of  the  various  diseases  which  have  popularly 
been  included  under  the  terms  of  distemper  and  influenza  up  to  a 
comparatively  recent  date  has  been  so  slow  and  so  tardily  accepted  by 
the  majority  of  practitioners  that  we  have  been  subjected  to  con- 
stantly seeing  announced  and  heralded  as  news  in  the  daily  papers  the 
appearance  of  some  new  disease.  These  new  diseases  of  the  populace 
and  of  the  empiric  are  to  us  but  the  epizootic  outbreak  or  the  more 
severely  manifested  form  of  some  ordinary  contagious  disease. 

There  is,  however,  one  of  the  contagious  fevers  of  the  horse  which 
has  constantly  been  confounded  with  other  diseases,  and  which  has 
not  been  separated  from  them  in  our  English  text-books.  As  this  dis- 
ease has  received  no  proper  name  in  English,  I  shall  use  for  it  the 
name  given  by  Professor  DieckerhofF,  of  Berlin,  who  first  described  it 
in  the  Adams  Wochenschrift,  XXIX,  in  1885. 

Etymology. — The  term  "  scalma  "  is  derived  from  the  old  German 
word  scalmo,  scelmo,  schelm,  which  indicates  rogiiishness,  or  knavish- 
ness,  as  great  nervous  irritability,  especially  of  the  temper,  is  one  of 
the  characteristic,  almost  diagnostic,  symptoms  of  this  disease.  The 
term  '"''TJeimtuckische  Krankheit^'*  signifying  malicious,  treacherous, 
or  mischievous,  is  also  employed  in  German  for  the  same  trouble.    I 


SCALMA.  517 

am  not  aware  of  any  name  in  English  or  French  which  has  been 
applied  to  it. 

As  I  am  opposed  to  employing  in  veterinary  medicine  any  of  the 
nomenclature  of  human  medicine,  except  for  identical,  simple,  and 
inflammatory  diseases,  or  for  intercommunicable  contagious  diseases, 
I  will  not  offer  the  term  "  whooping  cough  "  as  a  name,  but  I  will  sug- 
gest a  certain  similarity  between  the  latter  disease  in  man  and  scalma 
in  the  horse. 

Definition. — Scalma  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  febrile  disease 
of  the  horse,  with  local  lesions  of  the  bronchi,  trachea,  and  larynx, 
which  is  evidenced  by  cough.  It  is  further  characterized  by  great 
irritability  of  temper.  It  occurs  as  a  stable  plague;  that  is,  in  en- 
zootic form,  with,  however,  great  variations  in  the  susceptibility  of 
the  animals  to  contract  it.  It  is  rarely  fatal  except  from  compli- 
cations. 

Incubation. — The  period  of  incubation  is  from  six  to  seven  days, 
but  the  disease  may  develop  in  two  days  after  exposure  or  it  may 
delay  its  appearance  for  ten  days.  It  spreads  through  a  stable  slowly, 
developing  at  times  in  a  horse  placed  in  a  stall  where  the  previously 
sick  one  had  stood,  or  it  may  pass  next  to  an  animal  several  stalls 
away.     One  attack  is  usually  protective. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  ushered  in  by  fever,  in  which  the 
acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  respiration  is  in  no  way  in  accord  with 
the  great  elevation  of  temperature.  With  the  appearance  of  the 
fever  is  developed  a  diffuse  bronchitis,  which  is,  however,  subacute 
both  in'  its  character  and  in  its  course.  At  times  the  trouble  of  the 
bronchi  may  extend  to  the  trachea,  larynx,  pharynx,  or  even  to  the 
nasal  fossae. 

In  two  or  three  days  a  trifling  grayish  albuminous  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  occurs,  which  continues,  variable  in  quantity,  for  eight  to 
fourteen  days,  or  may  even  last  for  three  weeks.  The  cough  is  short, 
rough,  and  painful,  spasmodic  in  its  occurrence  and  in  character. 
The  slight  watery  or  slimy  discharge  may  become  more  profuse, 
purulent,  or  even  "  rusty,"  if  the  bronchitis  has  extended  to  the  neigh- 
boring structures.  Pharyngeal  discharge  may  take  place.  The  res- 
piration is  moderate  and  affected  only  during  an  excess  of  coughing, 
or  in  complicated  cases.  The  pulse  undergoes  but  little  quickening. 
The  temperature  rises  rapidly  to  102.2°,  104°,  and  in  some  cases  even 
to  107.5°  F.  The  latter  temperature  usually,  but  not  always,  indi- 
cates complication  by  pleurisy.  In  ordinary  cases  the  temperature 
drops  in  two  or  three  days  after  the  appearance  of  the  cough.  The 
skin  is  dry  and  rough,  with  the  hairs  on  end,  but  the  horse  appears 
as  an  animal  out  of  condition  rather  than  as  a  sick  one.  Emaciation 
may  be  rapid.     The  mucous  membranes  are  moderately  reddened. 


518  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

The  apj)etite  is  diminished,  but  the  animal  chews  constantly.  Deglu- 
tition, either  of  food  or  water,  is  frequently  the  cause  of  spasms  of 
coughing,  and  these  in  turn  seem  to  warn  the  animal  against  attempts 
at  swallowing.  On  percussion  no  alteration  of  resonance  is  to  be 
detected.  On  auscultation  of  the  lungs  mucous  rales  are  heard,  with 
at  times  tubular  breathing;  the  latter,  however,  we  will  study  under 
the  complications,  as  also  the  friction  warning  of  pleurisy.  Through- 
out the  course  of  the  disease  we  have  still  one  constant  and  charac- 
teristic symptom — nervous  irritability.  With  temperature  of  104°  to 
107°  F.,  the  horse  still  flinches  to  the  touch  on  the  loins;  it  stands 
frequently  with  the  head  up,  and  is  on  the  alert  for  the  entrance  of 
anyone  to  the  stall.  The  previously  good-tempered  and  quiet  horse 
will  turn  and  bite,  will  strike  with  the  hind  legs,  or  at  the  first  touch 
to  the  side,  head,  or  throat  will  half  rear  and  back  into  the  corner 
of  the  box,  or,  breaking  the  halter,  turn  backward  out  of  the  stall. 

The  course  of  the  disease  is.  from  five  to  eight  days,  but  the  cough 
may  continue  for  two  or  three  weeks  with  variable  elevation  of  tem- 
perature. As  a  stable  plague  the  course  is  from  two  to  three  months, 
as  the  contagion  is  much  more  uncertain  than  in  strangles  or  influ- 
enza. The  termination  is  by  resolution  and  recovery  or  by  complica- 
tions. In  resolution  the  temperature  drops,  the  cough  becomes  less 
frequent  and  less  spasmodic  in  character,  the  appetite  returns,  and  no 
sign  is  left  of  the  disease  except  the  fever  mark  on  the  hoof. 

Complications. — The  complications  are  excessive  spasms  and  pleu- 
risy. In  the  former  the  cough  may  be  so  violent  as  to  convulse  the 
whole  animal,  the  legs  are  spread  and  fixed,  with  the  hind  ones  drawn 
slightly  under  the  body.  The  head  and  neck  are  extended,  with  the 
muscles  tense.  The  cough  comes  out  by  rapidly  succeeding  efforts,  or 
with  the  first  sound  the  larynx  seems  to  close  for  a  moment  before  the 
rest  can  follow.  In  two  cases  of  my  own  the  spasm  has  been  so  great 
that  the  animal  has  fallen  to  the  ground.  During  these  accesses  the 
respiration  becomes  accelerated,  and  on  auscultation  of  the  trachea 
and  lungs  the  tubular  murmur  of  an  apparent  pneumonia  can  be 
heard.  This  false  murmur,  however,  disappears  at  the  end  of  the  at- 
tack. In  the  case  which  fell  to  the  ground  the  horse  would  lie  for  a 
moment  or  two  absolutely  motionless.  (In  the  first  I  believed  that  he 
had  broken  his  neck.)  The  rapid  respiration  was  then  followed  by  a 
long  inspiration,  the  animal  regained  his  feet,  the  respiration  became 
almost  normal,  and  the  tubular  murmur  had  disappeared.  I  have  seen 
no  fatal  termination  from  this  spasm  of  the  pneumogastric,  but  can 
readily  believe  that  traumatisms  resulting  from  such  attacks  might 
prove  fatal,  or  that  the  spasm  might  continue  long  enough  to  produce 
asphyxia.  The  fatal  complication  is  pleurisy.  This  occurs  when  the 
horse  has  been  kept  at  work  after  the  development  of  the  disease 


SCALMA.  519 

while  suffering  from  a  high  fever,  and  is  probably  in  no  way  specific, 
but  the  result  of  work  on  an  animal  with  high  temperature.  The 
additional  symptoms  are  those  of  an  ordinary  pleurisy. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  is  based  upon  the  elevation  of  the  tem- 
perature without  corresponding  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  of  the 
respirations;  upon  the  retention  of  appetite  and  spinal  reflex,  with 
the  great  irritability  of  temper  in  the  presence  of  a  high  temperature, 
and  upon  the  spasmodic  cough  and  auscultatory  sounds  of  bronchitis 
with  but  trifling  discharge. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  from  edematous  pneumonia  by  the  absence 
of  the  yellow  colorations,  the  absence  of  pneumonia,  and  the  less  con- 
tinuous high  temperature ;  from  influenza  by  the  absence  of  edema,  of 
the  ocher  coloration,  and  of  the  typhoid  symptoms;  from  strangles 
by  want  of  enlargement  of  the  lymphatics,  absence  of  purulent  dis- 
charge and  abscesses;  from  variola  by  the  nonappearance  of  pustules 
and  enlarged  lymphatics;  from  simple  bronchitis,  as  the  latter  is 
sporadic,  and  in  it  great  fever  is  accompanied  by  profuse  discharge; 
from  rheumatic  pleurisy  and  pleurodynia  by  the  history  in  these  of 
repeated  attacks  and  great  temporary  pain;  from  surgical  fever  by 
the  absence  of  cause. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  is  usually  favorable.  This  disease  en- 
tails only  the  loss  of  ten  days'  to  three  weeks'  use  of  the  animal,  and 
leaves  the  subject  with  no  complicating  sequelae.  In  some  cases  I 
have  seen  the  irritable  disposition  remain  for  a  length  of  time,  but  in 
every  case  it  has  finally  disappeared.  As  I  have  suggested,  violent 
spasms  might  prove  fatal.  Pleurisy  would  render  the  prognosis 
serious,  as  the  same  disease  would  when  occurring  from  simple  causes. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  a  stable  should  be  at  once  prophy- 
lactic. The  infected  animals  should  be  removed,  and  complete  disin- 
fection of  the  stalls  and  area  should  be  made.  The  individual  treat- 
ment is  simple.  The  hygienic  measures  of  cleanliness,  fresh  air  with- 
out drafts,  frequent  rubbing,  and  tempting  food  should  be  thorough. 
The  digestive  tract  is  to  be  regulated  by  small  doses  of  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  soda,  gentian,  and  tannic  acid.  The  appetite  is  to 
be  stimulated  by  drinks  of  cold  breakfast  tea  and  cow's  milk.  Anti- 
spasmodics are  to  be  used  when  the  cough  is  excessive.  The  best  of 
these  are  camphor,  belladonna,  stramonium,  and  steaming  with  tur- 
pentine (turpentine  1  ounce,  water  half  bucket).  External  frictions 
of  alcohol  and  turpentine,  with  hot  packs  to  the  loins,  will  also 
afford  relief.  Quinine  and  salicylic  acid  may  be  used  during  the  ele- 
vation of  temperature.  Professor  Dieckerhoff  recommends  tracheal 
injections  in  1-ounce  doses  of  the  following  solution:  Acetate  of 
aluminum,  1  per  cent;  alum,  one-half  to  1  per  cent;  bromide  of 
potash,  1  to  2  per  cent ;  water,  100  per  cent. 


520  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

EDEMATOUS   PNEUMONIA. 

[Synonyms:  Contagious  pneumonia;  adynamic  pneumonia;  hospital,  or  sta- 
ble, pneumonia  ;  equine  pleuro-pneumonla  ;  influenza  ;  pectoralis  equorum;  pleuro- 
pneumonia ;  contagiosa  equorum;  hrustseuche,  German.] 

Definition. — This  disease  is  the  adynamic  pneumonia  of  the  older 
veterinarians,  who  did  not  recognize  any  essential  difference  in  its 
nature  from  an  ordinary  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  except  in  the 
profound  sedation  of  the  force  of  the  animal  affected  with  it,  which 
is  a  prominent  symptom  from  the  outset  of  the  disease.  Again,  this 
same  prostration  of  the  vital  force  of  the  animal,  combined  with  the 
staggering  movement  and  want  of  coordination  of  the  muscles  of  the 
animal,  caused  it  for  a  long  time  to  be  confounded  with  influenza, 
with  which  at  certain  periods  it  certainly  has  a  strong  analogy  of 
symptoms,  but  from  which,  as  from  sporadic  pneumonia,  it  can  be 
separated  very  readily  if  the  case  can  be  followed  throughout  its 
whole  course. 

Edematous  pneumonia  is  a  specific  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  accom- 
panied by  interstitial  edema  and  inflammation  of  the  tissues  of  these 
organs  and  a  constitutional  disturbance  and  fever.  It  causes  a  pro- 
found sedation  of  the  nervous  system,  which  may  be  so  great  as  to 
cause  death.  It  is  sometimes  attended  by  pleurisy,  inflammation  of 
the  heart,  or  septic  complications  which  also  prove  fatal. 

Etiology. — While,  as  an  infectious  disease,  its  original  cause  is  due 
to  a  specific  virus,  there  are  many  predisposing  causes  which  act  as 
important  factors  in  aiding  in  its  development.  Such  causes  are  any 
influences  that  lessen  the  general  vigor. 

Old,  cold,  damp,  foul,  unclean,  and  badly  drained  and  ventilated 
stables  allow  rapid  dissemination  of  the  disease  to  other  horses  in  the 
same  stable  and  act  as  rich  reservoirs  for  preserving  the  contagion, 
which  may  be  retained  for  over  a  year. 

The  virus  is  but  moderately  volatile,  and  in  a  stable  seems  rather 
to  follow  the  lines  of  the  walls  and  irregular  courses  than  the  direct 
currents  of  air  and  the  tracts  of  ventilation.  Professor  Dieckerhoff 
found  that  the  contagion  of  influenza  was  readily  diffusible  through- 
out an  entire  stable  and  through  any  opening  to  other  buildings,  but 
he  also  found  that  the  contagion  of  edematous  pneumonia  is  not 
transmissible  at  any  great  distance,  nor  is  it  very  diffusible  in  the 
atmosphere.  A  brick  wall  8  feet  in  height  served,  in  one  instance, 
to  prevent  the  infection  of  other  animals  placed  on  the  opposite  side 
from  a  horse  ill  with  the  disease,  while  others  placed  on  the  same  side 
and  separated  from  the  focus  of  contagion  only  by  open  bars  in  the 
stall  were  infected  and  developed  the  disease  in  its  typical  form. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  differ  slightly  from  those  of  a  frank, 
fibrinous  pneumonia,  but  not  so  much  by  the  introduction  of  new 
^nmptoms  as  by  the  want  of  or  absence  of  the  distinct  evidences  of 


PNEUMONIA.  '    521 

local  lesions  which  are  found  in  the  latter  disease.  All  of  the  pneu- 
monias throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  trouble  are  less  marked 
and  less  clearly  defined. 

The  symptoms  may  develop  slowly  or  rapidly.  If  slowly,  there  is 
fever  and  the  animal  gives  a  rare  cough  which  resembles  that  of  a 
heavy  horse  affected  with  a  slight  chronic  bronchitis;  it  becomes 
somewhat  dejected  and  dull,  at  times  somnolent,  and  has  a  dimin- 
ished appetite.  This  condition  lasts  for  several  days,  or  the  disease 
may  begin  with  high  fever,  and  the  symptoms  described  below  are 
severe  and  develop  in  rapid  sequence.  The  respiration  increases  to 
24,  30,  or  36  to  the  minute,  and  a  small,  running,  soft  pulse  attains  a 
rhythm  of  50,  TO,  or  even  more  beats  in  the  sixty  seconds.  The  heart, 
however,  contrary  to  the  debilitated  condition  of  the  pulse,  is  found 
beating  violently  and  tumultuously,  like  it  does  in  anthrax  and  septic 
intoxication.  The  mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes  and  mouth  and  of 
the  genital  organs  are  found  somewhat  edematous,  and  they  rapidly 
assume  a  dirty,  saffron  color,  at  times  approaching  an  ocher,  but  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  similar  coloration  in  influenza  by  the  want  of 
the  luster  belonging  to  the  latter  and  by  the  muddy,  dull  tint,  which 
is  characteristic  throughout  the  disease. 

Suddenly,  without  the  preliminary  rales  which  precede  grave 
lesions  of  the  lungs  in  other  diseases,  the  blowing  murmur  of  pneu- 
monia is  heard  over  a  variable  area  of  the  chest,  usually,  however, 
much  more  distinctly  over  the  trachea  at  the  base  of  the  neck  and 
directly  behind  the  shoulder  on  either  side  of  the  chest.  In  some  cases 
the  evidence  of  lung  lesion  can  only  be  detected  over  the  trachea. 
The  lesions  of  the  lungs  may  be  scattered  through  both  lungs,  in- 
volving numerous  small  areas,  or  they  may  be  confined  to  and  more 
or  less  fully  occupy  one  or  two  lobes.  Occasionally  there  is  a  general 
involvement  of  both  lungs.  The  body  temperature  has  now  reached 
104°  or  105°  F.,  or  in  extreme  cases  even  a  degree  higher.  The  de- 
bility of  the  animal  is  "great  without  the  stupefaction  or  evidence  of 
cerebral  trouble,  which  is  constant  with  such  grave  constitutional 
phenomena  in  influenza  or  severe  pneumonias.  The  animal  is  sub- 
ject to  occasional  chills,  and  on  movement  staggers  in  its  gait.  The 
yellow  coloration  of  the  visible  mucous  membrane  is  rendered  pale 
by  infiltration  of  the  liquid  of  the  blood  into  the  tissues;  the  pulse 
may  become  so  soft  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible,  the  heart  movement 
and  sounds  being  at  the  same  time  exaggerated.  The  animal  loses 
flesh  rapidly,  and  dropsies  of  the  extremities,  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  belly,  or  of  the  internal  organs  may  show  themselves. 

Terminations. — These  symptoms  may  gradually  subside  after  five 
to  eight  days,  with  an  improved  appetite  the  inanition  may  cease  and 
the  animal  commence  to  nourish  its  impoverished  blood  and  tissues; 
the  pulse  becomes  stronger  and  the  heart  more  regular  and  less  tumul- 


522*  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

tuous;  the  mucous  membranes  assume  a  brighter  and  more  distinct 
color;  the  difficulty  of  respiration  is  removed,  and  the  animal  may 
make  a  recovery.  When  death  occurs  it  is  usually  directly  due  to 
heart  failure;  in  some  cases  it  is  caused  by  asphyxia,  owing  to  the 
great  amount  of  exudation  into  the  lung  tissue,  rendering  its  fur- 
ther function  impossible. 

Complications. — ^The  pulmonary  complications  of  edematous  pneu- 
monia are  secondary  inflammatory  or  necrotic  changes  in  the  lungs 
themselves.  Suppuration  at  times  takes  place  in  the  bronchi  and  may 
extend  to  the  lung  tissue.  In  this  case  mucous  rales  develop  which  are 
most  distinctly  heard  over  the  trachea  and  on  the  sides  of  the  chest 
directly  behind  the  shoulders.  With  the  development  of  the  mucous 
rales,  to  be  heard  on  auscultation,  we  have  a  more  purulent  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  similar  to  that  of  a  chronic  or  subacute  bronchitis. 
If  the  inflammation  has  been  of  some  standing,  cavernous  rales  may 
be  heard  indicating  the  destruction  of  a  considerable  portion  of  lung 
tissue  and  the  formation  of  a  cavity.  The  effects  of  this  more  acute 
inflammatory  process  are  not  appreciable  in  the  general  condition  of 
the  animal,  except  to  still  further  weaken  it  and  add  to  its  debili- 
tated and  emaciated  cachexia.  Gangrene  sometimes  occurs.  A  sud- 
den rise  of  the  body  temperature  of  1°  or  2°,  with  a  more  enfeebled 
pulse  and  a  still  more  tumultuous  heart,  develop  simultaneously  with 
the  appearance  of  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  This  discharge  is 
gray  in  color,  serous  or  watery  in  consistency,  mixed  with  the  detritus 
of  broken-down  lung  tissue,  and  sometimes  contains  clots  of  blood,  or 
in  more  serious  cases  may  be  marked  by  a  quantity  of  fluid  blood 
from  a  hemorrhage,  which  proves  fatal.  The  discharge  is  fetid  to  the 
smell.  The  animal  emaciates  rapidly.  On  examination  of  the  lungs 
mucous  rales  are  heard  in  the  larger  bronchi,  cavities  may  be  found  at 
any  part  of  these  organs,  and  points  of  lobular  pneumonia  may  be 
detected. 

A  very  serious  complication  is  an  inflammation  of  the  heart  mus- 
cle. This  is  shown  by  a  very  weak  and  rapid  pulse,  great  prostration, 
some  filling  of  the  lungs.  This  complication  nearly  always  terminates 
in  death.  Other  complications  which  may  be  mentioned  are  inflam- 
mation of  the  kidneys,  blood  poisoning,  congestion  of  the  brain,  and 
inflammation  of  the  tendinous  sheaths  and  the  tendons  of  the  legs. 

Diagnosis. — As  fever  is  the  first  symptom  of  edematous  pneumonia, 
it  is  useful  during  an  outbreak  of  this  disease  to  make  daily  tempera- 
ture measurements  of  the  exposed  horses,  so  that  the  first  indication 
of  disease  may  be  discovered  and  the  horse  removed  from  contact  with 
those  that  are  sound. 

Prognosis. — The  mortality  in  this  disease  may  be  as  high  as  25  per 
cent,  but  it  is  usually  not  more  than  10  per  cent.  If  there  is  a  special 
tendency  to  complications  of  some  sort,  the  mortality  is  increased. 


PNEUMONIA.  523 

Alterations. — ^At  the  time  of  death  from  edematous  pneumonia  we 
frequently  find  septic  changes  and  the  evidences  of  putrefaction.  The 
solidification  of  the  lung  tissue  is  found  irregular  in  shape  and  high 
up  around  the  root  of  the  lungs  and  around  the  large  bronchi,  and  is 
generally  covered  by  sound  lung  tissue.  The  anterior  lobes  of  the 
lungs  are  usually  entirely  affected.  The  diseased  portion  appears  of 
a  gray  yellowish  color,  somewhat  watery,  and  tears  readily.  Matter 
is  foimd  in  the  air  tubes  which  form  gutters  through  the  jelly  like 
mass  of  the  diseased  lung.  Abscesses  from  the  size  of  a  nut  to  larger 
masses  may  be  found  disseminated  through  the  lungs.  The  blood  is 
dark  in  color,  fluid,  or  only  clotted  into  soft,  jelly  like  masses. 
Masses  of  gangrenous  or  dead  black  tissue  may  be  present. 

Treatment. — Bleeding  is  not  to  be  used  because  it  would  only  still 
further  weaken  an  already  enfeebled  animal;  antimony  or  the 
alterants  would  increase  the  depression  of  a  too  depraved  constitu- 
tion. There  is  in  this  disease  no  acute  congestion  of  a  particular 
organ  to  draw  off  by  depletive  measures,  nor  any  violent  blood 
current  to  be  retarded,  for  fear  of  hypernutrition  of  any  special  part. 

Revulsives  do  good,  as  they  excite  the  nervous  system  and  awaken 
the  torpor  of  the  weakened  blood  vessels,  which  aid  in  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  functions.  Mustard  poultices  may  be  applied  over  the 
belly  and  sides  of  the  chest,  as  in  other  diseases,  but  caution  must  be 
used  in  the  employment  of  blisters,  as  ugly  ulcers  may  result  from 
their  action  on  a  tissue  of  weakened  vitality.  Setons  are  dangerous 
from  the  great  tendency  in  this  disease  to  septic  complications.  Re- 
peated friction  of  the  legs  by  hand-rubbing  and  warmth  by  banda- 
ging and  by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  body  with  turpentine  and 
alcohol,  which  is  immediately  to  be  dried  by  rough  towels,  will  excite 
the  circulation  and  stimulate  the  emunctories  of  the  skin. 

Stimulants  are  given  internally  from  the  outset  of  the  disease. 
Turpentine  in  1-dram  doses  regulates  the  heart  and  excites  the  kid- 
neys to  carry  off  waste  matter,  but  if  repeated  too  frequently  may 
disturb  the  already  delicate  digestive  system.  Alcohol  rectifies  the 
latter  danger,  and  is  a  useful  stimulant  to  the  heart  and  digestive 
system,  if  given  with  care  in  small  doses.  It  is  an  antiputrid,  and 
is  especially  indicated  when  septic  complications  and  gangrene  are 
present.  The  aromatics  and  bitter  tonics  are  useful ;  gentian  and  tea 
in  warm  decoction  form  a  useful  menstruum  for  other  remedies. 
Digitalis  is  a  useful  remedy.  Strychnine  and  quinine  may  be  given 
throughout  almost  the  whole  course  of  the  disease.  The  various 
preparations  of  iron  are  astringents  and  excitants  to  the  digestive  sys- 
tem. Carbolic  acid  is  an  antiputrid  which  is  of  marked  benefit  in 
edematous  pneumonia ;  it  should  be  given  in  small  doses  diluted  in 
alcohol. 

Salicylic  acid  may  be  given  in  1  or  2  dram  doses  every  few  hours. 


524  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

It  is  much  used  for  troubles  of  the  serous  membranes,  lowers  the  tem- 
perature, and  is  of  value  in  this  disease  in  preventing  the  exudation 
into  the  tissue  of  the  lungs.  The  alkalines,  as  the  sulphate  and  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  the  nitrate  of  potash,  and  very  small  doses  of  the  iodide 
of  potash,  should  be  employed  to  regulate  the  digestive  tract,  the  kid- 
neys, and  the  other  excreting  glands,  and  to  stimulate  absorption  of 
the  waste  matter. 

Serums  and  antitoxins  have  been  used  in  the  treatment  of  this  dis- 
ease, especially  in  Germany.  The  results  appear  to  show  some  benefit 
in  some  instances,  but  none  in  others;  altogether  they  are  not  espe- 
cially encouraging. 

The  diet  demands  the  strictest  attention  from  the  outset.  In  many 
of  the  fevers  the  food  has  to  be  diminished  in  quantity  and  regulated 
in  the  quality  of  its  heat-producing  components  during  the  acute  part 
of  the  disease,  so  as  to  lessen  the  material  for  combustion  in  the  in- 
flamed organs.  In  edematous  pneumonia,  on  the  contrary,  all  the 
food  that  can  possibly  be  digested  and  assimilated  must  be  given. 
Choice  must  be  made  of  the  richest  material  which  can  be  handled  by 
the  weakened  stomach  and  intestines  without  fatiguing  them.  Good, 
sound  hay  should  be  chopped  short  and  dampened  or  partly  boiled ;  in 
the  latter  case  the  hay  tea  can  be  reserved  to  use  as  a  drink.  Oats 
may  be  preferred  dry  or  in  other  cases  will  be  taken  better  scalded ; 
in  most  cases,  however,  it  is  better  to  give  slops  of  oatmeal,  to  which 
can  be  added  a  little  bran,  barley  flour,  or  boiled  milk  and  wheat 
flour.  Pure  cow's  milk,  not  too  rich  in  fatty  matter,  can  be  given 
alone  or  with  beaten  eggs ;  frequently  the  horse  will  have  to  be  coaxed 
with  the  milk  diluted  with  several  parts  of  water  at  first,  but  will 
soon  learn  to  drink  the  pure  milk.  Apples  and  carrots  cut  up  raw  or 
boiled  are  useful,  and  fresh  clover  in  small  quantities  will  frequently 
stimulate  the  appetite.  In  other  words,  try  various  foods  and  com- 
binations and  give  the  horse  what  he  will  eat.  Throughout  the 
course  of  the  disease  and  during  convalescence  the  greatest  attention 
must  be  taken  to  cleaning  the  coat  thoroughly  so  as  to  keep  the  glands 
of  the  skin  in  working  order,  and  light,  warm  covering  must  be  used 
to  protect  the  animal  from  cold  or  drafts  of  air. 

HOR8EPOX,   OR    EQUINE   VARIOLA. 

[Synonyms:  Variola  equina;    pustular  grease;    phlpctenoid  herpes.] 

Definition. — Horsepox  is  a  specific  infectious  fever  of  the  horse 
attended  by  an  eruption  of  pustules,  or  pocks,  over  any  part  of  the 
skin  or  on  the  mucous  membranes  lining  the  various  cavities  in  the 
body,  but  chiefly,  and  often  exclusively,  upon  the  pasterns  and  fet- 
locks. The  eruption  may  commence  upon  the  lips,  or  about  the  nos- 
trils or  eyes. 


HORSEPOX.  525 

This  disease  was  described  by  the  early  Roman  agricultural  writers 
and  by  the  veterinarians  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  received  its 
first  important  notice  from  the  great  Jenner,  who  confounded  it  with 
grease  in  horses,  since  animals  with  this  disease  are  very  apt  to  have 
the  eruption  of  variola  appear  on  the  fetlocks.  He  saw  these  cases 
transmit  the  disease  to  cattle  in  the  byres  and  to  the  stablemen  and 
milkmaids  who  attended  them,  and  furnish  the  latter  with  immunity 
from  smallpox,  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  vaccination.  Horsepox 
is  also  frequently  mistaken  for  the  exanthemata  attending  some  forms 
of  venereal  disease  in  horses. 

Variola  in  the  horse,  while  it  is  identical  in  principle,  general 
course,  complications,  and  lesions  with  variola  in  other  animals,  is  a 
disease  of  the  horse  itself,  and  is  not  transmissible  in  the  form  of 
variola  to  any  other  animal;  nor  is  the  variola  of  any  other  animal 
transmissible  to  the  horse.  Cattle  and  men,  if  inoculated  from  a  case 
of  horsepox,  develop  vaccinia,  but  vaccinia  from  the  latter  animals 
is  not  so  readily  reinoculated  into  the  horse  with  success.  If  it  does 
develop,  it  produces  the  original  disease. 

Causes. — The  direct  cause  of  horsepox  is  infection.  A  large  num- 
ber of  predisposing  causes  favor  the  development  of  the  disease,  as 
in  the  case  of  strangles,  and  this  trouble,  like  almost  all  contagious 
diseases,  renders  the  animal  which  has  had  one  attack  immune.  The 
chief  predisposing  cause  is  young  age.  Old  horses  which  have  not 
been  affected  are  less  apt  to  become  infected  when  exposed  than 
younger  ones.  The  exposure  incident  to  shipment,  through  public 
stables,  cars,  etc.,  acts  as  a  predisposing  cause,  as  in  the  other  infec- 
tious diseases.  The  period  of  final  dentition  is  a  time  of  the  animal's 
life  which  renders  it  peculiarly  susceptible. 

Dupaul  states  that  the  infection  is  transmissible  through  the  at- 
mosphere for  several  hundred  yards.  The  more  common  means  of 
contagion  is  by  direct  contact  or  by  means  of  fomites.  Feed  boxes 
and  bridles  previously  used  by  horses  affected  with  variola  are  proba- 
bly the  most  frequent  carriers  of  the  virus,  and  we  find  the  lesions  in 
the  majority  of  cases  developed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  lips  and 
nostrils.  Coition  is  a  frequent  cause.  A  stallion  suffering  from  this 
disease  may  be  the  cause  of  a  considerable  epizootic,  as  he  transmits 
it  to  a  number  of  brood  mares  and  they  in  turn  return  to  the  farms 
where  they  are  surrounded  by  young  animals  to  whom  they  convey 
the  contagion.  The  saddle  and  croup  straps  are  frequent  agents  of 
infection.  The  presence  of  a  wound  greatly  favors  the  inoculation  of 
the  disease,  which  is  also  sometimes  carried  by  surgical  instruments 
or  sponges.  Trasbot  recites  a  case  in  which  a  set  of  hobbles,  which 
had  been  used  on  an  animal  suffering  from  variola,  were  used  on  a 
horse  for  a  quittor  operation  and  transmitted  the  disease,  which 
developed  on  the  edges  of  the  wound. 


526  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOESE. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  period  of  incubation,  after  an  animal  has 
been  exposed,  of  from  five  to  eight  days,  during  which  there  is  no 
appreciable  alteration  in  the  health.  This  period  is  shorter  in  sum- 
mer than  in  winter.  At  the  end  of  this  time  small  nodes  develop  at 
the  point  of  inoculation  and  the  animal  becomes  feverish.  The  horse 
is  dull  and  dejected,  loses  its  appetite,  and  has  a  rough  dry  coat  with 
the  hairs  on  end.  There  is  moderate  thirst.  The  respirations  are 
somewhat  quickened  and  the  pulse  becomes  rapid  and  full.  The 
body  temperature  is  elevated,  frequently  reaching  104°  or  105°  F. 
within  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours  from  the  appearance  of  the 
first  symptoms. 

The  visible  mucous  membranes,  especially  the  conjunctivae,  are  of  a 
bright  rosy  red.  In  the  lymphatic,  cold-blooded,  and  more  common 
horses  these  symptoms  of  fever  are  less  marked;  even  with  a  com- 
paratively high  temperature  the  animal  may  retain  its  appetite  and 
even  work  comparatively  well,  but  these  cases,  if  worked  and  over- 
heated, are  apt  to  develop  serious  complications. 

At  the  end  of  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  days  the  eruption 
breaks  out,  the  fever  abates,  and  the  general  symptoms  improve. 
The  eruption  in  severe  cases  may  be  generalized ;  it  may  be  confined 
to  the  softer  skin  of  the  nose  and  lips,  the  genital  organs,  and  the 
inside  of  the  thighs,  or  it  may  be  localized  in  the  neighborhood  of  a 
wound  or  in  the  irritated  skin  of  a  pair  of  greasy  heels.  It  consists 
of  a  varying  number  of  little  nodes  which,  on  a  mucous  membrane, 
as  in  the  nostrils  or  vagina,  or  on  soft  unpigmented  skin,  appear  red 
and  feel  at  first  like  shot  under  the  epidermis.  These  nodes  soften 
and  show  a  yellowish  spot  in  the  center  when  they  become  pustules. 
The  epidermis  is  dissolved  and  the  matter  escapes  as  a  viscid  fluid 
at  first  citrine  and  later  cloudy  and  purulent,  which  dries  rapidly, 
forming  scabs;  if  these  fall  off  or  are  removed  they  leave  a  little  shal- 
low concave  ulcer  which  heals  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  days.  In  the 
softer  skin  if  pigmented  the  cicatrices  are  white  and  frequently  remain 
so  for  about  a  year,  when  the  pigment  returns.  The  lips  or  genital 
organs  of  a  colored  horse,  if  covered  with  a  number  of  small  white 
spots  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  will  usually  indicate  that  the  animal  has 
been  affected  with  the  horsepox. 

At  times  the  pustules  may  become  confluent  and  produce  large 
superficial  serpentine  ulcers  on  the  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  around 
the  lips  or  eyelids,  or  on  the  borders  of  wounds  and  in  greasy  heels; 
in  this  case  the  part  becomes  swollen,  hot,  painful,  and  is  covered 
with  a  profuse  discharge  of  matter.  In  this  form  there  is  frequently 
a  secondary  fever  lasting  for  a  day  or  two. 

In  severe  cases  there  may  be  a  suppurative  adenitis,  or  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lymphatic  glands  which  are  fed  from  the  affected  part. 
If  the  eruption  is  around  the  nostrils  and  lips,  the  glands  between 


.rie         HORSEPOX.  527 

the  jaws  (submaxillary)  form  abscesses  as  in  a  case  of  strangles;  if 
the  eruption  is  in  a  pair  of  greasy  heels  abscesses  may  form  in  the 
fold  of  the  groin  (inguinal).  There  may  be  so  much  tumefaction  of 
the  nostrils  as  to  produce  difficulty  in  breathing. 

Complications. — A  case  of  horsepox  may  be  attended  with  various 
complications  of  varying  degrees  of  importance.  Adenitis,  or  sup- 
puration of  the  glands,  has  just  been  mentioned.  Confluent  eruptions 
irritate  the  part  and  induce  the  animal  to  rub  the  inflamed  part 
against  the  manger  or  scratch  it  in  other  ways,  and  thus  produce 
troublesome  ulcers,  which  may  leave  ugly  scars.  Irritation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  causes  severe  coryza  with  purulent 
discharge. 

The  eruption  may  occur  in  the  throat  or  in  the  air  tubes  to  the 
lungs,  developing  an  acute  laryngitis  or  bronchitis.  If  the  animal  is 
exposed  to  cold,  or  worked  so  as  to  engorge  the  lungs  with  blood  at 
the  termination  of  the  specific  fever,  just  when  the  eruption  is  about 
to  localize,  it  may  be  determined  to  the  lungs.  In  this  case  we  have 
a  short,  dry  cough,  labored  breathing,  the  development  of  a  secondary 
fever  of  some  gravity,  and  all  of  the  external  symptoms  of  a  pneu- 
monia. This  pneumonia  differs,  however,  from  an  ordinary  pneu- 
monia in  the  symptoms  furnished  by  the  examination  of  the  lungs 
themselves.  In  place  of  a  large  mass  of  the  lung  tissue  being  affected 
the  inflanmaation  is  disseminated  in  smaller  spots  over  the  entire 
lung. 

Diagnosis. — ^The  diagnosis  of  horsepox  is  to  be  based  on  the  pres- 
ence of  a  continuous  fever,  with  rosy  mucous  membranes,  for  several 
days,  and  the  appearance  of  the  characteristic  eruption.  If  the 
eruption  is  in  the  nasal  cavities,  marked  by  a  considerable  discharge 
and  attended  by  submaxillary  abscesses,  it  may  be  confounded  with 
strangles.  If  the  throat  is  affected  it  may  be  confounded  with  an 
angina  (laryngitis  or  pharyngitis),  but  in  the  latter  the  local  trouble 
precedes  or  is  concomitant  with  the  fever,  while  in  the  former  the 
fever  precedes  the  local  trouble  by  several  days.  Variola  may  bo 
confounded  with  bronchitis  or  pneumonia  if  complicated  with  these 
troubles  and  the  eruption  is  absent  from  the  exterior,  but  it  is  of  little 
moment,  as  the  treatment  for  both  will  be  much  the  same.  WTien  the 
eruption  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  genital  organs  this  disease  has 
been  mistaken  for  the  dourine.  In  variola  the  eruption  is  a  temporary 
one ;  the  nodes  and  pustules  are  followed  by  shallow  ulcers  and  rapid 
cicatrization  unless  continued  in  the  vagina  or  on  the  penis  by  the 
rubbing  of  the  walls  and  filth  which  accumulates ;  there  are  apt  to  be 
pustules  at  other  parts  of  the  body.  In  the  venereal  disease  the  local 
trouble  commences  as  a  papule  and  breaks  into  an  ulcer  without  hav- 
ing formed  a  pustule.  The  ulcer  has  not  the  convex  rosy  appearance 
of  that  of  the  less  serious  discharge ;  the  symptoms  last  for  a  longer 


528  DISEASES   OF   THE    HORSE. 

period,  by  which  time  others  aid  in  differentiating  the  two.  In 
glanders  the  tubercle  is  hard,  and,  after  breaking  into  an  ulcer,  the 
indurated  bottom  remains,  grayish  or  dirty  white  in  color,  ragged, 
and  exuding  a  viscous,  oily  discharge.  There  is  no  disposition  to 
suppuration  of  the  neighboring  glands.  In  variola  the  rosy  shallow 
ulcer  and  healthy  pus,  with  the  acutely  tumefied  glands,  should  not 
be  mistaken,  at  least  after  a  day.  I  have  seen  acute  glanders  in  mules 
which  required  a  day's  delay  to  differentiate  from  strangles;  at  that 
time  the  farcy  buds  appeared. 

Prognosis. — The  average  case  of  horsepox  runs  a  course  of  dejec- 
tion, loss  of.  appetite,  and  more  or  less  fever  for  about  four  days, 
followed  by  a  rapid  convalescence,  and  leaves  the  animal  as  well  and 
as  sound  as  before.  If  the  eruption  has  been  excessive  or  confluent, 
the  ulcerations  may  act  as  irritants  and  render  the  animal  unfit  for 
use  for  several  weeks.  Laryngitis,  pharyngitis,  bronchitis,  and  pneu- 
monia in  this  disease  are  not  of  greater  gravity  than  they  are  when 
occurring  from  other  causes.  The  spots  denuded  of  pigment  left 
by  the  pustules  on  the  lips  and  genitals  may  temporarily  depreciate 
the  value  of  the  animal  to  a  slight  degree. 

Treatment. — As  this  is  a  disease  unattended  by  alterations  of  the 
blood  itself,  although  a  specific  fever,  and  is  of  a  sthenic  type,  active 
remedies  are  admissible  and  indicated.  The  horse  should  be  placed 
on  a  low  diet  (little  or  no  oats) — bran  mashes,  a  moderate  quantity 
of  good,  sound  hay,  a  few  carrots  or  apples,  which  will  act  as  laxa- 
tives, and  slop  feed.  Barley  flour  is  more  cooling  for  mashes  than 
bran  or  oatmeal.  Water  may  be  given  as  the  animal  desires  it, 
but  it  should  not  be  cold ;  if  a  half  bucketful  of  water  is  kept  in  the 
manger,  the  horse  will  take  but  a  few  swallows  at  a  time.  One-dram 
doses  of  nitrate  of  potash  or  1-ounce  doses  of  sweet  spirits  of  niter 
are  useful  in  the  drinking  water.  If  the  fever  is  high,  the  anti- 
pyretics are  indicated :  Sulphate  of  quinine  in  1-dram  doses ;  iodide 
of  potash  in  1-dram  doses;  infusion  of  pine  tops,  of  juniper  leaves, 
of  the  aromatic  herbs,  or  of  English  breakfast  tea  are  useful  in  the 
later  stages.  If  complications  of  the  air  passages  or  lungs  are 
threatened,  a  large  mustard  poultice  should  be  applied  to  the  belly 
and  sides  of  the  chest.  Oxide  of  zinc  ointment  should  be  used  on 
confluent  eruptions,  and  if  the  ulceration  is  excessive  it  may  have  to 
be  touched  with  caustic. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  animal  protected  from  cold 
drafts  of  air  or  other  exposure.  Blankets  or  sheets  should  be  used 
on  the  body  and  bandages  on  the  legs.  After  convalescence  is  estab- 
lished, nutritious  food  of  easy  digestion  and  walking  exercise  are  all 
that  is  needed,  except  perhaps  a  little  Glauber's  salts  to  prevent 
constipation. 

Prophylactic  treatment. — When  horsepox  breaks  out  among  a  large 


ANTHBAX.  529 

number  of  horses,  especially  on  a  farm  where  there  are  a  number  of 
colts,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  greater  majority  will  contract  the 
disease,  and  it  is  more  economical  that  they  should  have  it  and  be 
through  with  it  at  once.  If  the  weather  is  moderate,  all  the  animals 
which  have  not  been  affected  can  be  inoculated,  which  will  produce 
the  disease  in  a  mild  form,  with  the  eruption  at  a  point  of  election, 
and  render  the  danger  of  complication  a  minimum  one.  For  inocula- 
tion the  discharge  from  the  pustules  of  a  mild  case  should  be  selected 
and  inoculated  by  scarification  on  the  belly  or  the  under  surface  of 
the  neck. 

ANTHRAX. 

[Synonyms:  Carbuncle,  splenic  fever,  splenic  apoplexy,  braxp  (in  shaep), 
etc. ;  sacer  ignis,  pustula  maligna,  anthrax,  Latin ;  charhon,  sang  de  rate, 
French ;  miltzbrand,  German ;  carbone,  carbonchio,  fuoco  de  St.  Antonio,  Italian ; 
jaswa,  siberskaji  jaswa,  Russian.] 

Definition. — Anthrax  is  a  severe  and  usually  fatal  contagious  dis- 
ease, characterized  hy  chills,  great  depression  and  stupor  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  a  profound  alteration  of  the  blood.  It  is  caused  by  the 
entrance  into  the  animal's  body  of  a  bacterium,  known  as  the  Bacillus 
anthracis^  or  its  spores. 

Practically  all  animals  are  susceptible  to  anthrax.  The  herbivora 
are  especially  susceptible,  in  the  following  order:  The  sheep,  the  ox, 
and  the  horse.  The  guinea  pig,  the  hog,  the  rabbit,  mice,  and  other 
animals  die  quickly  from  its  effects.  Man,  the  dog,  and  other  omniv- 
ora  and  carnivora  may  be  attacked  by  it  in  a  constitutional  form  as 
fatal  as  in  the  herbivora,  but  fortunately,  in  many  cases,  develop 
from  it  only  local  trouble,  followed  by  recovery- 
Anthrax  has  been  a  scourge  of  the  animals  of  the  civilized  world 
since  the  first  written  history  we  have  of  any  of  their  diseases.  In 
1709-1712  A.  D.  extensive  outbreaks  of  anthrax  occurred  in  Germany, 
Hungary,  and  Poland.  In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
had  become  an  extensively  Spread  disease  in  Russia,  Holland,  and 
England,  and  for  the  last  century  has  been  gradually  spreading  in 
the  Americas — more  so  in  South  America  than  here.  In  1864,  in  the 
five  governments  of  Petersburg,  Novgorod,  Olonetz,  Twer,  and  Jaros- 
law,  in  Russia,  over  10,000  horses  and  nearly  1,000  persons  perished 
from  the  disease. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  anthrax  were  for  a  long  time  attributed 
entirely  to  climatic  influence,  soil,  and  atmospheric  temperature,  and 
they  are  still  recognized  as  predisposing  factors  in  the  development  of 
the  disease,  for  it  is  usually  found,  especially  when  outbreaks  over  any 
number  of  animals  occur,  in  low,  damp,  marshy  countries  during  the 
warm  seasons.  It  is  more  frequent  in  districts  where  marshy  lands 
dry  out  during  the  heat  of  summer  and  are  then  covered  with  light 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 34 


530  DISEASES    OP   THE   HOBSE. 

rains.  Decaying  vegetable  matter  seems  most  favorable  for  nourish- 
ing and  preserving  the  virus. 

The  direct  cause  of  anthrax  is  always  infection  of  a  previously 
sound  animal,  either  directly  from  a  diseased  animal  or  through 
various  media  which  contain  excretions  or  the  debris  from  the  body  of 
a  previously  infected  animal. 

The  specific  virus  of  anthrax  was  first  discovered  by  Davaine  in 
1851.  He  recognized  in  the  blood  of  animals  suffering  from  anthrax 
microscopic  bodies  in  the  form  of  little  rods.  It  was  not,  however, 
till  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  that  Pasteur  defined  the  exact  nature 
of  the  bacillus,  the  mode  of  its  propagation,  and  its  exact  relationship 
to  anthrax  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  disease.  In  the  animal  body  the 
bacilli  have  a  tendency  to  accumulate  in  the  spleen,  liver,  and  else- 
where, so  that  these  organs  are  much  more  virulent  than  the  muscles 
or  less  vascular  tissues.  When  eliminated  from  the  animal  in  the 
excretions,  or  when  exposed  to  outside  influences  by  the  death  of  the 
animal  and  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  the  body  of  the  rod  is 
destroyed  and  the  spores  only  remain.  These  spores,  which  may  be 
called  the  seeds  of  the  bacilli,  retain  their  vitality  for  a  long  period ; 
they  resist  ordinary  putrefaction;  they  are  unchanged  by  moisture; 
and  they  are  not  affected  by  moderate  heat.  If  scattered  with  the 
debris  of  a  dead  animal  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  they  may  remain 
around  the  roots  of  the  grass  in  a  pasture  or  may  be  washed  to  the 
nearest  low-lying  ground  or  marsh.  If  buried  in  the  body  of  an  anir 
mal  dead  from  anthrax,  they  may  be  washed  deep  into  the  ground,  and 
in  later  years  (in  one  proven  case  17  years)  be  brought  to  the  surface 
and  infect  other  animals.  They  are  frequently  brought  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  having  been  swallowed  by  earthworms,  in  the  bodies  of 
which  they  have  been  found. 

This  accounts  for  the  outbreaks  at  the  time  of  the  first  rains  after  a 
dry  season.  During  the  latter  the  earthworm  goes  deep  in  the  ground 
in  search  of  moisture ;  it  finds  the  spore  which  has  been  washed  there 
in  past  years,  swallows  it,  and  afterwards  brings  it  to  the  surface. 
The  virus  is  carried  with  the  wool  from  infected  sheep  and  remains  in 
it  through  the  process  of  manufacture  into  cloth.  The  spores  remain 
in  the  hides  of  animals  which  have  died  of  anthrax  and  retain  their 
vitality  throughout  months  of  soaking  in  the  tanners'  pits,  the  work- 
ing of  the  harness  maker  or  the  cobbler,  and  after  the  oiling  of  the 
completed  leather.  The  dried  spores  in  the  dust  from  any  of  these 
products  may  be  carried  by  the  atmosphere. 

Infection  of  an  animal  takes  place  through  inoculation  or  contact 
of  the  bacillus  or  its  spores  with  an  abraded  surface  or  mucous  mem- 
brane on  a  sound  animal.  In  an  infected  district  horses  may  eat  the 
rich  pasturage  of  spring  and  early  summer  with  impunity,  but  when 
grass  becomes  low  they  crop  it  close  to  the  ground,  pull  up  the  roots 


ANTHRAX.  531 

around  which  the  virus  may  be  lodged,  and  under  these  conditions 
the  animals  are  more  apt  to  have  abrasions  of  the  lips  or  tongue  by 
contact  with  dried  stubble  and  the  dirt  on  the  roots,  which  favors  the 
introduction  of  the  germs  into  the  system.  The  virus  may  be  intro- 
duced with  food  and  enter  the  blood-vessel  system  from  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  If  contained  in  the  dust,  dried  hay,  or  on  the  parched 
pasture  of  late  summer,  the  virus  may  be  inhaled  and  be  absorbed 
from  the  lining  of  the  lungs.  If  contained  in  harness  leather,  it 
needs  but  an  abrasion  of  the  skin,  as  the  harness  rubs  it,  to  transfer 
the  spore  from  the  leather  to  the  circulation  of  the  animal. 

The  writer  saw  a  case  of  anthrax  occur  in  a  groom  from  the  use  of 
a  new  horse-brush.  The  strap  which  passes  over  the  back  of  the  hand 
inoculated  an  abrasion  on  the  knuckle  of  the  first  finger,  and  in 
twelve  hours  a  "  pustule "  had  formed  and  the  arm  had  become 
infected. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  anthrax  usually  develop  with  ex- 
treme rapidity.  The  horse  is  dejected  and  falls  into  a  state  of  pro- 
found stupor,  attended  by  great  muscular  weakness.  The  feeble, 
indolent  animal,  if  forced  to  move,  drags  its  legs.  There  are  severe 
chills,  agitation  of  the  muscles,  symptoms  of  vertigo,  a^d  at  times 
colicky  pains.  The  mucous  membranes  turn  a  deep  ocher  or  bluish 
red  color.  The  body  temperature  is  rapidly  elevated  to  104°  or 
105°  F.  The  breathing  is  increased  to  thirty  or  forty  respirations  in 
the  minute  and  the  pulse  is  greatly  accelerated,  but  while  the  arteries 
are  soft  and  almost  imperceptible,  the  heart  beats  can  be  felt  and 
heard,  violent  and  tumultuous.  In  some  cases,  when  inoculation  is 
through  the  skin,  large  subcutaneous  swellings  appear;  these  may 
involve  a  leg,  a  shoulder,  one  side  of  the  body,  or  the  neck  or  head. 
The  swelling  is  at  first  hot  and  painful,  but  afterwards  it  becomes 
necrotic  and  sensation  is  lost.  The  symptoms  last  but  two,  three,  or 
four  days  at  most,  when  the  case  usually  terminates  fatally.  An 
examination  of  the  blood  shows  a  dark  fluid  which  will  not  clot,  and 
which  remains  black  after  exposure  to  the  air.  After  death  the 
bodies  putrefy  rapidly  and  bloat  up;  the  tissues  are  filled  with. gases, 
and  a  bloody  foam  exudes  from  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and  anus,  and 
frequently  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  rectum  protrude  from  the 
latter.  The  hairs  detach  from  the  skin.  Congestion  of  all  the  organs 
and  tissues  is  found,  with  interstitial  hemorrhages.  The  muscles  are 
friable  and  are  covered  with  ecchymotic  spots.  This  is  especially 
marked  in  the  heart. 

The  black,  uncoagulated,  and  incoagulable  blood  shows  an  iri- 
descent scum  on  its  surface,  which  is  due  to  the  fat  of  the  animal  dis- 
solved by  the  ammonia  produced  by  the  decomposed  tissues.  The 
serum  oozes  out  of  every  tissue  and  contains  broken-down  blood, 
which,  when  examined  microscopically,  is  found  to  have  the  red 


532  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

globules  crenated  and  the  leucocytes  granular.  A  high  power  of  the 
microscope  also  reveals  the  bacteria  in  the  shape  of  little  rodlike 
bodies  of  homogeneous  texture  with  their  brilliant  spores. 

The  IjTnphatic  ganglia  are  increased  four,  five,  six,  or  ten  times  their 
natural  size,  enlarged  by  the  engorgement  of  blood.  The  spleen 
shows  nodulated  black  spots  containing  a  muddy  blood,  which  is 
found  teeming  with  the  virus.  This  organ  is  much  enlarged  and  is 
quite  friable.  The  mucous  membranes  of  the  intestines  are  congested 
and  reddish  brown;  the  surface  of  the  intestines  is  in  many  places 
denuded  of  its  lining  membrane,  showing  fissures  and  hemorrhagic 
spots.  The  liver  has  a  cooked  appearance ;  the  kidneys  are  congested 
and  friable ;  the  urine  is  red ;  the  pleura,  lungs,  and  the  meninges  are 
congested,  and  the  bronchi  of  the  lungs  contain  a  bloody  foam. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  anthrax  has  little  in  it  to  encourage 
one.  The  curative  treatment,  for  which  almost  every  drug  in  the 
pharmacopoeia  has  been  used,  is  practically  without  avail. 

The  prophylactic  treatment  formerly  consisted  in  the  avoidance  of 
certain  fields  and  marshes  which  were  recognized  as  contaminated 
during  the  months  of  August  and  September  and  had  been  oc- 
cupied the  years  in  which  the  outbreaks  usually  occurred.  It  under- 
went, however,  a  revolution  after  the  discovery  by  Pasteur  of  the 
possibility  of  a  prophylactic  inoculation  or  vaccination  which  granted 
immunity  from  future  attacks  of  the  disease  similar  to  that  granted 
by  the  recovery  of  an  animal  from  an  ordinary  attack  of  the  disease. 

This  treatment  consists  in  the  use  of  a  vaccine  which  is  made  by  the 
artificial  cultivation  of  the  virus  of  anthrax  in  broth  and  in  the  treat- 
ment of  it  by  means  of  continued  exposure  to  a  high  temperature  for 
a  certain  length  of  time,  which  weakens  the  virus  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  only  capable  of  producing  a  very  mild  and  not  dangerous 
attack  of  anthrax  in  the  animal  in  which  it  is  inoculated,  and  thus 
protects  the  animal  from  inoculation  of  a  stronger  virus.  The  pro- 
duction of  this  virus,  which  is  carried  on  in  some  countries  at  the 
expense  of  the  government  and  is  furnished  at  a  small  cost  to  the 
farmers  in  regions  where  the  disease  prevails,  in  this  country  is  made 
in  private  laboratories  only. 

GLANDERS    AXD    FARCY. 

[Synonyms:  Olanders,  farcy,  one  form  of  nasal  gleet;  Malleus  humidus. 
Equina  nasalis,  Equina  apontcinatos,  Lntin ;  rots,  rotzkrankheit,  German ;  snot, 
verroting,  Dutch;  moccio,  ciamorro,  Italian;  mucrmo,  Spanish;  morve,  farcin, 
French.] 

Definition. — Let  it  be  understood  at  the  outset  that  glanders  and 
farcy  are  one  and  the  same  disease,  diflfering  only  in  that  the  first 
term  is  applied  to  the  disease  when  the  local  lesions  predominate  in 
the  internal  organs,  especially  in  the  nostrils,  lungs,  and  air  tubes, 


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GLANDERS   AND   FARCY.  533 

and  that  the  second  term  is  applied  to  it  when  the  principal  mani- 
festation is  an  outbreak  of  the  lesions  on  the  exterior  or  skin  of  the 
animal.  The  term  glanders  applies  to  the  disease  in  both  forms, 
while  the  term  farcy  is  limited  to  the  visible  appearance  of  external 
trouble  only;  but  in  the  latter  case  internal  lesions  always  exist, 
although  they  may  not  be  evident. 

Glanders  is  a  contagious  constitutional  disease  of  the  genus  Equus 
(the  horse,  ass,  and  mule),  readily  communicable  to  man,  the  dog, 
the  cat,  the  rabbit,  and  the  guinea  pig.  It  is  transmitted  with  diflS- 
culty  to  sheep  and  goats,  and  cattle  seem  to  be  entirely  immune.  It 
runs  a  variable  course  and  usually  produces  the  death  of  the  animal 
affected  with  it.  It  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  neoplasms, 
or  nodules,  of  connective  tissue,  which  degenerate  into  ulcers,  from 
which  exude  a  peculiar  discharge.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  variable 
amount  of  fever,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  various  complications  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  of  the  lungs, 
of  the  testicles,  of  the  internal  organs,  and  of  the  subcutaneous  con- 
nective tissue. 

History. — Glanders  is  one  of  the  oldest  diseases  of  which  we  have 
definite  knowledge  in  the  history  of  medicine.  Absyrtus,  the  Greek 
veterinarian  in  the  army  of  Constantine  the  Great,,  described  this  dis- 
ease with  considerable  accuracy  and  recognized  the  contagiousness  of 
its  character.  Another  Greek  veterinarian,  Vegetius  Renatus,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  (381  A.  D.),  described,  under  the 
name  of  Malleus  humidus^  a  disease  of  the  horse  characterized  by  a 
nasal  discharge  and  accompanied  by  superficial  ulcers.  He  recog- 
nized the  contagious  properties  of  the  discharge  of  the  external  ulcers, 
and  recommended  that  all  animals  sick  with  the  disease  should  be 
separated  at  once  with  the  greatest  care  from  the  others,  and  should 
be  pastured  in  separate  fields  for  fear  the  other,  animals  should  become 
affected. 

In  1682  SoUysel,  the  stable  master  of  Louis  XIV,  published  an 
account  of  glanders  and  farcy,  which  he  considered  closely  related  to 
each  other,  although  he  did  not  recognize  them  as  identical.  He 
admitted  the  existence  of  a  vims  which  communicated  the  disease 
from  an  infected  animal  to  a  sound  one.  He  called  special  attention 
to  the  feed  troughs  and  water  buclrets  as  being  the  media  of  conta- 
gion. He  divided  glanders  into  two  forms — one  malignant  and  con- 
tagious and  the  other  benign — and  he  stated  that  there  was  always 
danger  of  infection. 

Garsault,  in  1746,  said  that  "  as  this  disease  is  communicated  very 
easily,  and  can  infect  in  a  very  short  time  a  prodigious  number  of 
horses  by  means  of  the  discharges  which  may  be  licked  up,  animals 
infected  with  glanders  should  be  destroyed." 

Bourgelat,  the  founder  of  veterinary  schools,  in  his  "  Elements  of 


634  DISEASES    OF    THE   HORSE. 

Hippiatary,"  published  in  1755,  establishes  glanders  as  a  virulent 
disease. 

Extensive  outbreaks  of  glanders  are  described  as  prevailing  in  the 
great  armies  of  continental  Europe  and  England  from  time  to  time 
during  the  periods  of  all  the  wars  of  the  last  few  centuries. 

Glanders  was  imported  into  America  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  before  the  end  of  the  first  half  of  the  last  century  had 
spread  to  a  considerable  degree  among  the  horses  of  the  Middle  and 
immediately  adjoining  Southern  States.  This  disease  was  unknown 
in  Mexico  until  carried  there  during  the  Mexican  war  by  the  badly 
diseased  horses  of  the  United  States  Army.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  last  century  a  large  body  of  veterinarians  and  medical  men 
protested  against  the  contagious  character  of  this  disease,  and  pre- 
vailed by  their  opinion  to  such  an  extent  against  the  common  opinion 
that  several  of  the  governments  of  Europe  undertook  a  series  of  ex- 
periments to  determine  the  right  between  the  contesting  parties. 

At  the  veterinary  school  at  Alfort,  and  at  the  farm  of  Lamirault 
in  France,  several  hundred  horses  which  had  passed  examination  as 
sound  had  placed  among  them  glandered  horses  under  various  condi- 
tions. The  results  of  these  experiments  proved  conclusively  the  con- 
tagious character  of  the  disease. 

In  1881  Professor  Bouchard,  of  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Paris, 
assisted  by  Drs.  Capitan  and  Charrin,  undertook  a  series  of  experi- 
ments with  matter  taken  from  the  farcy  ulcer  of  a  human  being. 
They  afterwards  continued  their  experiments  with  matter  taken  from 
horses,  and  succeeded  in  showing  in  1883  that  glanders  is  caused  b)' 
a  bacterium  which  is  capable  of  propagation  and  reproduction  of 
others  of  its  own  kind  if  placed  in  the  proper  media.  In  1882  the 
specific  germ  of  glanders  was  first  discovered  and  described  by  Loef- 
fler  and  Schuetz  in  Germany. 

^^^len  we  come  to  study  the  etiology  of  glanders,  the  difference  of 
susceptibility  on  the  part  of  different  species  of  animals,  or  even  on 
the  part  of  individuals  of  the  same  species,  and  when  we  come  to  find 
proof  of  the  slow  incubation  and  latent  character  of  the  disease  as  it 
exists  in  certain  individuals,  we  will  understand  how  in  a  section  of 
country  containing  a  number  of  glandered  animals  others  can  seem  to 
contract  and  develop  the  disease  without  having  apparently  been 
exposed  to  contagion. 

Causes. — The  contagious  nature  of  glanders,  in  no  matter  what 
form  it  appears,  being  to-day  definitely  demonstrated,  we  can  recog- 
nize but  one  cause  for  all  cases,  and  that  is  contagion  by  means  of 
the  specific  virus  of  the  disease.  The  causative  organism  is  known  as 
the  Bacillus  mallei. 

In  studying  the  writings  of  the  older  authors  on  glanders,  and  the 
works  of  those  authors  who  contested  the  contagious  nature  of  the 


GLANDEBS   AND   FABCY.  535 

disease,  we  find  a  large  number  of  predisposing  causes  assigned  as 
factors  in  the  development  of  the  malady. 

While  a  virus  from  a  case  of  glanders  if  inoculated  into  an  animal 
of  the  genus  Equus  will  inevitably  produce  the  disease,  we  find  a  vast 
difference  in  the  contagious  activity  of  different  cases  of  glanders. 
We  find  a  great  variation  in  the  manner  and  rapidity  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  disease  in  different  individuals  and  that  the  contagion  is 
much  more  apt  to  be  carried  to  sound  animals  under  certain  circum- 
stances than  it  is  under  others.  Only  certain  species  of  animals  are 
susceptible  of  contracting  the  disease,  and  while  some  of  these  con- 
tract it  as  a  general  constitutional  malady,  in  others  it  only  develops 
as  a  local  sore. 

In  acute  glanders  the  contagion  is  found  in  its  most  virulent  form, 
as  is  shown  by  the  inevitable  infection  of  susceptible  animals  inocu- 
lated with  the  disease,  while  the  discharge  from  chronic  semilatent 
glanders  and  farcy  may  at  times  be  inoculated  with  a  negative  result ; 
again,  in  acute  glanders,  as  we  have  a  free  discharge,  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  virus-containing  matter  is  scattered  in  the  neighborhood 
of  an  infected  horse  to  serve  as  a  contagion  to  others  than  is  found  in 
the  small  amount  of  discharge  of  the  chronic  cases. 

The  chances  of  contagion  are  much  greater  when  sound  horses, 
asses,  or  mules  are  placed  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  glan- 
dered  horses,  drink  from  the  same  bucket,  stand  in  the  next  stall  or 
work  in  the  same  wagon,  or  are  fed  from  feed  boxes  or  mangers 
which  have  been  impregnated  by  the  saliva  and  soiled  by  the  dis- 
charge of  sick  animals.  Transmission  occurs  by  direct  contact  of 
the  discharges  of  a  glandered  animal  with  the  tissues  of  a  sound  one, 
either  on  the  exterior,  when  swallowed  mixed  with  food  into  the 
digestive  tract,  or  when  dried  and  inhaled  as  dust. 

The  stable  attendants  serve  as  one  of  the  most  common  carriers  of 
the  virus.  Dried  or  fresh  discharges  are  collected  from  the  infected 
animal  in  cleaning,  harnessing,  feeding,  and  by  means  of  the  hands, 
clothing,  the  teeth  of  the  currycomb,  the  sponge,  the  bridle,  and  the 
halter,  and  are  thus  carried  to  other  animals. 

An  animal  affected  with  chronic  glanders  in  a  latent  form  is  moved 
from  one  part  of  the  stable  to  another,  or  works  hitched  with  one 
horse  and  then  with  another,  and  may  be  an  active  agent  in  the 
spreading  of  the  disease  without  the  cause  being  recognized. 

Glanders  is  found  frequently  in  the  most  insidious  forms,  and  we 
recognize  that  it  can  exist  without  being  apparent;  that  is,  it  may 
affect  a  horse  for  a  long  period  without  showing  any  symptoms  that 
will  allow  even  the  most  experienced  veterinarian  to  make  a  diagnosis. 
An  old  gray  mare  belonging  to  a  tavern  keeper  was  reserved  for 
family  use  with  good  care  and  light  work  for  a  period  of  eight  years, 
during  which  time  other  horses  in  the  tavern  stable  were  from  time 


536  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

to  time  affected  with  glanders  without  an  apparent  cause.  The  mare, 
whose  only  trouble  was  an  apparent  attack  of  heaves,  was  sold  to  a 
huckster  who  placed  her  at  hard  work.  Want  of  feed  and  overwork 
and  exposure  rapidly  developed  a  case  of  acute  glanders,  from  which 
the  animal  died,  and  at  the  autopsy  were  found  the  lesions  of  an  acute 
pneumonia  of  glanders  grafted  on  chronic  lesions,  consisting  of  old 
nodules  which  had  undoubtedly  existed  for  years. 

In  a  case  that  once  came  under  the  care  of  the  writer,  a  coach  horse 
was  examined  for  soundness  and  passed  as  sound  by  a  prominent 
veterinarian,  who  a  few  months  afterwards  treated  the  horse  for  a 
skin  eruption  from  which  it  recovered.  Twelve  months  afterwards 
it  came  into  the  hands  of  the  writer,  hidebound,  with  a  slight  cough 
and  a  slight  eruption  of  the  skin,  which  was  attributed  to  clipping 
and  the  rubbing  of  the  harness,  but  which  had  nothing  suspicious  in 
its  character.  The  horse  was  placed  on  tonics  and  put  to  regular 
light  driving.  In  six  weeks  it  developed  a  bronchitis  without  having 
been  specially  exposed,  and  in  two  days  this  trouble  was  followed  by 
a  lobular  pneumonia  and  the  breaking  of  an  abscess  in  the  right  lung. 
Farcy  buds  developed  on  the  surface  of  the  body  and  the  animal  died. 
The  autopsy  showed  the  existence  of  a  number  of  old  glanderous 
nodules  in  the  lungs  which  must  have  existed  previous  to  purchase, 
more  than  a  j^ear  before. 

Public  watering  troughs  and  the  feed  boxes  of  boarding  stables  and 
the  tavern  stables  of  market  towns  are  among  the  most  common 
recipients  for  the  virus  of  glanders,  which  is  most  dangerous  in  its 
fresh  state,  but  cases  have  been  known  to  be  caused  by  feeding  animals 
in  the  box  or  stall  in  which  glandered  animals  had  stood  several 
months  before.  "While  the  discharge  from  a  case  of  chronic  glanders 
is  much  less  apt  to  contain  many  active  bacilli  than  that  from  a  case 
of  acute  glanders,  the  former,  if  it  infects  an  animal,  will  produce 
the  same  disease  as  the  latter.  It  may  assume  from  the  outset  an 
acute  or  chronic  form,  according  to  the  susceptibility  of  the  animal 
infected,  and  this  does  not  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  disease 
from  which  the  virus  was  derived. 

The  animals  of  the  genus  Eqiius — the  horse,  the  ass,  and  the  mule — 
are  those  which  are  the  mosl  susceptible  to  contract  glanders,  but  in 
these  we  find  a  much  greater  receptivity  in  the  ass  and  mule  than  we 
do  in  the  horse.  In  the  ass  and  mule  in  almost  all  cases  the  period 
of  incubation  is  short  and  the  disease  develops  in  an  acute  form.  We 
find  that  the  kind  of  horse  infected  has  an  influence  on  the  character 
of  the  disease;  in  full-blooded  fat  horses  of  a  sanguinary  tempera- 
ment, the  disease  usually  develops  in  an  acute  form,  while  in  the 
lymphatic,  cold-blooded,  more  common  race  of  horses  the  disease 
usually  assumes  a  chronic  form.     If  the  disease  develops  first  in  the 


GLANDERS   AND   FARCY.  537 

chronic  form  in  a  horse  in  fair  condition,  starvation  and  overwork  are 
apt  to  bring  on  an  acute  attack,  but  when  the  disease  is  inoculated 
into  a  debilitated  and  impoverished  animal  it  is  apt  to  start  in  the 
latent  form.  Inoculation  on  the  lips  or  the  exterior  of  the  animal 
is  frequently  followed  by  an  acute  attack,  while  infection  by  ingestion 
of  the  virus  and  inoculation  by  means  of  the  digestive  tract  is  often 
followed  by  the  trouble  in  the  chronic  latent  form. 

In  the  dog  the  inoculation  of  glanders  may  develop  a  constitutional 
disease  with  all  the  symptoms  which  are  found  in  the  horse,  but  more 
frequently  the  virus  pullulates  only  at  the  point  of  inoculation,  re- 
maining for  some  time  as  a  local  sore,  which  may  then  heal,  leaving 
a  perfectly  sound  animal;  but  while  the  local  sore  is  continuing  to 
ulcerate,  and  specific  virus  exists  in  it,  it  may  be  the  carrier  of  con- 
tagion to  other  animals.  In  man  we  find  a  greater  receptivity  to 
glanders  than  in  the  dog,  and  in  many  unfortunate  cases  the  virus 
spreads  from  the  point  of  inoculation  to  the  entire  system  and  de- 
stroys the  wretched  mortal  by  extensive  ulcers  of  the  face  and  hemor- 
rhage or  by  destruction  of  the  lung  tissue;  in  other  cases,  however, 
glanders  may  develop,  as  in  the  dog,  in  local  form  only,  not  infecting 
the  constitution  and  terminating  in  recovery,  while  the  specific  ulcer 
by  proper  treatment  is  turned  into  a  simple  one.  In  the  feline  species 
glanders  is  more  destructive  than  in  the  dog.  The  point  of  inocula- 
tion ulcerates  rapidly  and  the  entire  system  becomes  infected. 

While  a  student  the  writer  saw  a  lion  in  the  service  of  Professor 
Trasbot,  at  Alfort,  which  had  contracted  the  disease  by  eating  glan- 
dered  meat  and  died  with  the  lung  riddled  with  nodules.  A  litter  of 
kittens  lapped  the  blood  from  the  lungs  of  a  glandered  horse  on  which 
an  autopsy  was  being  made,  and  in  four  days  almost  their  entire  faces, 
including  the  nasal  bones,  were  eaten  away  by  rapid  ulceration.  Nod- 
ules were  found  in  the  lungs.  A  pack  of  wolves  in  the  Philadelphia 
Zoological  Garden  died  in  ten  days  after  being  fed  with  the  meat  of  a 
glandered  horse.  The  rabbit,  guinea  pig,  and  mice  are  especially  sus- 
ceptible to  the  inoculation  of  glanders,  and  these  animals  are  conven- 
ient witnesses  and  proofs  of  the  existence  of  suspected  cases  of  the 
glanders  in  other  animals  by  the  results  of  successful  inoculations. 

The  primary  lesion  in  any  form  is  a  local  point  in  which  occurs 
a  rapid  proliferation  of  the  cell  elements  which  make  up  the  animal 
tissue  with  formation  of  new  connective  tissue,  with  a  crowding  to- 
gether of  the  elements' until  their  own  pressure  on  each  other  cuts  off 
the  circulation  and  nutrition,  and  death  takes  place  in  them  in  the 
form  of  ulceration  or  gangrene.  Following  this  primary  lesion  we 
have  an  extension  of  infection  by  means  of  the  spread  of  the  bacilli 
into  those  tissues  immediately  surrounding  the  first  infected  spot, 
which  are  most  suitable  for  the  development  of  simple  inflammatory 
phenomena  or  the  specific  virus.     The  primary  symptoms  are  the  re- 


538  DISEASES   OF    THE   HOBSE. 

suit  of  specific  reaction  at  the  point  of  inoculation,  but  at  a  later  time 
the  virus  is  carried  by  means  of  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatic  ves- 
sels to  other  parts  of  the  body  and  becomes  lodged  at  different  places 
and  develops  in  them;  again,  when  the  disease  has  existed  in  the 
latent  form  in  the  lungs  of  the  animal  and  the  virus  is  wakened  into 
action  from  any  cause,  we  have  it  carried  to  various  parts  of  the  body 
and  developing  in  the  most  susceptible  regions  or  organs.  The  points 
of  development  are  most  frequently  determined  by  the  activity  of  the 
circulation  and  the  effects  of  exterior  irritants.  For  example,  if  a 
horse  which  has  been  so  slightly  affected  with  the  virus  of  glanders 
that  no  symptoms  are  visible  is  exposed  to  cold,  rain,  or  sleet,  or  by 
the  rubbing  of  the  harness  on  the  body  and  the  irritation  of  mud  on 
the  legs,  the  disease  is  apt  to  develop  on  the  exterior  in  the  form  of 
farcy,  while  a  full-blooded  horse  which  is  employed  at  speed  and  has 
its  lungs  and  respiratory  tract  gorged  with  blood  from  the  extreme  use 
of  these  organs  will  develop  glanders  as  the  local  manifestation  of  the 
disease  in  the  respiratory  tract 

The  previous  reference  to  the  existence  of  glanders  under  the  two 
forms  more  commonly  differentiated  as  glanders  and  as  farcy,  and 
our  reference  to  the  various  conditions  in  which  it  may  exist  as 
acute,  chronic,  and  latent,  show  that  the  disease  may  assume  several 
different  phases.  Without  losing  sight  for  a  moment  of  the  fact  that 
all  of  these  varied  conditions  are  identical  in  their  origin  and  in  their 
essence,  for  convenience  of  study  we  may  divide  glanders  into  three 
classes — chronic  farcy,  chronic  glanders,  and  acute  glanders  with  or 
without  farcy. 

CHRONIC   FARCY. 

Symptoms. — In  farcy  the  symptoms  commence  by  formation  of 
little  nodes  on  the  under  surface  of  the  skin,  which  rapidly  infringe 
on  the  tissues  of  the  skin  itself.  These  nodes,  which  are  known  as 
farcy  "  buds  "  and  farcy  "  buttons,"  are  from  the  size  of  a  bullet  to 
the  size  of  a  walnut.  They  are  hot,  sensitive  to  the  touch,  at  first 
elastic  and  afterwards  become  soft;  the  tissue  is  destroyed,  and  in- 
fringing on  the  substance  of  the  skin  the  disease  produces  an  ulcer, 
which  is  known  as  a  chancre.  This  ulcer  is  irregular  in  shape,  with 
ragged  edges  which  overhang  the  sore;  it  has  a  gray,  dirty  bottom 
and  the  discharge  is  sometimes  thin  and  sometimes  purulent;  in  either 
«ase  it  is  mixed  with  a  viscous,  sticky,  yellowish  material  like  the 
white  of  an  egg  in  consistency  and  like  olive  oil  in  api>earance.  The 
discharge  is  almost  diagnostic;  it  resembles  somewhat  the  discharge 
which  we  have  in  greasy  heels  and  in  certain  attacks  of  lymphangitis, 
but  to  the  expert  the  specific  discharge  is  characteristic.  The  dis- 
charge accumulates  on  the  hair  surrounding  the  ulcer  and  over  its 
surface  and  dries,  forming  scabs  which  become  thicker  by  successive 
deposits  on  the  under  surface  until  they  fall  off,  to  be  replaced  by 


CHBONIC   FABCY.  539 

others  of  the  same  kind;  and  the  excess  of  discharge  may  drop  on 
the  hairs  below  and  form  similar  brownish  yellow  crusts.  The  farcy 
ulcers  may  retain  their  specific  form  for  a  considerable  time — days 
or  even  weeks — but  eventually  the  discharge  becomes  purulent  in  char- 
acter and  assumes  the  appearance  of  healthy  matter.  The  surface 
of  the  gangrenous  bottom  of  the  ulcer  is  replaced  by  rosy  granula- 
tions, the  ragged  edges  are  beveled  off,  and  the  chancre  is  turned 
into  a  simple  ulcer  which  rapidly  heals. 

The  farcy  buttons  occur  most  frequently  on  the  sides  of  the  lips, 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulders,  the  inside  of 
the  thighs,  or  the  outside  of  the  legs,  but  may  occur  on  any  part  of 
the  body. 

We  have  next  an  irritation  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  chancres.  Those  become  swollen  and  then  indurated 
and  appear  like  great  ridges  underneath  the  skin;  they  are  hot  to 
the  touch  and  sensitive.  The  cords  may  remain  for  a  considerable 
time  and  then  gradually  disappear,  or  they  may  ulcerate  like  a  farcy 
bud  itself,  forming  elongated,  irregular,  serpentine  ulcers  with  a 
characteristic,  dirty,  gray  bottom  and  ragged  edges,  and  pour  out 
a  viscous,  oily  discharge  like  the  chancres  themselves. 

The  essential  symptoms  of  farcy  are,  as  above  described,  the  button, 
the  chancre,  the  cord,  and  the  discharge.  We  have  in  addition  to 
these  symptoms  a  certain  number  of  accessory  symptoms,  which, 
while  not  diagnostic  in  themselves,  are  of  great  service  in  aiding  the 
diagnosis  in  cases  where  the  eruption  takes  place  in  small  quantities, 
and  when  the  ulcers  are  not  characteristic. 

Epistaxis,  or  bleeding  from  the  nose  without  previous  work  or 
other  apparent  cause,  is  one  of  the  frequent  concomitant  symptoms 
in  glanders,  and  such  a  hemorrhage  from  the  nostrils  should  always 
be  regarded  with  suspicion.  The  animal  with  farcy  frequently  de- 
velops a  cough,  resembling  much  that  which  we  find  in  heaves — a 
short,  dry,  aborted,  hacking  cough,  with  little  or  no  discharge  from 
the  nostrils.  With  this  we  find  an  irregular  movement  of  the  flanks, 
and  on  auscultation  of  the  lungs  we  find  sibilant  or  at  times  a  few 
mucous  rales.  Another  common  symptom  is  a  sudden  swelling  of  one 
of  the  hind  legs;  it  is  found  suddenly  swollen  in  the  region  of  the 
cannon,  the  enlargement  extending  below  to  the  pastern  and  above  as 
high  as  the  stifle.  This  swelling  is  hot  and  painful  to  the  touch,  and 
renders  the  animal  stiff  and  lame.  On  pressure  with  the  finger  the 
swelling  can  be  indented,  but  the  pits  so  formed  soon  fill  up  again  on 
removal  of  the  pressure.  In  severe  cases  we  may  have  ulceration  of 
the  skin,  and  serum  pours  out-f rom  the  surface,  resembling  the  oozing 
which  we  have  after  a  blister  or  in  a  case  of  grease.  This  swelling 
is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  stocking  in  lymphatic  horses  or  the 
edema  which  we  have  in  chronic  heart  or  in  kidney  trouble,   as 


540  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

in  the  last  the  swelling  is  cool  and  not  painful  and  the  pitting  on 
pressure  remains  for  sometime  after  the  latter  is  withdrawn.  It 
is  not  to  be  confounded  with  greasy  heels.  In  these  the  disease  com- 
mences in  the  neighborhood  of  the  pastern  and  gradually  extends 
up  the  leg,  rarely  passing  beyond  the  neighborhood  of  the  hock.  The 
swollen  leg  in  glanders  almost  invariably  swells  for  the  entire  length 
in  a  single  night  or  within  a  very  short  period.  AVhen  greasy  heels 
are  complicated  by  lymphangitis  we  have  a  condition  very  much 
resembling  that  of  farcy.  The  swelled  leg  in  farcy  is  frequently  fol- 
lowed by  an  outbreak  of  farcy  buttons  and  ulcers  over  its  surface. 
In  the  entire  horse  the  testicles  are  frequently  swollen  and  hot  and 
sensitive  to  the  touch,  but  they  have  no  tendency  to  suppuration. 
The  acute  inflammation  is  rapidly  followed  by  the  specific  induration, 
which  corresponds  to  the  local  lesions  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Chronic  farcy  in  the  ass  and  mule  is  an  excessively  rare  condition, 
but  sometimes  occurs. 

CHRONIC   GLANDERS. 

Symptoms. — In  chronic  glanders  we  find  the  same  train  of  inflam- 
matory phenomena,  varying  in  appearance  from  those  of  chronic 
farcy  only  by  the  difference  of  the  tissues  in  which  they  are  located. 
In  chronic  glanders  there  is  first  the  nodule,  from  the  size  of  a  shot 
to  that  of  a  small  pea,  which  forms  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
respiratory  tract.  This  may  be  just  inside  of  the  wings  of  the  nos- 
trils or  on  the  septum  which  divides  the  one  nasal  cavity  from  the 
other  and  be  easily  detected,  or  it  may  be  higher  in  the  nasal  cavities 
on  the  turbinated  bones,  or  it  may  form  in  the  larjmx  itself  or  on  the 
surface  of  the  trachea  or  deep  in  the  lungs. 

The  nodules,  which  are  first  red  and  hard  and  consist  of  new  con- 
nective tissue,  soon  soften  and  become  yellow ;  the  yellow  spots  break 
and  we  have  a  small  ulcer  the  size  of  the  preceding  nodule,  which  has 
a  gray,  dirty  bottom  and  ragged  edges  and  is  known  as  a  chancre. 
This  ulcer  pours  from  its  surface  a  viscous,  oily  discharge  similar 
to  that  which  we  have  seen  in  the  farcy  ulcer.  The  irritation  of  the 
discharge  may  ulcerate  the  lining  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose, 
causing  serpentine  gutters  with  bottoms  resembling  those  of  the 
chancres  themselves.  If  the  nodules  have  formed  in  large  numbers, 
we  maj'  have  them  causing  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  Schneiderian 
membrane,  with  a  catarrhal  discharge  which  may  mark  the  specific 
discharge,  or  that  which  comes  from  the  ulcers  and  resembles  the 
discharge  of  strangles  or  simple  inflammatory  diseases. 

The  eruption  of  the  ulcers  and  discharge  soon  cause  an  irritation 
of  the  neighboring  lymphatics;  and  in  the  intermaxillary  space,  deep 
inside  of  the  jaws,  we  find  an  enlargement  of  the  glands,  which  for 
the  first  few  days  may  seem  soft  and  edematous,  but  which  rapidly 
becomes  confined  to  the  glands,  these  being  from  the  size  of  an 


GLANDERS.  541 

almond  to  that  of  a  small  bunch  of  berries,  exceedingly  hard  and 
nodulated.  This  enlargement  of  the  glands  is  found  high  up  on  the 
inside  of  the  jaws,  firmly  adherent  to  the  base,  of  the  tongue.  It  is 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  puffy,  edematous  swelling,  which  is 
not  separated  from  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  connective  tissues 
found  in  strangles,  in  laryngitis,  and  in  other  simple  inflammatory 
troubles. 

These  glands  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  hard,  indurated  glands 
which  we  find  in  connection  with  the  collection  of  pus  in  the  sinuses ; 
but  in  the  latter  disease  the  glands  have  not  the  extreme  nodulated  feel 
which  they  have  in  glanders.  With  the  glands  we,  find  indurated 
cords,  feeling  like  balls  of  tangled  wire  or  twine,  fastening  the  glands 
together. 

The  essential  symptoms  of  glanders  are  the  nodule,  the  chancre, 
the  glands,  and  the  discharge.  With  the  development  of  the  nodules 
in  the  respiratory  tract,  according  to  their  number  and  the  amount 
of  eruption  which  they  cause,  we  may  find  a  cough  which  resembles 
that  of  a  coryza,  a  laryngitis,  a  bronchitis,  or  a  broncho-pneumonia, 
according  to  the  location  of  the  lesions.  In  chronic  glanders  we 
find  the  same  accessory  symptoms  that  occur  in  chronic  farcy,  the 
hemorrhage  of  the  nose,  the  swelling  of  the  legs,  the  chronic  cough, 
and,  in  the  entire  horse,  the  swelling  of  the  testicles. 

On  healing,  the  chancres  on  the  mucous  membranes  leave  small, 
whitish,  star-shaped  scars,  hard  and  indurated  to  the  touch,  and  which 
remain  for  almost  an  indefinite  time.  The  chancres  heal  and  the 
other  local  symptoms  disappear,  with  the  exception  of  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  glands,  and  we  find  these  so  diminished  in  size  that  they 
are  scarcely  perceptible  on  examination.  During  the  subacute  at- 
tacks, with  a  minimum  quantity  of  local  troubles,  in  chronic  glanders 
and  in  chronic  farcy  the  animal  rarely  shows  any  amount  of  fever, 
but  does  have  a  general  depraved  appearance;  it  loses  flesh  and  be- 
comes hidebound;  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand  on  end. 
There  is  a  cachexia,  however,  which  resembles  greatly  that  of  any 
chronic,  organic  trouble,  but  is  not  diagnostic,  although  it  has  in  it 
certain  appearances  and  conditions  which  often  render  the  animal  sus- 
picious to  the  eye  of  the  expert  veterinarian,  while  without  the  pres- 
ence of  local  lesions  he  would  be  unable  to  state  on  what  he  has  based 
his  opinion. 

ACUTE    GLANDEB8. 

Symptoms. — In  the  acute  form  of  glanders  we  find  the  symp- 
toms which  we  have  just  studied  in  chronic  farcy  and  in  chronic  glan- 
ders in  a  more  acute  and  aggravated  form.  There  is  a  rapid  outbreak 
of  nodules  in  the  respiratory  tract  which  rapidly  degenerate  into 
chancres  and  pour  out  a  considerable  discharge  from  the  nostrils. 
There  is  a  cough  of  more  or  less  severity  according  to  the  amount  and 


642  DISEASES    OP   THE    HORSE. 

site  of  the  local  eruption.  Over  the  surface  of  the  body  swellings 
occur  which  are  rapidly  followed  by  farcy  buttons,  which  break  into 
ulcers;  we  find  the. indurated  cords  and  enlargement  of  the  lym- 
phatics. 

Bleeding  from  the  nose,  sudden  swelling  of  one  of  the  hind  legs, 
and  the  swelling  of  the  testicles  are  apt  to  precede  an  acute  eruption 
of  glanders.  As  the  symptoms  become  more  marked  the  animal  has 
difficulty  of  respiration,  the  flanks  heave,  the  respiration  becomes 
rapid,  the  pulse  becomes  quickened,  and  the  temperature  becomes 
elevated  to  103%  104°,  or  105°  F. 

With  the  otl\er  symptoms  of  an  acute  fever  the  general  appearance 
and  station  of  the  animal  is  that  of  one  suffering  from  an  acute  pneu- 
monia, but  upon  examination,  while  we  may  find  sibilant  and  mucous 
rales  over  the  side  of  the  chest,  and  may  possibly  hear  tubular  mur- 
murs at  the  base  of  the  neck  over  the  trachea,  we  fail  to  find  the  tubu- 
lar murmur  or  the  large  area  of  dullness  on  percussion  over  the  sides 
of  the  chest  which  belongs  to  simple  pneumonia. 

Where  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  diagnosis,  the  mallein,  the  inoculation 
test  or  the  complement-fixation  test  may  be  employed.  The  mallein 
test  is  made  by  injecting  mallein  (a  sterilized  extract  from  a  culture 
of  glanders  bacilli)  beneath  the  skin.  If  the  horse  has  glanders  there 
results  a  febrile  reaction  and  a  swelling  at  the  point  of  injection.  If 
the  horse  does  not  have  glanders  the  mallein  has  no  effect  or,  at  most, 
it  produces  a  slight  swelling  only  at  the  point  of  injection.  The 
inoculation  test  consists  in  the  inoculation  of  a  susceptible  animal 
(usually  a  guinea  pig)  with  some  of  the  suspected  discharge  from 
the  nose  or  a  farcy  ulcer.  If  the  material  is  properly  used,  and  if  it 
contains  bacilli  of  glanders,  the  experimental  animal  will  develop  the 
disease.  Neither  of  these  tests  should  be  put  into  use  except  by  a 
competent  veterinarian.  The  complement-fixation  test  is  a  highly 
specialized  laboratory  test  and  can  only  be  carried  out  by  one  versed  in 
laboratory  technique.     (See  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  136.) 

The  post-mortem  examination  of  the  lungs  shows  that  the  pneu- 
monia of  glanders  is  a  lobular,  V-shaped  pneumonia  scattered  through 
the  lungs  and  caused  by  the  spocific  inflammatory  process  taking 
place  at  the  divergence  of  the  smaller  air  tubes  of  the  lungs.  In  some 
cases  of  acute  glanders  the  formation  of  nodules  may  so  irritate  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory  tract  and  cause  such  a  profuse 
discharge  of  mucopurulent  or  purulent  matter  that  the  specific  char- 
acter of  the  original  discharge  is  entirely  masked.  In  this  case,  too, 
the  submaxillary  space  may  for  a  few  days  so  swell  as  to  resemble  the 
edematous  inflamed  glands  of  strangles,  equine  variola,  or  laryngitis. 
This  condition  is  especially  apt  to  be  marked  in  an  acute  outbreak  of 
glanders  in  a  drove  of  mules. 

Cases  of  chronic  farcy  and  glanders,  if  not  destroyed,  may  live  in  a 
depraved  condition  until  the  animal  dies  from  general  emaciation  and 
anemia,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases,  from  some  sudden  exposure  to 


GLANDERS.  543 

cold,  it  develops  an  acute  pneumonia  or  other  simple  inflammatory 
trouble  which  starts  up  the  latent  disease  and  the  animal  has  acute 
glanders. 

In  the  ass,  mule,  and  plethoric  horses  acute  glanders  usually  termi- 
nates by  lobular  pneumonia.  In  other  cases  the  general  symptoms 
may  subside.  The  symptoms  of  pneumonia  gradually  disappear,  the 
temperature  lowers,  the  pulse  becomes  slower,  the  ulcers  heal,  leaving 
small  indurated  cicatrices,  and  the  animal  may  return  to  apparent 
health,  or  may  at  least  be  able  to  do  a  small  amount  of  work  with  but 
a  few  symptoms  of  the  disease  remaining  in  a  chronic  form.  During 
the  attack  of  acute  glanders  the  inflammation  of  the  nasal  cavities 
frequently  spreads  into  the  sinuses  or  air  cells,  which  are  found  in  the 
forehead  and  in  front  of  the  eyes  on  either  side  of  the  face,  and  cause 
abscesses  of  these  cavities,  which  may  remain  as  the  only  visible 
symptom  of  the  disease.  An  animal'  which  has  recovered  from  a  case 
of  acute  glanders,  like  the  animals  which  are  affected  by  chronic 
glanders  and  chronic  farcy,  are  apt  to  be  affected  with  emphysema  of 
the  lungs  or  the  heaves,  and  to  have  a  chronic  cough.  In  this  condi- 
tion they  may  continue  for  a  long  period,  serving  as  dangerous  sources 
of  contagion,  the  more  so  because  the  slight  amount  of  discharge  does 
not  serve  as  a  warning  to  the  owner  or  driver  as  profuse  discharge 
does  in  the  more  acute  cases. 

At  the  post-mortem  examination  of  an  animal  which  has  been  de- 
stroyed or  has  died  of  glanders  we  find  evidences  of  the  various 
lesions  which  we  have  studied  in  the  symptoms.  In  addition  to  this, 
we  find  nodules  similar  to  those  which  we  have  seen  on  the  exterior 
throughout  the  various  organs  of  the  body.  Nodules  may  be  found 
in  the  liver,  in  the  spleen,  and  in  the  kidneys.  We  may  find  inflam- 
mation of  the  periosteum  of  the  bones,  and  we  have  excessive  altera- 
tions in  the  marrow  in  the  interior  of  the  bones  themselves.  Both  of 
these  conditions  during  the  life  of  the  animal  may  have  been  the  cause 
of  the  lamenesses  which  were  difficult  to  diagnose. 

In  one  case  which  came  under  the  observation  of  the  writer,  a  lame 
horse  was  destroyed  and  found  to  have  a  large  abscess  of  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  with  old  nodules  of  the  lungs.  When  an  animal  has  died 
immediately  after  an  attack  of  a  primary  acute  case  of  glanders,  we 
find  small  V-shaped  spots  of  acute  pneumonia  in  the  lungs.  If  the 
animal  has  made  an  apparent  recovery  from  acute  glanders,  and  in 
cases  of  chronic  farcy  and  chronic  glanders,  no  matter  how  few  the 
external  and  visible  symptoms  may  have  been,  there  is  a  deposit  of 
nodules — small,  hard,  indurated  nodes — of  new  connective  tissue  to  be 
found  in  the  lungs.  When  these  have  existed  for  some  time  we  may 
find  a  deposit  of  lime  salts  in  them.  These  indurated  nodules  retain 
the  virus  and  their  power  to  give  out  contagion  for  almost  an  indefi- 
nite time,  and  predispose  to  the  causes  which  we  have  studied  as  the 


544  DISEASES   OP   THE   HORSE. 

common  factors  in  developing  a  chronic  case  into  an  acute  case;  that 
is,  an  inflammatory  process  wakens  up  their  vitality  and  produces  a 
reinfection  of  the  entire  animal.  The  blood  of  an  animal  suffering 
from  chronic  glanders  and  farcy  is  not  virulent  and  is  unaltered,  but 
during  the  attack  of  acute  glanders,  while  the  animal  has  fever,  the 
blood  becomes  virulent  and  remains  so  for  a  few  days. 

Treatment. — Almost  the  entire  list  of  drugs  in  the  pharmacopoeia 
has  been  tested  in  the  treatment  of  glanders.  Good  hygienic  sur- 
roundings, good  food,  with  alteratives  and  tonics,  frequently  amelio- 
rate the  symptoms,  and  often  do  so  to  such  an  extent  that  the  animal 
would  pass  the  examination  of  any  expert  as  a  perfectly  sound  ani- 
mal. But  while  in  this  case  the  number  of  nodules  of  the  lungs, 
which  are  invariably  there,  may  be  so  few  as  not  to  cause  sufficient 
disturbance  in  the  respiration  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  exam- 
iner, they  exist,  and  will  remain  there  almost  indefinitely,  with  the 
constant  possibility  of  a  return  of  acute  symptoms. 

It  is  probable  that  some  horses  may  recover  from  glanders  if  the 
infection  is  slight,  but  it  will  not  yet  do  to  depend  upon  this  except- 
ing under  the  most  stringent  veterinary  supervision.  With  good 
care,  good  food,  and  good  surroundings  and  little  work,  an  animal 
affected  with  glanders  may  live  for  months  or  even  years  in  an  ap- 
parent state  of  perfect  health,  but  with  the  first  deprivation  of  food, 
with  a  few  days  of  severe  hard  work,  with  exposure  to  cold  or  with 
the  attack  of  a  simple  fever  or  inflammatory  trouble  from  other 
causes,  the  latent  seeds  of  the  disease  break  out  and  develop  the 
trouble  again  in  an  acute  form. 

In  several  celebrated  cases  horses  which  have  been  affected  with 
glanders  have  been  known  to  work  for  years  and  die  from  other 
causes  without  ever  having  had  the  return  of  symptoms;  but  allow- 
ing that  these  cases  may  occur,  they  are  so  few  and  far  between,  and 
the  danger  of  infection  of  glanders  to  other  horses  and  to  the  stable 
attendants  is  so  great,  that  no  animal  which  has  once  been  affected 
with  the  disease  should  be  allowed  to  live  unless  repeated  mallein 
tests  have  shown  him  to  have  become  free  from  taint  of  glanders. 

In  all  civilized  countries,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  States 
in  the  United  States,  the  laws  are  most  stringent  regarding  the 
prompt  declaration  on  the  part  of  the  owner  and  attending  veteri- 
narian at  the  first  suspicion  of  a  case  of  glanders,  and  they  allow 
indemnity  for  the  animal.  When  this  is  done,  in  all  cases  the  animal 
is  destroyed  and  the  articles  with  which  it  has  l)een  in  contact  are 
thoroughly  disinfected.  When  the  attendants  have  attempted  to 
hide  the  presence  of  the  disease  in  a  community,  punishment  is  meted 
to  the  owner,  attending  veterinarian,  or  other  responsible  parties. 
Several  States  have  passed  excellent  laws  in  regard  to  glanders,  but 
these  laws  are  not  always  carried  out  with  the  rigidity  with  which 
they  should  be. 


MYCOTIC   LYMPHANGITIS.  545 

MYCOTIC  LYMPHANGITIS  * 

By  John  R.  Mohler,  V.  M.  D., 
Chief  of  the  Pathological  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

This  disease  has  been  known  as  epizootic  lymphangitis,  otherwise 
pseudo-farcy,  or  Japanese  farcy;  it  is  a  chronic  contagious  disease, 
particularly  of  equines,  caused  by  a  specific  org-anism,  the  SaccTiaro- 
myces  farciminosus^  and  characterized  by  a  suppurative  inflammation 
of  the  subcutaneous  lymph  vessels  and  the  neighboring  lymph  glands. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  affection  does  not  spread  as  an  epizootic 
and-  that  its  causal  factor  is  a  yeastlike  fungus,  the  name  mycotic 
instead  of  epizootic  lymphangitis  is  suggested.  This  disease  Was  first 
described  by  Italian  and  French  veterinarians,  and  the  specific  organ- 
ism was  discovered  by  E-ivolta  in  1873.  The  presence  of  the  disease 
in  the  United  States  was  first  observed  by  Pearson  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1907,  although  it  is  probable  that  it  has  existed  in  various  parts  of 
this  countiy  for  many  years.  More  recently  its  presence  was  definitely 
established  in  Ohio,  Iowa,  California,  and  North  Dakota,  and  there  is 
a  probability  of  its  existence  in  Indiana  and  several  Western  States. 
The  disease  is  also  present  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  Porto  Rico. 

Bacteriology. — The  Sa/'charomyces  farciminosus  forms  slightly 
ovoid  bodies,  3  to  5  microns  long  and  2.4  to  3.6  microns  broad,  which 
are  somewhat  pointed  toward  the  poles  and  have  a  sharp  double  con- 
tour. They  have  more  or  less  of  a  homogeneous  content  and  grow  by 
budding.  This  characteristic 'can  be  especially  well  observed  in  old 
growths  on  culture  media.  Their  staining  with  the  ordinary  stains 
is  quite  unsatisfactory;  they  may,  however,  be  readily  recognized  in 
fresh  smear  preparations  or  in  the  hanging  drop  of  a  small  quantity 
of  the  suspected  pus,  where  the  above-described  bodies  can  be  dis- 
tinctly noticed. 

A  satisfactory  method  of  staining  the  organism  is  the  Claudius 
method,  which  is  as  follows: 

1.  Stain  with  1  per  cent  aqueous  solution  of  methyl  violet  for  two 
minutes. 

2.  Wash  in  water. 

3.  Place  in  a  half  saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  for  one  to  two 
minutes. 

4.  Decolorize  with  chloroform  or  clove  oil. 

5.  Treat  with  xylol. 

6.  Mount  in  Canada  balsam. 


«  From  the  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
(1908). 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 35 


546  DISEASES   OF  THE   HOESE. 

The  organisms  grow  very  slowly  in  the  various  culture  media^  It 
requires  about  ten  days  before  vegetation  is  noticed  on  agar  in  the 
form  of  grayish-white  granules,  which  gradually  grow  to  larger 
colonies,  appearing  considerably  elevated  and  having  a  wrinkled 
surface.  They  also  grow  in  bouillon,  in  which  a  white,  flaky  deposit 
makes  its  appearance  after  fifteen  or  eighteen  days.  In  taking  cul- 
tures it  is  advisable  to  open  a  fluctuating  abscess,  over  which  the  skin 
should  be  shaved  and  well  cleaned  with  bichlorid  solution  and  alcohol. 
The  abscess  should  be  opened  with  a  sterilized  scalpel,  and  culture 
media  may  then  be  inoculated  in  the  usual  way.  In  case  of  a  mixed 
infection,  the  organism  may  be  isolated  by  plating. 

Tlie  period  of  incubation  varies  greatly,  extending  from  three 
weeks  to  four  months,  or  even  longer.  In  artificial  inoculations  with 
pus  through  wounds  in  the  skin,  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the 
lymph  vessels  may  be  noticed  in  twenty  to  sixty  days,  and  these  ves- 
sels show  in  their  course  a  development  of  hard  nodules,  from  which 
abscesses  form. 

The  natural  infection  is  without  doubt  caused  through  superficial 
wounds,  such  as  galls,  barbed-wire  cuts,  or  through  various  stable 
utensils,  harness,  bandages,  insects,  etc.  Solipeds  are  mostly  sus- 
ceptible, but  cattle  may  also  be  infected. 

Symptoms. — The  inflammation  of  the  lymph  vessels  is  usually  first 
observed  on  the  extremities,  especially  on  one  or  both  hind  legs;  it 
may  also  appear  on  the  forelegs,  shoulder,  or  neck,  and  more  rarely 
on  the  rump,  udder,  and  scrotum.  The  lesions,  as  a  rule,  develop  in 
the  tissue  adjacent  to  the  place  of  inoaulation.  In  the  early  stages  of 
the  disease  the  lymph  vessels  appear  very  hard  and  thickened,  and 
along  their  course  hard  nodules  develop,  ranging  in  size  from  a  pea 
to  a  hen's  egg.  Later  these  nodules  soften,  burst  spontaneously,  and 
discharge  a  thick,  yellowish  pus.  The  surface  of  the  resulting  ulcers 
or  abscess  cavities  soon  fills  up  with  exuberant  granulation  which 
protrudes  beyond  the  surface  of  the  skin,  giving  a  fungoid  appearance. 
The  affected  extremities  are  considerably  enlarged,  similar  to  cases 
of  simple  lymphangitis.  In  rare  cases  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nostrils  may  also  become  affected,  showing  yellowish  flat  elevations 
and  ulcerations,  and  these  may  extend  by  metastasis  to  internal  organs. 
In  cases  where  the  mucous  membrane  is  affected,  the  submaxillary 
lymph  gland  may  also  become  enlarged  and  suppurate. 
'^  The  constitutional  symptoms  accompanying  this  disease  are  not 
very  marked  or  may  be  altogether  absent.  There  is  usually  only  a 
very  slight  fever,  which  seldom  runs  over  102°  F.  The  appetite  is 
not  impaired  except  in  the  advanced  cases. 

Lenions. — The  anatomical  changes  are  most  marked  in  the  skin  and 
the  subcutaneous  tissues.    They  may  become  2  to  3  inches  thick  and 


RABIES.  547 

indurated  as  the  result  of  fibrous-tissue  formation,  due  to  the  inflam- 
mation present.  On  the  baconlike  cut  surface  suppurative  areas  and 
granulating  sores  may  be  noticed  of  various  sizes,  also  enlarged 
lymph  vessels  filled  with  clotted  lymph  mixed  with  pus.  The  neigh- 
boring lymph  glands  are  usually  enlarged  and  frequently  contain 
suppurating  foci.  Rarely  the  internal  organs  may  show  metastatic 
abscesses. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  is  based  on  the  characteristic  appear- 
ance of  the  ulcerations,  which  show  exuberant  granulation  of  a  bright 
red  color,  inverted  edges,  and  a  thick,  creamy,  glutinous  discharge. 
These  manifestations  differentiate  the  disease  from  glanders,  in  which 
the  ulcers  are  craterlike,  do  contain  exuberent  granulations,  and  the 
discharge  is  of  a  viscous,  oily  character.  The  submaxillary  and  other 
nodes  as  well  as  the  corded  lymphatics  in  glanders  are  more  firmly  at- 
tached to  the  adjacent  tissues,  and  are  therefore  less  movable.  In 
some  chronic  cases  of  mycotic  lymphangitis,  however,  the  lesions 
may  closely  resemble  those  of  farcy,  and  in  these  cases  the  microscop- 
ical examination  of  the  pus  will  disclose  the  nature  of  the  affection. 
In  the  pus  the  saccharomyces  can  be  easily  seen  in  the  unstained  speci- 
men and  is  recognized  by  its  size,  shape,  and  highly  refractory  double 
outline.  Furthermore,  the  injection  of  mallein  in  cases  of  mycotic 
lymphangitis  will  be  attended  with  negative  results. 

Treatment. — Treatment  consists  at  the  onset  of  the  disease  in  entire 
extirpation  of  the  nodules,  lymph  vessels,  and  neighboring  lymph 
glands  in  case  the  lesions  are  localized.  In  cases  Avhere  the  nodules 
have  formed  abscesses,  their  opening  is  recommended,  followed  by  the 
application  of  the  actual  cautery  or  a  1  to  250  solution  of  bichlorid  of 
mercury.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  organism  is  highly  re- 
sistant to  almost  every  antiseptic,  and  the  best  results  will  be  ob- 
tained from  the  application  of  a  solution  of  a  strong  antiseptic  fol- 
lowing the  opening  of  the  lesions. 

In  the  most  favorable  cases,  recovery  results  in  from  five  to  seven 
weeks ;  as  a  rule,  however,  it  requires  several  months. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  disease  the  affected  animals 
should  be  isolated,  the  products  of  the  disease  should  be  destroj'ed, 
and  the  stable  should  be  disinfected  with  very  strong  liquid  dis- 
infectants in  consideration  of  the  great  resistance  of  the  causative 
organism. 

RABIES,  HYDROPHOBIA,  OR  MADNESS. 

Rabies  is  a  contagious  disease,  which  is  usually  transmitted  by  a 
bite  and  by  the  introduction  of  a  virus  contained  in  the  saliva  of  an 
affected  animal.  It  may,  however,  be  transmitted  in  other  ways.  It 
is  characterized  by  symptoms  of  aberration  of  the  nervous  system 
and  invariably  terminates  fatally.    It  is  accompanied  by  lesions,  in- 


548  DISEASES  OF  THE  HOESB. 

flammation,  and  degeneration  in  the  central  nervous  system.  It  is  a 
disease  that  is  most  common  in  the  dog,  but  is  transmitted  to  the 
horse,  either  from  dogs  or  from  any  other  animal  affected  with  it. 
(See  also  remarks  on  page  222.)  As  a  disease  of  the  horse  it  is  in- 
variably the  result  of  the  bite  of  a  rabid  animal,  usually  a  dog. 

Perhaps  no  disease  in  medicine  has  been  the  object  of  more  con- 
troversy than  rabies.  Certain  medical  men  of  prominence  have 
even  doubted  the  existence  of  the  disease.  Many  medical  men  have 
claimed  for  it  a  spontaneous  origin.  The  experience,  however,  of 
ages  has  shown  that  contagion  can  be  proved  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  and,  by  analogy  with  other  contagious  diseases,  we  may  only 
believe  that  the  development  of  one  case  requires  the  preexistence  of 
a  case  from  which  the  virus  has  been  transmitted.  Pasteur  has 
further  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  disease  by  showing  that  a 
virus  capable  of  cultivation  exists  in  the  nervous  system,  especially 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  brain  (medulla  oblongata)  and  in  the  ante- 
rior part  of  the  spinal  column.  Pasteur  has  further  shown  that 
that  portion  of  the  nervous  system  which  contains  the  virus,  the 
exact  nature  of  which  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated,  will  retain  it 
for  a  very  long  time  if  kept  at  a  very  low  temperature  or  if  left  sur- 
rounded by  carbonic  acid ;  but  if  the  nerve  matter,  which  is  virulent 
at  first,  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  is  kept  from  putrefaction  by  sub- 
stances which  will  absorb  the  surrounding  moisture,  it  will  gradually 
lose  its  virulence  and  become  inoffensive  in  about  fifteen  days.  He 
has  further  shown  that  the  action  of  a  weak  virus  on  an  animal  will 
prevent  the  development  of  a  stronger  virus,  and  from  this  he  has 
formulated  his  method  of  prophylactic  treatment.  This  treatment 
consists  in  the  successive  inoculation  of  portions  of  the  nerve  matter 
containing  the  virus  from  a  rabid  animal  which  has  been  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere  for  thirteen  days,  ten  days,  seven  days,  and  four 
days,  until  the  virulent  matter  which  will  produce  rabies  in  any 
unprotected  animal  can  be  inoculated  with  impunity.  A  curious 
result  of  the  experiments  of  Pasteur  is  that  an  animal  which  has 
fii*st  been  inoculated  with  a  virus  of  full  strength  can  be  protected 
by  subsequent  inoculations  of  attenuated  virus  repeated  in  doses  of 
increasing  strength. 

Innumerable  attempts  have  been  made  to  discover  the  causative 
agent,  and  investigators  have  announced  the  finding  of  many  of  the 
lower  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  as  the  pathogenic  factor. 
Among  the  recently  described  causes,  certain  protpzoanlike  bodies, 
found  in  1903  by  Negri  in  the  ganglionic  cells,  and  termed  Negri 
bodies,  are  of  a  very  suggestive  nature.  Negri  claims  that  these 
bodies  are  not  only  specific  for  rabies,  but  that  they  are  protozoa  and 
the  cause  of  the  disease.    His  work  has  been  corroborated  by  investi- 


RABIES.  ,  549 

gators  in  all  parts  of  the  scientific  world.  An  examination  of  the 
vitality  of  Negri  bodies  will  show  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
vitality  of  an  emulsion  of  the  virulent  tissue.  Thus,  Negri  bodies 
have  been  found  to  be  quite  resistant  to  external  agencies,  such  as 
putrefaction,  drying,  etc.,  and  are  about  the  last  portion  of  the  nerve 
cell  to  survive  the  advance  of  decomposition.  They  are  also  found  in 
over  96  per  cent  of  the  cases  of  rabies  examined,  but  have  not  been 
proved  to  exist  in  other  diseases. 

Valenti  states,  a«  his  strongest  evidence  of  the  protozoan  nature  of 
the  bodies,  that  the  virus  of  rabies  is  neutralized  in  test  tubes  by 
quinin,  while  no  other  alkaloid  has  this  property.  As  a  result  of  the 
work  performed  in  the  New  York  City  board  of  health  laboratory, 
Park  claims  that  Negri  bodies  are  found  in  animals  before  the  begin- 
ning of  visible  symptoms,  and  evidence  is  given  that  they  may  be 
found  early  enough  to  account  for  the  infectiousnevSs  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  These  bodies  are  now  almost  universally  considered 
as  diagnostic  of  rabies,  and  in  the  pathological  laboratory  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  their  detection  in  the  nerve  cells  of  the 
brain  suffices  for  a  diagnosis  of  rabies  without  animal  inoculations. 
In  case  these  granular  bodies  are  not  found  in  a  suspected  animal,  the 
plexiform  ganglion  is  next  examined,  and  should  negative  results  still 
be  obtained,  the  inoculation  of  rabbits  is  then  made  as  a  last  resort. 
It  is  indeed  rare  that  positive  results  are  obtained  from  the  latter 
method  after  the  first  two  methods  have  been  negative,  but  it  has 
occurred  occasionally  in  cases  where  the  animal  had  been  killed  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease. 

Sym'ptoins. — From  the  moment  of  inoculation  by  the  bite  of  a  rabid 
dog  or  other  rabid  animal  or  by  other  means,  a  variable  time  elapses 
before  the  development  of  any  symptoms.  This  time  may  be  eight 
days  or  it  may  be  several  months;  it  is  usually  about  four  weeks. 
The  first  symptom  is  an  irritation  of  the  original  wound.  This 
wound,  which  may  have  healed  completely,  commences  to  itch  until 
the  horse  rubs  or  bites  it  into  a  new  sore.  The  horse  then  becomes 
irritable  and  vicious.  It  is  especially  susceptible  to  moving  objects; 
excessive  light,  noises,  the  entrance  of  an  attendant,  or  any  other  dis- 
turbance will  cause  the  patient  to  be  on  the  defensive.  It  apparently 
sees  imaginary  objects;  the  slightest  noise  is  exaggerated  into  threat- 
ening violence;  the  approach  of  an  attendant  or  another  animal, 
especially  a  dog,  is  interpreted  as  an  assault  and  the  horse  will  strike 
and  bite.  The  violence  on  the  part  of  the  rabid  horse  is  not  for  a 
moment  to  be  confounded  with  the  fury  of  the  same  animal  suffering 
from  meningitis  or  any  other  trouble  of  the  brain.  But  in  rabies 
there  is  a  volition,  a  premeditated  method,  in  the  attacks  which  the 
animal  will  make,  which  is  not  found  in  the  other  diseases.     Between 


550  .  DISEASES   OF   THE  HORSE. 

the  attacks  of  fury  the  animal  may  become  calm  for  a  variable  period. 
The  writer  attended  a  case  in  which,  after  a  violent  attack  of  an  hour, 
the  horse  was  sufficiently  calm  to  be  walked  10  miles  and  only 
developed  violence  again  an  hour  after  being  placed  in  the  new  stable. 
In  the  period  of  fury  the  horse  will  bite  at  the  reopened  original 
wound ;  it  will  rear  and  attempt  to  break  its  halter  and  fastenings ;  it 
will  bite  at  the  woodwork  and  surrounding  objects  in  the  stable.  If 
the  animal  lives  long  enough  it  shows  paralytic  symptoms  and  falls  to 
the  ground,  unable  to  use  two  or  more  of  its  extremities,  but  in  the 
.majority  of  cases,  in  its  excesses  of  violence,  it  does  physical  injury  to 
itself.  It  breaks  its  jaws  in  biting  at  the  manger  or  fractures  other 
bones  in  throwing  itself  on  the  ground  and  dies  of  hemorrhage  or 
internal  injuries.  At  times  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease  there 
is  an  excessive  sensibility  of  the  skin  which,  if  irritated  by  the  touch, 
will  bring  on  attacks  of  violence.  The  animal  may  have  appetite  and 
desire  water  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease,  but  on  attempting 
to  swallow  has  a  spasm  of  the  throat,  which  renders  the  act  impossible. 
This  latter  condition,  which  is  common  in  all  rabid  animals,  has  given 
the  disease  the  name  of  hydrophobia  (fear  of  water). 

In  a  case  under  the  care  of  the  writer  a  horse,  four  weeks  after 
being  bitten  on  the  forearm  by  a  rabid  dog,  developed  local  irritation 
in  the  healed  wound  and  tore  it  with  its  teeth  into  a  large  ulcer.  This 
was  healed  by  local  treatment  in  ten  days,  and  the  horse  was  kept 
under  surveillance  for  over  a  month.  On  the  advice  of  another  prac- 
titioner the  horse  was  taken  home  and  put  to  work,  and  within  three 
days  it  developed  violent  symptoms  and  had  to  be  destroyed. 

Diagnoms. — The  diagnosis  of  rabies  in  the  horse  is  to  be  made  from 
the  various  brain  troubles  to  which  the  animal  is  subject;  first  by  the 
history  of  a  previous  bite  of  a  rabid  animal  or  inoculation  by  other 
means;  second,  by  the  evident  volition  and  consciousness  on  the  part 
of  the  animal  in  its  attacks,  offensive  and  defensive,  on  persons,  ani- 
mals, or  other  disturbing  surroundings.  The  irritation  and  reopen- 
ing of  the  original  wound  or  point  of  inoculation  is  a  valuable  factor 
in  diagnosis.  Diagnosis  after  death  may  be  made  by  microscopic  ex- 
amination for  Negri  bodies  or  by  the  inoculation  of  rabbits,  as  already 
mentioned. 

Recovery  from  rabies  may  be  considered  as  a  question  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  original  diagnosis.    Rabies  is  always  fatal. 

Treatment. — No  remedial  treatment  has  ever  been  successful.  All 
of  the  anodynes  and  anesthetics,  opium,  belladonna,  bromid  of  pot- 
ash, ether,  chloroform,  etc.,  have  been  used  without  avail.  The 
prophylactic  treatment  of  successive  inoculations  is  being  used  on 
human  beings,  and  has  experimentally  proved  efficacious  in  dogs,  but 
would  be  impracticable  in  the  horse  unless  the  conditions  were  quite 
exceptional. 


INFECTIOUS  ANEMIA  OR  SWAMP  FEVER.  551 

INFECTIOUS  ANEMIA  OR  SWAMP  FEVER.* 

By  John  R.  Mohler,  V.  M.  D., 
CMef  of  the  Pathological  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Infectious  anemia  of  horses,  known  also  by  a  number  of  other 
names,  as  swamp  fever,  American  surra,  malarial  fever,  typhoid  fever 
of  horses,  the  unknown  disease,  no-name  disease,  plains  paralysis,  and 
pernicious  anemia,  has  recently  been  the  subject  of  much  investiga- 
tion. The  cause  of  the  disease  has  now  been  definitely  determined  as 
an  invisible  virus,  which  is  capable  of  passing  through  the  pores  of 
the  finest  porcelain  filters,  like  the  infection  of  foot-and-mouth  dis- 
ease, rinderpest,  hog  cholera,  and  similar  diseases.  The  disease  is 
most  prevalent  in  low-lying  and  badly  drained  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, although  it  has  been  found  in  altitudes  as  high  as  7,500  feet  on 
marshy  pastures  during  wet  seasons.  Therefore  proper  drainage  of 
infected  pastures  is  indicated  as  a  preventive.  It  is  also  more  preva- 
lent during  wet  years  than  in  dry  seasons.  It  usually  makes  its  ap- 
pearance in  June  and  increases  in  frequency  until  October,  although 
the  chronic  cases  may  be  seen  in  the  winter,  having  been  contracted 
during  the  warm  season. 

Cottse. — It  has  been  conclusively  proven  that  infectious  anemia  is 
produced  by  an  invisible,  filterable  organism  which  is  transmissible 
to  horses,  mules,  and  asses  by  subcutaneous  inoculation  of  blood  se- 
rum. The  virus  which  is  present  in  the  blood  may  be  transmitted  to 
a  number  of  equines  in  a  series  of  inoculations  by  injecting  either  the 
whole  blood,  the  defibrinated  blood,  or  the  blood  serum  which  has 
been  passed  through  a  fine  Pasteur  filter,  thus  eliminating  all  the 
visible  forms  of  organismal  life,  including  bacteria,  trypanosoma, 
piroplasma.  etc.  This  virus  has  also  been  found  to  be  active  in  the 
carcass  of  an  affected  animal  twenty-four  hours  after  death. 

Following  the  injection  of  the  infectious  principle  there  is  a  period 
of  incubation  which  may  extend  from  ten  days  to  one  and  one-half 
months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  onset  of  the  disease  is  mani- 
fested by  a  rise  of  temperature.  If  uncomplicated,  the  infection  runs 
a  chronic  course,  terminating  in  death  in  from  two  months  to  one 
and  one-half  years,  or  even  longer.  The  probability  of  the  virus 
being  spread  by  an  intermediate  host,  such  as  flies,  mosquitoes,  inter- 
nal parasites,  etc.,  is  now  receiving  careful  investigation. 

From  experiments  already  conducted  it  appears  that  this  disease, 
formerly  supposed  to  be  confined  to  Manitoba  and  Minnesota,  is 
more  or  less  prevalent  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Wyoming, 

•'From  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  138. 


552  DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Montana,  North  Dakota,  and  Texas.  It  also  occurs  in  Europe,  hav- 
ijig  been  reported  in  Germany  under  the  name  of  infectious  anemia 
and  in  France  as  infectious  tjrpho-anemia. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  is  characterized  by  a  progressive  perni- 
cious anemia,  remittent  fever,  polyuria,  and  gradual  emaciation  in 
spite  of  a  voracious  appetite.  It  begins  to  manifest  itself  by  a  dull, 
listless  appearance  and  by  general  weakness,  the  animal  tiring  very 
easily.  This  stage  is  followed  closely  by  a  staggering,  swaying,  un- 
certain gait,  the  hind  legs  being  mostly  affected:  .There  is  also  noted 
a  weakness  and  tenderness  in  the  region  of  the  loins,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  pulse  increases  in  rapidity  and  may  run  as  high  as  70, 
though  weak,  stringy,  and  intermittent.  The  temperature  may  rise 
to  103°  F.  or  higher,  remaining  high  for  several  days,  and  then 
dropping,  to  rise  again  at  irregular  intervals.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  disease  the  temperature  occasionally  remains  persistently  high. 
The  horse  may  improve  for  a  time,  but  usually  this  temporary  im- 
provement is  followed  by  a  more  severe  attack  than  the  first.  Venous 
regurgitation  is  sometimes  noticed  in  the  jugular  before  death.  The 
quantity  of  urine  passed  is  enormous  in  some  cases.  Death  finally 
occurs  from  exhaustion  or  syncope. 

The  blood  shows  a  slight  decrease  in  the  number  of  white  blood 
cells,  while  there  is  a  gradual  but  marked  diminution  of  red  cor- 
puscles, the  count  running  as  low  as  2,000,000  per  cubic  millimeter, 
the  normal  count  being  7,000,000.  If  the  blood  is  drawn  from  such 
an  animal,  the  resulting  red  clot  will  be  about  one-fifth  of  the  amount 
drawn.  Occasionally  a  slow  dripping  of  blood-tinged  serum  from 
the  nostrils  is  observed  as  a  result  of  this  very  thin  blood  oozing 
from  the  mucous  membranes.  Petechia?,  or  small  hemorrhagic  points, 
are  sometime  noticed  on  the  nictitating  membrane  and  conjunctiva 
of  the  eye,  while  paleness  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes  of  the 
nose  and  mouth  is  usually  in  evidence,  although  they  may  have  a 
yellow  or  mahogany  tinge.  Often  a  fluctuating,  pendulous  swelling 
may  appear  on  the  lower  lip,  point  of  elbow,  sheath,  legs,  under  the 
belly,  or  on  some  other  pendant  portion,  especially  late  in  the  disease, 
which  is  indicative  of  poor  circulation,  thinning  of  the  blood,  and 
consequent  loss  of  capillary  action. 

Lesions. — After  death  the  carcass  is  found  to  be  very  emaciated 
and  anemic,  the  visible  mucosa  being  very  pale.  This  marked  absence 
of  adipose  tissue  makes  the  skinning  of  the  animal  a  difficult  tavsk. 
Subcutaneous  and  intermuscular  edema  and  hemorrhages  are  frequent- 
ly observed,  althougli  it  is  remarkable  in  many  cases  to  see  how  few 
macroscopic  lesions  may  be  present.  The  predominating  and  most 
constant  lesion  is  probably  the  petechia?,  so  often  observed  in  the 
muscle  or  on  the  serous  membranes  of  tlie  heart.  The  heart  is  gen- 
erally enlarged  and  may  be  the  only  organ  to  show  evidence  of  dis- 


INFECTIOUS  ANEMIA  OR   SWAMP  FEVEB.  553 

ease.  In  other  cases  the  lungs  may  be  studded  with  petechias,  with 
a  serous  exudate  present  in  the  thoracic  cavity.  In  addition  to  the 
petechiae  already  noted,  the  pericardial  sac  generally  contains  an 
increased  amount  of  fluid.  The  abdominal  cavity  may  show  peri- 
tonitis and  a  hemorrhagic  condition  of  the  intestines,  which  probably 
result  from  overfeeding  in  consequence  of  the  ravenous  appetite. 
The  liver  sometimes  presents  a  few  areas  of  degeneration,  although 
usually  normal.  The  spleen  is  at  times  found  to  be  enlarged  and 
covered  with  petechiae.  The  kidneys  may  appear  normal  or  anemic 
and  flaccid,  but  microscopically  they  usually  show  a  chronic  paren- 
chymatous degeneration.  The  lymph  glands  ma}'  be  enlarged  and 
hemorrhagic. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  of  the  disease  is  not  difficult,  especially 
in  advanced  stages.  The  insidious  onset,  remittent  fever,  progressive 
emaciation  and  anemia,  unimpaired  or  ravenous  appetite,,  staggering 
gait,  and  polyuria  are  a  train  of  symptoms  which  make  the  disease 
sufficiently  characteristic  to  differentiate  it  from  other  diseases  af- 
fecting horses  in  this  country.  The  peculiar  relapsing  type  of  fever, 
the  great  reduction  in  the  number  of  red  blood  cells,  and  the  absence 
of  eosinophilia  are  sufficient  to  differentiate  it  from  the  anemias  pro- 
duced by  internal  parasites,  while  it  may  be  readily  distinguished 
from  surra  by  the  nonsusceptibility  of  cattle  and  by  the  great  ease 
with  which  the  trj'^panosoma  may  be  found  in  the  latter  affection. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  of  the  disease  is  very  unfavorable. 
Veterinarians  in  different  sections  of  the  country  where  it  is  preva- 
lent report  a  mortality  of  75  per  cent  or  even  higher.  Recovery 
takes  place  only  when  treatment  is  begun  early  or  when  the  animal 
has  a  long  convalescent  period. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  the  disease  has  so  far  been  far  from 
satisfactory.  The  iodid,  permanganate,  and  carbonate  of  potash  have 
been  used.  Arsenic,  axytoj,  quinin,  and  silver  preparations  have  been 
suggested,  but  all  have  uniformly  been  without  success.  Intestinal 
antiseptics  have  been  resorted  to^  and  the  results  are  encouraging  but 
not  altogether  satisfactory.  Symptomatic  treatment  seems  to  be  the 
most  dependable.  For  instance,  Davison,  of  this  Bureau,  was  able  to 
reduce  greatly  the  mortality  from  this  affection  by  giving  an  antipy- 
retic of  40  grains  of  quinin,  2  drams  of  acetanilid,  and  30  grains  of 
powdered  nux  vomica  four  times  daily.  In  the  late  stages,  with  weak 
heart  action,  alcohol  should  be  substituted  for  acetanilid.  Cold-water 
sponge  baths  may  be  given,  and  in  addition  frequent  copious  injec- 
tions of  cold  water  per  rectum,  which  has  a  beneficial  effect  in  re- 
ducing the  temperature  and  in  stimulating  peristalsis  of  the  bowels, 
which,  as  a  result  of  the  disease,  show  a  tendency  to  become  torpid 
during  the  fever.  Avoid  giving  purgatives  unless  absolutely  neces- 
sary, on  account  of  their  debilitating  effect,  but  instead  give  laxative, 


554  DISEASES   OF  THE  HORSE. 

easily  digestible  feeds.  Not  infrequently  a  dirty  yellowish  tinge  of 
the  visible  mucous  membranes  has  been  observ^ed,  in  which  cases  20 
grains- of  calomel  in  from  2  to  4  drams  of  aloes  in  a  ball,  or  2-dram 
doses  of  Jfluid  extract  of  podophyllin,  may  be  given.  Following  the 
subsidence  of  the  fever,  a  tonic  should  be  administered,  composed  of 
the  following  drugs  in  combination : 

Arsenious   acid grams 2 

Powdered   nux   vomica do 28 

Powdered  cinchona  barli do 85 

Powdered  gentian  root do 110 

These  should  be  well  mixed  and  one-half  tablespoonful  given  at 
each  feed  to  the  affected  animal. 

As  in  the  case  of  all  other  infectious  diseases,  the  healthy  should  be 
separated  from  the  sick  horses,  and  thorough  disinfection  of  the 
infected  stable,  stalls,  litter,  and  stable  utensils  should  be  carried  out 
in  order  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  disease.  As  a  disinfectant, 
the  compound  solution  of  cresol,  carbolic  acid,  or  chlorid  of  lime  may 
be  used,  by  mixing  6  ounces  of  any  one  of  these  chemicals  with  1 
gallon  of  water.  One  of  the  approved  coal-tar  sheep  dips  might  also 
be  used  to  advantage  in  a  5  per  cent  solution  (6  ounces  of  dip  to  1 
gallon  of  water).  The  disinfectant  solution  should  be  applied  liber- 
ally to  all  parts  of  the  stable,  and  sufficient  lime  may  be  added  to  the 
solution  to  make  the  disinfected  area  conspicuous. 

Investigations  are  now  in  progress  with  a  view  of  producing  a 
vaccine  or  serum  that  will  protect  horses  which  have  been  exposed  to 
the  disease. 

SURRA. 

By  Ch.  Wabdell  Stiles,  Ph.  D. 
Professor  of  Zoology,  United  States  Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital  Service. 

Surra  is  not  known  to  occur  in  the  United  States,  but  it  is  more  or 
less  common  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  India.  It  is  caused  by  a 
microscopic,  flagellate  animal  parasite,  known  as  Tiypanosoma 
evansi,  20  to  30  n  long  by  1  to  2  /*  broad,  which  lives  in  the  blood  and 
destroys  the  red-blood  corpuscles.  In  general,  the  disease  is  very 
similar  to,  and  belongs  in  the  same  general  class  with,  tsetse-fly  dis- 
ease, or  nagana,  of  Africa  and  mal  de  caderas  of  South  America. 

Surra  is  a  wet- weather  disease,  occurring  chiefly  during  or  immedi- 
ately after  heavy  rainfalls,  floods,  or  inundations. 

Surra  attacks  especially  horses,  asses,  and  mules,  but  it  may  occur 
in  kerabau,  camels,  elephants,  cats,  and  dogs,  and  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  cattle,  buffaloes,  sheep,  goats,  rabbits,  guinea  pigs,  rats, 
and  monkeys.  No  birds,  reptiles,  amphibia  (frogs,  etc.),  or  fish  are 
known  to  suffer  from  it.     It  attacks  both  male  and  female  animals, 


SURRA.  555 

young  and  old.  Australian  breeds  of  horses  and  white  and  gray 
mules  are  said  to  be  more  susceptible  than  animals  of  other  breeds 
and  color. 

Surra  in  equines  and  camels  is  said  to  be  an  invariably  fatal  dis- 
ease, but  cattle  occasionally  recover  from  it.  There  is  no  history  of  a 
definite  onset  of  the  disease,  and  the  condition  is  progressive,  usually 
with  a  number  of  relapses.  The  period  of  incubation  may  vary  some- 
what; in  experimental  cases  it  is  from  two  to  seventy-five  (usually 
six  to  eight)  days,  according  to  conditions.  The  duration  varies  with 
the  species  of  animals  attacked,  their  age,  and  general  condition.  The 
average  duration  in  the  horse  is  reported  as  less  than  two  months, 
though  some  cases  may  terminate  fatally  in  less  than  one  to  two 
weeks. 

METHOD   OF    INFECTION. 

All  evidence  now  available  seems  to  indicate  that  surra  is  strictly  a 
wound  disease,  namely,  that  the  parasite  may  enter  the  body  only 
through  a  wound  of  some  kind?  Apparently  by  far  the  most  common 
method  is  through  wounds  produced  by  biting  flies,  whose  mouth 
parts  are  moist  with  the  infected  blood  of  some  animal  bitten  by  the 
same  flies  immediately  previous  to  biting  the  healthy  animal.  Crows 
may  also  transmit  the  infection  by  pecking  at  sores  on  a  diseased 
animal,  soiling  their  beaks  with  blood,  and  transferring  this  infected 
blood  to  a  healthy  animal.  Likewise,  if  a  scratch  is  made  on  a  horse 
and  then  infected  blood  is  rubbed  on  the  scratch,  the  horse  will  be- 
come diseased.  If,  in  experiment,  infected  blood  is  fed  to  a  healthy 
animal,  the  latter  may  contract  surra  in  case  it  has  an  abraded  or 
wounded  spot  in  the  mouth;  but  if  no  part  of  the  lining  of  the 
alimentary  canal  is  wounded,  infection  does  not  take  place.  Thus 
dogs  and  cats  may  contract  the  disease  by  wounding  the  lining  of  the 
mouth  (as  with  splinters  of  bone)  while  feeding  on  the  carcasses  of 
surra  subjects.  All  available  evidence  indicates  that  under  normal 
conditions  of  pregnancy  the  disease  is  not  transmitted  from  mother 
to  fetus. 

There  is  a  popular  view  that  surra  may  be  contracted  by  drinking 
stagnant  water  and  by  eating  grass  and  otlier  vegetation  grown  upon 
land  subject  to  inundation,  but  there  is  no  good  experimental  evidence 
to  support  this  view.  Probably  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  facts 
cited  in  support  of  this  theory  is  that  biting  flies  are  numerous  around 
bodies  of  stagnant  water  and  in  inundated  pastures;  hence  that  a 
great  number  of  possible  transmitters  of  the  disease  are  present  in 
these  places. 

Symptoms.^ — The  invasion  of  this  disease  when  contracted  natu- 
rally is  usually  marked  by  symptoms  of  a   trivial  character;  the 

"  This  summary  of  symptoms  is  based  upon  worlc  by  Liugard. 


556  DISEASES   OP  THE   HORSE. 

skin  feels  hot,  and  there  may  be  more  or  less  fever;  there  is  also 
slight  loss  of  appetite,  and  the  animal  appears  dull  and  stumbles 
during  action;  early  a  symptom  sometimes  appears  which  may  be 
the  first  intimation  received  of  the  animal's  indisposition,  and  which, 
as  a  guide  to  diagnosis,  is  of  great  importance;  it  is  the  presence 
of  a  general  or  localized  urticarial  eruption.  If  the  blood  be  ex- 
amined microscopically,  it  may  be  found  to  present  a  normal  ap- 
pearance; but  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  few  small,  rapidly  moving 
organisms  will  be  observed,  giving  to  the  blood,  as  it  passes  among 
the  corpuscles,  a  peculiar  vibrating  movement,  which  if  once  ob- 
served will  not  easily  be  forgotten.  If  the  parasite  has  not  been 
discovered  in  the  blood  for  some  days,  the  symptoms  mentioned  above 
may  be  the  only  ones  noticed,  and,  as  a  rule,  when  treated  with  febri- 
fuges, the  horse  quickh'  improves  in  health  and  the  appetite  returns. 
This  condition  does  not  last  for  more  than  a  few  days,  when  the 
animal  is  again  observed  to  present  a  dull  and  dejected  appearance, 
and  on  examination  well-marked  symptoms  are  found;  the  skin  is 
hot,  the  temperature  more  or  less  elevated — 101.7°  to  104°  F. ;  the 
pulse  full  and  frequent — 56  to  64  beats  per  minute;  the  visible  mu- 
cous membranes  may  appear  clean,  but  the  conjunctival  membranes, 
especially  those  covering  the  membrana  nictitans,  are  usually  the  seat 
of  dark-red  patches  of  ecchymosis,  varjang  in  size  in  different  an- 
imals. There  is  more  or  less  thirst  and  slight  loss  of  appetite;  the 
animal  eats  its  grain  and  green  grass,  but  leaves  all  or  a  portion  of 
the  hay  with  which  it  has  been  supplied.  At  the  same  time  there 
are  slight  catarrhal  symptoms  present,  including  lachrymation  and  a 
little  mucous  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  Occasionally  at  this  pmod 
of  the  disease  the  submaxillary  glands  may  be  found  enlarged  and 
perhaps  somewhat  tender  on  manipulation.  One  symptom  is  mark- 
edly absent,  namely,  the  presence  of  rigors  or  the  objective  sign  of 
chilliness.  In  addition,  it  will  be  noted  that  there  is  some  swelling 
and  edema  of  the  legs,  generally  between  the  fetlock  and  the  hock, 
which  pits  but  is  not  painful  on  pressure,  and  in  case  of  horses  there 
may  be  present  also  at  this  stage  of  the  disease  some  swelling  of  the 
sheath.  AVhen  the  fever  and  concomitant  symptoms  have  declared 
themselves  for  a  short  period,  one  thing  becomes  especially  noticeable 
in  every  animal  attacked,  namely,  the  rapidity  with  which  it  loses 
flesh.  If  the  blood  has  been  examined  microscopically  during  the 
.second  period  of  fever,  at  first  a  few  parasites  will  have  been  observed 
in  it,  which  day  by  day  increase  in  number  and  reach  a  maximum, 
where  they  remain  for  a  varying  period,  or  at  once  suddenly  or  gradu- 
ally disappear  during  the  period  of  apyrexia.  After  the  fever  and 
the  accompanying  symptoms  have  for  the  second  time  been  present 
for  some  days — ^the  period  varying  from  one  to  six — the  animal  is 
found  to  have  lost  the  dull,  dejected  appearance  and  to  look  bright. 


SURRA.  557 

The  temperature  has  fallen  and,  in  some  cases,  has  attained  normal 
or  even  subnormal  limits.  The  visible  mucous  membranes  are  clean, 
and  the  conjunctival  petechias  begin  to  fade;  the  pulse,  however,  will 
be  found  to  be  weak  and  thready  in  character,  but  the  appetite  excel- 
lent, and,  in  fact,  if  it  were  not  for  the  loss  of  flesh  and  slight  edema 
of  the  legs,  there  would  be  little  to  show  that  the  animal  was  sick. 
But  unfortunately  this  condition  does  not  continue  for  any  length  of 
time,  for  again  the  temperature  is  elevated;  in  the  course  of  a  few 
hours  the  thermometer  registers  a  still  higher  degree,  the  animal  is 
dull  and  dejected,  and  by  the  following  day  the  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes present  a  yellow  tinge ;  large  ecchymoses,  dark  in  color,  appear 
on  the  conjunctival  membranes,  the  action  of  the  heart  is  irritable,  the 
pulse  full  and  quick,  or  at  times  intermittent,  and  regurgitation  may 
be  observed  in  the  jugulars,  the  breathing  is  quickened,  and  the  indi- 
vidual respirations  are  shallow.  On  watching  an  animal  in  this  con- 
dition it  may  be  noticed  that  it  takes  7  to  8  very  short  inspirations, 
and  these  are  followed  by  a  much  more  prolonged  and  sonorous  one; 
at  the  same  time  the  breathing  is  more  abdominal  than  thoracic  in 
character.  On  examination  of  the  legs  it  will  be  found  that  the  swell- 
ing and  edema  have  increased  considerably,  and  that  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  abdomen,  where  it  was  previously  confined  to  the 
sheath,  it  has  now  commenced  to  spread  forward  along  the  subcutane- 
ous tissue  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles.  During  the  whole  of  this 
time  the  appetite  will  have  varied  little,  and  the  evacuations  will  be 
only  slightly,  if  at  all,  altered' in  character.  In  the  blood  a  repetition 
of  the  previous  events  takes  place,  the  parasites  make  their  appear- 
ance and  increase  to  a  maximum  and  again  suddenly  or  gradually 
disappear,  according  to  the  length  of  the  fever  period.  These  j^eriods, 
alternating  with  and  without  fever,  may  go  on  for  a  considerable 
time.  The  progress  of  the  disease  is  variable  and  greatly  depends 
upon  the  condition  of  the  animal  attacked,  the  weak  one  succumbing 
very  rapidly,  but  each  return  of  the  fever  brings  with  it,  as  a  rule,  an 
increase  in  the  severity  of  the  symptoms.  There  is  increased  yellow- 
ness of  the  membranes,  fresh  crops  of  petechia?  on  the  conjunctiva,  a 
collection  of  gelatinous  material  at  the  inner  angle,  which  at  times 
becomes  red  in  color  from  an  admixture  of  blood,  and  whitli  on 
microscopic  examination  is  found  to  contain  a  varying  number  of  the 
surra  parasites;  increased  swelling  and  edema  of  the  extremities  and 
abdomen,  which  now  extends  between  the  fore  limbs  and  up  tlie 
chest.  During  this  time  the  wasting  has  been  steadily  progressive, 
especially  of  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  those  surrounding  the  hip 
joint  and  the  glutei. 

Toward  the  termination  of  the  disease  it  will  be  noticed  that  an 
animal  is  disinclined  to  move,  and  when  made  to  do  so  there  will  be 
manifest  loss  of  power  over  the  hind  quarters,  somewhat  simulating 


558  DISEASES  OF  THE   HORSE. 

a  slight  partial  paralysis,  and  the  hind  quarters  of  the  animal  reel 
from  side  to  side.  In  connection  with  this  it  may  be  noted  that  there 
is  frequently  present 'paralysis  of  the  sphincter  ani  and  a  dilated 
condition  of  the  anus.  These  symptoms  taken  together  point  to  some 
interference  with  the  normal  functions  of  the  spinal  cord  in  the  lower, 
dorsal  and  lumbar  regions,  and  are  probably  due  to  pressure  caused 
by  an  exudation  within  the  spinal  membranes.  In  many  cases  shortly 
before  death  the  heart's  action  becomes  exceedingly  violent,  shaking 
the  whole  frame  at  each  beat,  so  that  the  sound  can  be  heard  at  some 
distance  from  the  animal.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  animal  may 
suddenly  drop  dead ;  in  others  the  emaciation  and  weakness  become 
so  pronounced  that  the  animal  falls  to  the  ground,  and,  after  a  short 
struggle,  succumbs  to  the  disease.  In  other  cases,  again,  the  animal 
falls  to  the  ground  and  appears  to  be  suffering  from  acute  pain, 
struggles  violently,  sweat  covers  the  body,  and  respiration  is  very 
hurried.  The  struggles  soon  exhaust  the  patient's  strength,  and  for 
a  time  it  lies  quiet;  soon,  however,  the  struggles  commence  again, 
and  this  continues  until  death  occurs.  In  some  cases  the  appetite  is 
voracious. 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease  as  observed  in  experimentally  inocu- 
lated animals  are  as  follows:  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  subcutane- 
ous injection  of  a  small  quantity  of  surra  blood,  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  a  small  circumscribed  and  somewhat  raised  swelling  is 
noticed  at  the  seat  of  the  inoculation.  After  forty-eight  hours  the 
tumor  has  increased  in  size  and  is  accompanied  by  some  edema;  it 
presents  a  certain  amount  of  tension  of  the  parts  involved,  and  is 
generally  tender  on  manipulation.  These  conditions  continue  to  in- 
crease, until  by  the  fourth  day  the  tumor  may  measure  3  or  4  inches 
in  one  direction  by  2  or  3  in  the  other,  and  raised  to  the  extent  of  an 
inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  above  the  surrounding  tissues,  or  in  some 
cases  the  tumor  presents  an  almost  circular  form  throughout.  It  will 
be  also  found  that,  if  the  tumor  be  firmly  grasped,  it  is  not  fixed,  but 
can  be  lifted  up  from  the  subcutaneous  tissue.  According  to  the 
nature  and  amount  of  the  inoculated  blood,  these  symptoms  rapidly 
present  themselves,  and  either  attain  a  maximum  or  are  retarded 
until,  varying  from  the  fourth  to  the  thirteenth  day,  the  tumor  at 
the  seat  of  inoculation  will  be  found  to  have  lost  a  certain  amount 
of  its  tension  and  tenderness.  From  this  date  the  swelling  and  edema 
will  gradually  begin  to  grow  less,  until  finally,  after  a  period  of  ten 
to  fourteen  days,  the  only  sign  left  of  the  former  swelling  will  be 
slight  thickening  of  the  skin  over  the  point  of  the  injection ;  but  at 
the  moment  when  the  tension  and  tenderness  of  the  parts  at  the  seat 
of  inoculation  become  suddenly  decreased  a  symptom  of  the  utmost 
clinical  importance  takes  place,  namely,  at  that  moment  the  parasite 
of  surra  enters  the  blood  of  the  general  circulation. 


SUBBA.  559 

The  temperature  on  the  day  of  inoculation,  and,  in  fact,  for  several 
days  afterwards,  may  remain  normal  in  character,  there  being  only  a 
few  degrees  difference  between  the  morning  and  evening  observations. 
In  other  cases  there  may  be  a  slight  rise  from  the  first  evening,  and  a 
gradual  progressive  rise  until  the  swelling  at  the  seat  of  inoculation 
shows  signs  of  reduction  in  size,  when  the  temperature  generally 
takes  a  decided  rise  again,  and  may  attain  104°  or  105.8°  F.  This 
elevation  will  last  a  varying  period  of  from  two  to  six  days,  and  on 
the  day  following  its  onset  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  fever  will  be 
noticed,  and  in  addition  there  will  be  petechise  on  the  conjunctival 
membranes,  lachrymation,  a  slight  mucous  discharge  from  the  nose, 
and  in  severe  cases  some  edema  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  legs,  and 
perhaps  of  the  sheath  in  horses.  At  the  termination  of  the  period 
of  fever  the  temperature  will  be  found  to  have  fallen  to  normal  or 
nearly  so;  the  animal  will  present  a  brighter  aspect,  and  there  is 
every  appearance  of  its  return  to  health ;  but  in  a  few  days  the  animal 
again  appears  dull  and  half  asleep ;  the  temperature  becomes  elevated 
and  a  relapse  takes  place,  and  a  repetition  of  all  the  symptoms  in  the 
primary  paroxysm,  including  the  reappearance  of  the  parasite,  is 
observed. 

Diagnosis. — Certain  symptoms  (anemia,  fever,  petechise,  ravenous 
appetite,  extreme  emaciation,  high  mortality,  etc.)  would  naturally 
give  rise  to  a  suspicion  of  surra.  The  positive  diagnosis  should, 
however,  be  made  with  a  microscope.  In  case  of  suspected  surra  no 
delay  in  confirming  or  disproving  the  suspicion  should  be  permitted. 

Treatment. — No  satisfactory  treatment  is  known.  Intravenous  in- 
jections of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  give  temporary  relief,  but  re- 
lapses occur.  In  view  of  the  great  economic  importance  of  this 
disease,  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  attempt  to  treat  any  sporadic 
cases  should  they  occur  in  this  country.  On  the  contrary,  the  animals 
should  be  slaughtered  immediately  and  their  carcasses  promptly 
burned. 

OSTEOPOROSIS  ORBIGHEAD. 

By  John  R.  Mohler,  V.  M.  D., 
Chief  of  the  Pathological  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Osteoporosis  is  a  general  disease  of  the  bones  which  develops  slowly 
and  progressively  and  is  characterized  by  the  absorption  of  the  cal- 
careous or  compact  bony  substance  and  the  formation  of  enlarged, 
softened,  and  porous  bone.  It  is  particularly  manifest  in  the  bones 
of  the  head,  causing  enlargement  and  bulging  of  the  face  and  jaws, 
thereby  giving  rise  to  the  terms  "bighead"  and."  swelled  head,"  which 
are  applied  to  it.  The  disease  affects  horses,  mules,  and  asses  of  all 
ages,  classes,  and  breeds,  and  of  both  sexes,  and  is  found  under  all  soil, 


560  DISEASES  OP  THE   HORSE. 

dietetic,  and  climatic  conditions.  It  may  occur  in  sporadic  form,  but 
in  certain  regions,  such  as  South  Africa,  Australia,  Madagascar, 
India,  Hawaii,  and  in  this  country  it  seems  to  be  enzootic,  several 
cases  usually  appearing  in  the  same  stable  or  on  the  same  farm,  and 
numerous  animals  being  affected  in  the  same  district.  In  the  United 
States  the  disease  has  been  found  in  all  the  States  bordering  the 
Delaware  River  and  Chesapeake  Bay,  in  some  of  the  New  England 
States,  and  in  many  of  the  Southern  States,  especially  along  the  coast 
in  regions  of  low  altitude.  In  Europe  the  disease  appears  to  be  quite 
rare,  and  is  usually  described  as  a  form  of  osteomalacia,  a  disease 
which  is  not  uncommon  among  cattle  of  that  continent.  However,  the 
opinion  that  bighead  is  only  a  form  of  osteomalacia  can  not  be  ac- 
cepted, nor  can  the  infrequency  of  the  former  among  European  horses 
and  the  frequency  of  the  latter  among  other  live  stock  be  conceded  on 
the  argument  which  has  been  presented,  namely,  that  the  better  care 
which  horses  receive  prevents  them  from  becoming  affected.  In  the 
Southwest,  where  osteomalacia,  or  creeps,  has  not  infrequently  been 
observed  by  the  writer  am\)ng  range  cattle,  no  case  of  osteoporosis  of 
the  horses  using  the  same  range  has  been  noted,  although  the  latter 
animals  are  given  no  more  attention  than  the  cattle. 

The  appropriate  treatment  of  osteomalacia  in  cattle  is  so  effective 
that  if  osteoporosis  were  a  similar  manifestation  of  disease  a  similar 
line  of  treatment  should  prove  equally  efficacious.  However,  this  is 
not  the  fact.  On  the  other  hand,  the  occurrence  of  osteomalacia  on 
old,  worn-out  soil,  or  on  land  deficient  in  lime  salts,  or  from  eating 
feed  lacking  in  these  bone-forming  substances,  or  drinking  water 
with  a  lime  deficiency,  is  in  perfect  accord  with  our  knowledge  of  the 
disease.  But  osteoporosis  may  occur  on  rich,  fertile  soil,  in  the  most 
hygienic  stables,  and  in  animals  receiving  the  best  of  care  and  of 
bone-forming  feeds  with  a  proper  amount  of  mineral  salts  in  the 
drinking  water. 

Cause. — The  cause  of  this  disease  still  remains  obscure,  although 
various  theories  have  been  advanced,  some  entirely  erroneous,  others 
more  or  less  plausible;  but  none  of  these  has  been  established.  Thus 
the  idea  that  feeding  fodder  and  cereals  poor  in  mineral  salts  and 
grazing  in  pastures  where  the  soil  is  poor  in  lime  and  phosphates  will 
cause  the  disease  has  been  entirely  disproved  in  many  instances. 
Others  have  considered  that  the  disease  starts  as  a  muscular  rheuma- 
tism which  is  followed  by  an  inflammatory  condition  of  the  bones, 
terminating  in  osteoporosis.  The  idea  that  the  disease  is  contagious 
has  been  advanced  by  many  writers,  although  no  causative  agent  has 
been  isolated.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  by  inoculating 
the  blood  of  an  affected  horse  into  normal  horses  without  results.  A 
piece  of  bone  taken  by  Pearson  from  the  diseased  lower  jaw  of  a  colt 
was  transplanted  into  a  cavity  made  for  it  in  the  jaw  of  a  normal 


OSTEOPOROSIS,   OB  BIGHEAD.  561 

horse,  but  without  reproducing  the  disease.  Petrone  believes  that  the 
Micrococcus  nitrvftcans  causes  osteomalacia  in  man  as  a  result  of  its 
producing  nitrous  acid,  which  dissolves  the  calcareous  tissues,  and 
when  injected  into  dogs  in  pure  culture  a  similar  disease  is  produced. 
It  is  probable  that  if  this  work  is  confirmed  a  somewhat  similar  causa- 
tive factor  will  be  discovered  for  osteoporosis. 

Elliott  considers  the  latter  disease  to  be  of  microbic  origin  due  to 
climatic  conditions,  and  divides  the  island  of  Hawaii  into  two  dis- 
tricts, in  one  of  which  the  rainfall  is  150  inches  annually,  where  big- 
head  is  very  prevalent,  and  the  second  of  which  is  dry  and  rarely 
visited  by  rain,  where  the  disease  is  unknown.  Removal  of  animals 
from  the  wet  to  the  dry  district  is  followed  by  immediate  improve- 
ment and  frequently  by  recovery.  In  the  wet  district  horses  in  both 
good  and  bad  stables  take  the  disease,  but  in  the  dry  districts  no 
unfavorable  or  unhygienic  surroundings  produce  the  affection.  As 
both  native  and  imported  horses  are  equallj'  susceptible,  there  is  no 
indication  of  an  acquired  immunity  to  be  observed. 

Theiler  has  recently  stated  that  his  experiments  in  transfusing 
blood  from  diseased  to  normal  horses  were  negative,  and  has  sug- 
gested that  the  causative  agent  may  only  be  transmitted  by  an  inter- 
mediate host,  as  in  the  case  of  Texas  fever.  He  draws  attention  to 
this  method  of  spreading  East  African  coast  fever,  although  blood 
inoculations,  as  in  osteoporosis,  are  always  without  result.  We  know 
that  coast  fever  is  infectious,  and  that  it  can  not  be  transmitted  by 
blood  inoculations,  but  is  conveyed  with  remarkable  ease  by  ticks 
coming  from  diseased  cattle.  That  the  cause  has  not  been  observed 
may  be  accounted  for  by  its  being  invisible  even  to  the  high  magnifica- 
tion of  the  microscope. 

On  some  farms  and  in  some  stables  bighead  is  quite  prevalent,  a 
number  of  cases  following  one  after  another.  On  one  farm  of  thor- 
oughbreds in  Pennsylvania  all  the  yearling  colts  and  some  of  the 
aged  horses  were  affected  during  one  year,  and  on  a  similar  farm 
in  Virginia  a  large  proportion  of  the  horses  for  several  years 
were  diseased,  although  the  cows  and  sheep  of  this  farm  remained 
unaffected. 

Symptoms. — The  commencement  of  the  disease  is  usually  unob- 
served by  the  owner,  and  those  symptoms  which  do  develop  are  gen- 
erally not  well  marked  or  are  misleading  unless  other  cases  have  l)een 
noted  in  the  vicinity.  Until  the  bones  become  enlarged  the  symptoms 
remain  so  vague  as  not  to  be  diagnosed  readily.  The  disease  may  be 
present  itself  under  a  variety  of  symptoms.  If  the  bones  of  the  hock 
become  affected,  the  animal  will  first  show  a  hock  lameness.  If  the 
long  bones  are  involved,  symptoms  of  rheumatism  will  be  the  first  ob- 
served, while  if  the  dorsal  or  lumbar  Vertebra?  are  affected  indications 
of  a  strain  of  the  lumbar  region  are  in  evidence.  Probably  the  first 
H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 36 


562  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

symptom  to  be  noticed  is  a  loss  of  vitality  combined  with  an  irregular 
appetite  or  other  digestive  disturbance,  and  with  a  tendency  to  stum- 
ble while  in  action.  These  earlier  symptoms,  however,  may  pass  unob- 
served, and  the  appearance  of  an  intermittent  or  migratory  lameness 
without  any  visible  cause  may  be  the  first  sign  to  attract  attention. 
This  shifting  and  indefinite  lameness,  involving  first  one  leg  and  then 
the  other,  is  very  suggestive,  and  is  even  more  important  when  it  is 
associated  with  a  tendency  to  lie  down  frequently  in  the  stall  and  the 
absence  of  a  desire  to  get  up,  or  the  presence  of  evident  pain  and 
diflSculty  in  arising. 

About  this  time,  or  probably  before,  swelling  of  the  bones  of  the 
face  and  jaw,  which  is  almost  constantly  present  in  this  disease,  will 
be  observed.  The  bones  of  the  lower  jaw  are  the  most  frequently 
involved,  and  this  condition  is  readily  detected  with  the  fingers  by  the 
bulging  ridge  of  the  bone  outside  and  along  the  lower  edge  of  the 
molar  teeth.  A  thickening  of  the  lower  jawbone  may  likewise  be 
identified  by  feeling  on  both  sides  of  each  branch  at  the  same  time 
and  comparing  it  with  the  thinness  of  this  bone  in  a  normal  horse. 
As  a  result  mastication  becomes  difficult  or  impossible  and  the  teeth 
become  loose  and  painful.  The  imperfect  chewing  which  follows 
causes  balls  of  food  to  form  which  drop  out  of  the  mouth  into  the 
manger.  Similar  enlargements  of  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  may  be 
seen,  causing  a  widening  of  the  face  and  a  bulging  of  the  bones  about 
midway  between  the  eyes  and  the  nostrils.  In  some  cases  the  nasal 
bones  also  become  swollen  and  deformed,  which,  together  with  the 
bulging  of  the  bones  under  the  eyes,  gives  a  good  illustration  of  the 
reason  for  the  application  of  the  term  bighead. 

Other  bones  of  the  body  will  undergo  similar  changes,  but  these 
alterations  are  not  so  readily  noted  except  by  the  symptoms  they  occa- 
sion. The  alterations  of  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column  and  the 
limbs,  while  difficult  of  observation,  are  nevertheless  indicated  by  the 
reluctance  of  the  animal  to  get  up  and  the  desire  to  remain  lying  for 
long  periods  of  time.  The  animal  easily  tires,  moves  less  rapidly, 
and  if  urged  to  go  faster  may  sustain  a  fracture  or  have  a  ligament 
torn  from  its  bony  -attachments,  especially  in  the  lower  bones  of  the 
leg.  An  affected  horse  weighing  1,000  pounds  was  seen  by  the  writer 
to  fracture  the  large  pastern  bone  from  rearing  during  halter  exercise. 

The  animal  becomes  poor  in  flesh,  the  coat  is  rough  and  lusterless, 
and  the  skin  tight  and  harsh,  producing  a  condition  termed  "  hide- 
bound," with  considerable  "  tucking  up "  of  the  abdomen.  The 
horse  shows  a  short,  stilted,  choppy  gait,  which  later  becomes  stiffer 
and  more  restricted,  while  on  standing  a  position  simulating  that  in 
founder  is  assumed,  with  a  noticeable  drop  to  the  croup.  The  animal 
at  this  stage  usually  lies  down  and  remains  recumbent  for  several 


OSTEOPOROSIS,   OR  BIGHEAD.  563 

days  at  a  time.  Bed  sores  frequently  arise  and  fractures  are  not 
uncommon  in  consequence  of  attempts  to  arise,  which  complications, 
in  addition  to  emaciation,  result  in  death. 

The  disease  may  exist  in  this  manner  for  variable  periods  extend- 
ing from  two  or  three  months  to  two  years.  The  termination  of  the 
disease  is  uncertain  at  best,  but  is  likely  to  be  favorable  if  treatment 
and  a  change  of  feed,  water,  and  location  is  adopted  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  malady. 

Lesions. — As  has  been  stated,  the  bones  are  the  principal  tissues 
involved.  The  nutrition  of  the  bone  is  disturbed,  as  is  indicated  by 
the  diminished  density  or  rarefaction  of  the  bony  substances,  the  in- 
crease in  the  size  or  widening  of  the  Haversian  canal  and  the 
medullary  cavity,  and  the  enlargement  of  the  network  of  spaces  in 
the  spongy  tissue,  the  absorptive  changes  following  the  course  of  the 
Plaversian  system.  In  this  process  of  absorption  there  are  formed 
within  the  substance  of  the  bone  areas  of  erosion,  indentations,  or 
hollow  spaces  of  irregular  shape.  These  spaces  increase  in  size  and 
become  confluent,  causing  an  appearance  resembling  some  varieties 
of  coral.  The  affected  bone  may  be  readily  incised  with  a  knife,  the 
cut  surface  appearing  finely  porous.  This  porous  area  is  soft,  pliable, 
and  yields  easily  to  the  pressure  of  the  finger.  It  has  been  shown  by 
chemical  analysis  that  the  bone  of  an  osteoporotic  horse,  when  com- 
pared with  that  of  a  normal  horse,  shows  a  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  fat,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  soda,  but  a  slight  increase  in 
organic  matter  and  silicic  acid.  The  bones  lose  their  yellowish- 
white  appearance,  becoming  gray  and  brittle.  The  affected  bones  may 
be  those  of  any  region  or  portion  of  the  body.  Besides  the  change 
already  noted  in  the  bones  of  the  face,  the  ends  of  the  long  bones, 
such  as  the  ribs,  are  involved,  and  may  be  sectioned,  though  not  so 
readily  as  the  facial  bones.  The  bones  of  the  vertebrae  are  also  fre- 
quently involved,  necessitating  great  care  in  casting  a  horse,  as  the 
writer  has  seen  several  cases  of  broken  backs  in  casting  such  animals 
for  other  operations.  The  marrow  and  cancellated  tissue  of  the  long 
bones  may  contain  hemorrhages  and  soft  gelatinous  material  or 
coagulated  fibrin.  The  internal  organs  are  usually  normal,  but  a 
catarrhal  condition  of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  may  be  noted  as  a 
result  of  the  improper  mastication,  resulting  from  the  enlargement  of 
the  jaws  and  soreness  of  the  teeth. 

Treatin^nt. — The  affected  animal  should  be  immediately  placed 
under  new  conditions,  both  as  to  feed  and  surroundings.  If  the  horse 
has  been  stable  fed,  it  is  advisable  to  turn  it  out  on  grass  for  two  or 
three  months,  preferably  in  a  higher  altitude.  If  the  disease  has  been 
contracted  while  running  on  pasture,  place  the  animal  in  the  stable 
or  corral.    In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  beneficial  results  have 


564  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

followed  the  supplemental  use  of  lime  given  in  the  drinking  water. 
One  peck  of  lime  slaked  in  a  cask  of  water  and  additional  water 
added  from  time  to  time  is  satisfactory  and  can  be  provided  at  slight 
expense.  This  treatment  may  be  supplemented  by  giving  a  table- 
spoonful  of  powdered  bone  meal  in  each  feed,  with  free  access  to  a 
large  piece  of  rock  salt,  or  the  bone  meal  ma}^  be  given  with  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  molasses  mixed  with  the  feed.  Feeds  containing 
mineral  salts,  such  as  beans,  cowpeas,  oats,  and  cotton-seed  meal, 
may  prove  beneficial  in  replenishing  the  lx)ny  substance  that  is  be- 
ing absorbed.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  it  should  be  fed  carefully.  The  animal  should  not  be 
allowed  to  work  at  all  during  the  active  stage  of  the  disease,  nor 
should  it  be  used  for  breeding  purposes. 


PLATE   Xl.U. 


LfO 


AGE  OF   HORSt:S  AS    INDICATED    HV    TB^KTH 


Longitudinal  Sfection  of  left  central  lower  inciso^  and  cross  sections 
of  same  tooth  showing  table  surfaces  as  they  appear'  at  ihe  a^es  of  3, 
S,  7,  9,  15.  20  and   ?5years. 


V 

Cement 

D 

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Lnamel 

1 

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I'.m 

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r 

Pulp   Cavity 

SHOEmG. 

By  John  W.  Adams,  A.  B.,  V.  M. 

Professor  of  Surgery  and  Lecturer  on  Shoeing,  Veterinary  Department,  University 

of  Pennsylvania. 

Bad  and  indifferent  shoeing  so  frequently  leads  to  diseases  of  the 
feet  and  in  irregularities  of  gait  which  may  render  a  horse  unservice- 
able, that  it  has  been  thought  appropriate  to  conclude  this  book  with 
a  brief  chapter  on  the  principles  involved  in  shoeing  healthy  hoofs. 

In  unfolding  this  subject  in  the  limited  space  at  my  disposal,  I  can 
only  hope  to  give  the  intelligent  horse  owner  a  sufficient  number  of 
facts,  based  on  experience  and  upon  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
the  foot  and  leg,  to  enable  him  to  avoid  the  more  serious  conse- 
quences of  improper  shoeing. 

Let  us  first  examine  this  vital  mechanism,  the  foot,  and  learn  some- 
thing of  its  structure  and  of  the  natural  movements  of  its  component 
parts,  that  we  may  be  prepared  to  recognize  deviations  from  the  nor- 
mal and  to  apply  the  proper  corrective. 

GROSS   ANATOMY  OF   THE   FOOT. 

The  hones  of  the  foot  are  four  in  number,  three  of  which — the  long 
pastern,  short  pastern,  and  coffin  bone,  placed  end  to  end — form  a 
continuous  straight  column  passing  downward  and  forward  from  the 
fetlock  joint  to  the  ground.  A  small  accessory  bone,  the  navicular,  or 
"  shuttle,"  bone,  lies  crosswise  in  the  foot  between  the  wings  of  the 
coffin  bone  and  forms  a  part  of  the  joint  surface  of  the  latter.  The 
short  pastern  projects  about  1^  inches  above  the  hoof  and  extends 
about  an  equal  distance  to  it.     (See  also  page  369.) 

The  pasterns  and  the  coffin  bone  are  held  together  by  strong  fibrous 
cords  passing  between  each  two  bones  and  placed  at  the  sides  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  forward  and  backward  movement  of  the  bones. 
The  joints  are  therefore  hinge  joints^  though  imperfect,  because,  while 
the  chief  movements  are  those  of  extension  and  flexion  in  a  single 
plane,  some  slight  rotation  and  lateral  movements  are  possible. 

The  bones  are  still  further  bound  together  aiid  supported  by  three 
long  fibrous  cords,  or  tendons.  One,  the  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe, 
passes  down  the  front  of  the  pasterns  and  attaches  to  the  coffin  bone 
just  below  the  edge  of  the  hair;  when  pulled  upon  by  its  muscle  this 
tendon  draws  the  toe  forward  and  enables  the  horse  to  place  the  hoof 
flat  upon  the  ground.     The  other  two  tendons  are  placed  behind  the 

565 


565  DISEASES    OF   THE    HORSE. 

pasterns  and  are  called  -flexors^  because  they  flex,  or  bend,  the  pasterns 
and  cofiin  bone  backward.  One  of  the  tendons  is  attached  to  the 
upper  end  of  the  short  pastern,  while  the  other  passes  down  between 
the  heels,  glides  over  the  under  surface  of  the  navicular  bone,  and 
attaches  itself  to  the  under  surface  of  the  cofiin  bone.  These  two  ten- 
dons not  only  flex,  or  fold  up,  the  foot  as  the  latter  leaves  the  ground, 
during  motion,  but  at  rest  assist  the  suspensory  ligament  in  support- 
ing the  fetlock  joint. 

T?ie  foot-axis  is  an  imaginary  line  passing  from  the  fetlock  joint 
through  the  long  axes  of  the  two  pasterns  and  coffin  bone.  This 
imaginary  line,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  and  coflin 
bone,  should  always  be  straight — that  is,  never  broken,  either  forward 
or  backward  when  viewed  from  the  side,  or  inward  or  outward  when 
observed  from  in  front.  Viewed  from  one  side,  the  long  axis  of  the 
long  pastern,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground,  should  be  parallel  to 
the  line  of  the  toe.  Viewed  from  in  front,  the  long  axis  of  the  long 
pastern,  when  prolonged  to  the  ground,  should  cut  the  hoof  exactly 
at  the  middle  of  the  toe. 

Raising  the  heel  or  shortening  the  toe  not  only  tilts  the  coffin  bone 
forward  and  makes  the  hoof  stand  steeper  at  the  toe,  but  slackens  the 
tendon  that  attaches  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coffin  bone  (perforans 
tendon),  and  therefore  allows  the  fetlock  joint  to  sink  downward  and 
backward  and  the  long  pastern  to  assume  a  more  nearly  horizontal 
position.  The  foot-axis,  viewed  from  one  side,  is  now  broken  for- 
ward ;  that  is,  the  long  pastern  is  less  steep  than  the  toe,  and  the  heels 
are  either  too  long  or  the  toe  is  too  short.  On  the  other  hand,  raising 
the  toe  or  lowering  the  heels  of  a  foot  with  a  straight  foot-axis  not 
only  tilts  the  coffin  bone  backward  and  renders  the  toe  more  nearly 
horizontal,  but  tenses  the  perforans  tendon,  which  then  forces  the  fet- 
lock joint  forward,  causing  the  long  pastern  to  stand  steeper.  The 
foot-axis,  seen  from  one  side,  is  now  broken  backward — an  indication 
that  the  toe  is  relatively  too  long  or  that  the  heels  are  relatively  too 
low. 

The  elastic  tissues  of  the  foot  are  preeminently  the  lateral  cartilages 
and  the  plantar  cushion.  The  lateral  cartilages  are  two  irregularly 
four-sided  plates  of  gristle,  one  on  either  side  of  the  foot,  extending 
from  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone  backward  to  the  heels  and  upward  to 
a  distance  of  an  inch  or  more  above  the  edge  of  the  hair,  where  they 
may  be  felt  by  the  fingers.  When  sound,  these  plates  are  elastic  and 
yield  readily  to  moderate  finger  pressure,  but  from  various  causes 
may  undergo  ossification,  in  which  condition  they  are  hard  and  un- 
yielding. The  plantar  cushion  is  a  wedge-shaped  mass  of  tough, 
elastic,  fibro-fatty  tissue  filling  all  the  space  between  the  lateral  car- 
tilages, forming  the  fleshy  heels  and  the  fleshy  frog,  and  serving  as  a 
buffer  to  disperse  shock  when  the  foot  is  set  to  the  ground.     It  ex- 


ANATOMY  OP   THE   FOOT.  567 

tends  forward  underneath  the  navicular  bone  and  perforans  tendon, 
and  protects  these  structures  from  injurious  pressure  from  below. 
Instantaneous  photographs  show  that  at  speed  the  horse  sets  the  heels 
to  the  ground  before  other  parts  of  the  foot — conclusive  proof  that 
the  function  of  this  tough,  elastic  structure  is  to  dissipate  and  render 
harmless  violent  impact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground. 

The  horn-producing  membrane^  or  "quick,"  as  it  is  commonly 
termed,  is  merely  a  downward  prolongation  of  the  "  derm,"  or  true 
skin,  and  may  be  conveniently  called  the  pododerm  (foot  skin).  The 
pododerm  closely  invests  the  coffin  bone,  lateral  cartilages,  and  plantar 
cushion,  much  as  a  sock  covers  the  human  foot,  and  is  itself  covered 
by  the  horny  capsule,  or  hoof.  It  differs  from  the  external  skin,  or 
hair  skin,  in  having  no  sweat  or  oil  glands,  but,  like  it,  is  richly  sup- 
plied with  blood  vessels  and  sensitive  nerves.  And,  just  as  the  derm 
of  the  hair  skin  produces  upon  its  outer  surface  layer  upon  layer  of 
horny  cells  (epiderm),  which  protect  the  sensitive  and  vascular  derm, 
so,  likewise,  in  the  foot  the  pododerm  produces  over  its  entire  surface 
soft  cells,  which,  pushed  away  by  more  recent  cells  forming  beneath, 
lose  moisture  by  evaporation  and  are  rapidly  transformed  into  the 
corneous  material  which  we  call  the  hoof.  It  is  proper  to  regard  the 
hoof  as  a  greatly  thickened  epiderm  having  many  of  the  qualities 
possessed  by  such  epidermal  structures  as  hair,  feathers,  nails, 
claws,  etc. 

The  functions  of  the  pododerm  are  to  produce  the  hoof  and  to  unite 
it  firmly  to  the  foot. 

There  are  five  parts  of  the  pododerm,  easily  distinguishable  when 
the  hoof  has  been  removed,  namely :  ( 1 )  The  periopUc  hand,  a  narrow 
ridge  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  running  along 
the  edge  of  the  hair  from  one  heel  around  the  toe  to  the  other.  This 
band  produces  the  perioplic  horn,  the  thin  varnishlike  layer  of  glis- 
tening horn,  which  forms  the  surface  of  the  wall,  or  "  crust,"  and 
whose  purpose  seems  to  be  to  retard  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  wall.  (2)  The  coronai^y  hand,  a  prominent  fleshy  cornice  encir- 
cling the  foot  just  below  and  parallel  to  the  perioplic  band.  At  the 
heels  it  is  reflected  forward  along  the  sides  of  the  fleshy  frog,  to  be- 
come lost  near  the  apex  of  this  latter  structure.  The  coronet  pro- 
duces the  middle  layer  of  the  wall,  and  the  reflected  portions  produce 
the  "  bars,"  which  are,  therefore,  to  be  regardeil  merely  as  a  turning 
forward  of  the  wall.  (3)  The  fleshy  leaves,  500  to  GOO  in  number, 
parallel  to  one  another,  running  downward  and  forward  from  the 
lower  edge  of  the  coronary  band  to  the  margin  of  the  fleshy  sole. 
They  produce  the  soft,  light-colored  horny  leaves  which  form  the 
deepest  layer  of  the  wall,  and  serve  as  a  strong  bond  of  union  between 
the  middle  layer  of  the  wall  and  the  fleshy  leaves  with  which  they 
dovetail.     (4)  The  fleshy  sole,  which  covers  the  entire  under  surface 


568  DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 

of  the  foot,  excepting  the  fleshy  frog  and  bars.  The  homy  sole  is 
produced  by  the  fleshy  sole.  (5)  The  -fleshy  frog^  which  covers  the 
under  surface  of  the  plantar  cushion  and  produces  the  horny  frog. 

The  homy  hox^  or  hoof^  consists  of  wall  and  bars,  sole  and  frog. 
The  wall  is  all  that  part  of  the  hoof  which  is  visible  when  the  foot  is 
on  the  ground  (see  fig.  8).  As  already  stated,  it  consists  of  three 
layers — the  periople,  the  middle  layer,  and  the  leafy  layer. 

The  bars  (see  fig.  Ic)  are  forward  prolongations  of  the  wall,  and 
are  gradually  lost  near  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  angle  between  the 
wall  and  a  bar  is  called  the  "  buttress."  Each  bar  lies  against  the 
horny  frog  on  one  side  and  incloses  a  wing  of  the  sole  on  the  other, 
so  that  the  least  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  horny  frog  separates 
or  approximates  the  bars,  and  through  them  the  lateral  cartilages  and 
the  walls  of  the  quarters.  The  lower  border  of  the  wall  is  called  the 
"  bearing  edge,"  and  is  the  surface  against  which  the  shoe  bears.  By 
dividing  the  entire  lower  circumference  of  the  wall  into  five  equal 
parts,  a  toe,  two  side  walls,  and  two  quarters  will  be  exhibited.  The 
"  heels,"  strictly  speaking,  are  the  two  rounded  soft  prominences  of 
the  plantar  cushion,  lying  one  above  each  quarter.  The  outer  wall  is 
usually  more  slanting  than  the  inner,  and  the  more  slanting  half  of  a 
hoof  is  always  the  thicker.  In  front  hoofs  the  wall  is  thickest  at  the 
toe  and  gradually  thins  out  toward  the  quarters,  where  in  some  horses 
it  may  not  exceed  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  In  hind  hoofs  there  is  much 
less  difference  in  thickness  between  the  toe,  side  walls,  and  quarters. 
The  horny  sole,  from  which  the  flakes  of  old  horn  have  been  removed, 
is  concave  and  about  as  thick  as  the  wall  at  the  toe.  It  is  rough,  un- 
even, and  often  covered  by  flakes  of  dead  horn  in  process  of  being 
loosened  and  cast  off.  Behind,  the  sole  presents  an  opening  into 
which  are  received  the  bars  and  horny  frog.  This  opening  divides  the 
sole  into  a  body  and  two  wings. 

The  periphery  of  the  sole  unites  with  the  lower  border  of  the  wall 
and  bars  through  the  medium  of  the  white  line,  which  is  the  cross- 
section  of  the  leafy  horn  layer  of  the  wall,  and  of  short  plugs  of  horn 
which  grow  down  from  the  lower  ends  of  the  fleshy  leaves.  This 
white  line  is  of  much  importance  to  the  shoer,  since  its  distance  from 
the  outer  border  of  the  hoof  is  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  in  the 
white  line  all  nails  should  bo  driven. 

The  frog,  secreted  by  the  pododemi  covering  the  plantar  cushion 
or  fatty  frog,  and  presenting  almost  the  same  form  as  the  latter,  lies 
as  a  soft  and  very  elastic  wedge  between  the  bars  and  between  the 
edges  of  the  sole  just  in  front  of  the  bars.  A  broad  and  shallow  de- 
pression in  its  center  divides  it  into  two  branches,  which  diverge  as 
they  pass  backward  into  the  homy  bulbs  of  the  heel.  In  front  of  the 
middle  cleft  the  two  branches  unite  to  form  the  body  of  the  frog, 
which  ends  in  the  point  of  the  frog.    The  bar  of  a  bar  shoe  should 


MOVEMENTS   OF   THE   HOOF.  569 

rest  on  the  branches  of  the  frog.  In  unshod  hoofs  the  bearing  edge 
of  the  wall,  the  sole,  frog,  and  bars  are  all  on  a  level;  that  is,  the 
under  surface  of  the  hoof  is  perfectly  flat,  and  each  of  these  structures 
assists  in  bearing  the  body  weight. 

With^-espect  to  solidity,  the  different  parts  of  the  hoof  vary  widely. 
The  middle  layer  of  the  wall  is  harder  and  more  tenacious  than  the 
sole,  for  the  latter  crumbles  away  or  passes  off  in  larger  or  smaller 
flakes  on  its  under  surface,  while  no  such  spontaneous  shortening  of 
the  wall  occurs.  The  white  line  and  the  frog  are  soft  horn  struc- 
tures, and  differ  from  hard  horn  in  that  their  horn  cells  do  not  under 
natural  conditions  become  hard  and  hornlike.  They  are  very  elastic, 
absorb  moisture  rapidly,  and  as  readily  dry  out  and  become  hard, 
brittle,  and  easily  fissured.  Horn  of  good  quality  is  fine  grained  and 
tough,  while  bad  horn  is  coarse  grained  and  either  mellow  and  fri- 
able or  hard  and  brittle.  All  horn  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and 
the  harder  (drier)  the  horn,  the  more  slowly  does  it  transmit  extremes 
of  temperature. 

THE    PHYSIOLOGICAL,    MOVEMENTS    OF    THE    HOOF. 

A  hoof  while  supporting  the  body  weight  has  a  different  form,  and 
the  structures  inclosed  within  the  hoof  have  a  different  position  than 
when  not  bearing  weight.  Since  the  amount  of  weight  borne  by  a 
foot  is  continually  changing,  and  the  relations  of  internal  pressure  are 
continuously  varying,  a  foot  is,  from  a  physiological  viewpoint,  never 
at  rest.  The  most  marked  changes  of  form  of  the  hoof  occur  when 
the  foot  bears  the  greatest  weight,  namely,  at  the  time  of  the  greatest 
descent  of  the  fetlock.  Briefly,  these  changes  of  form  are:  (1)  An 
expansion  or  widening  of  the  whole  back  half  of  the  foot  "from  the 
coronet  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  quarters.  This  expansion  varies 
between  one-fiftieth  and  one-twelfth  of  an  inch.  (2)  A  narrowing  of 
the  front  half  of  the  foot,  measured  at  the  coronet.  (3)  A  sinking  of 
the  heels  and  a  flattening  of  the  wings  of  the  sole.  These  changes  are 
more  marked  in  the  half  of  the  foot  that  bears  the  greater  weight. 

The  changes  of  form  occur  in  the  following  order :  ^Mien  the  foot 
is  set  to  the  ground  the  body  weight  is  transmitted  through  the  bones 
and  sensitive  and  horny  leaves  to  the  wall.  The  coffin  bone  and  navic- 
ular bone  sink  a  little  and  rotate  backward.  At  the  same  time  the 
short  pastern  sinks  backward  and  downward  between  the  lateral  carti- 
lages and  presses  the  perforans  tendon  upon  the  plantar  cushion. 
This  cushion  being  compressed  from  above  and  being  unable  to  ex- 
pand downward  by  reason  of  the  resistance  of  the  ground  acting 
against  the  horny  frog,  acts  like  any  other  elastic  mass  and  expands 
toward  the  sides,  pushing  before  it  the  yielding  lateral  cartilages  and 
the  wall  of  the  quarters.  This  expansion  of  the  heels  is  assisted  and 
increased  by  the  simultaneous  flattening  and  lateral  expansion  of  the 


g-^Q  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSE. 

resilient  homy  frog,  which  crowds  the  bars  apart.  Of  course,  when, 
the  lateral  cartilages  are  ossified  not  only  is  no  expansion  of  the 
quarters  possible,  but  frog  pressure  often  leads  to  painful  compres- 
sion of  the  plantar  cushion  and  to  increase  of  lameness.  Frog  pres- 
sure is  therefore  contra-indicated  in  lameness  due  to  sideboi*s  (ossi- 
fied cartilages).  Under  the  descent  of  the  coffin-bone  the  horny  sole 
sinks  a  little;  that  is,  the  arch  of  the  sole  around  the  point  of  the 
frog,  and  the  wings  of  the  sole  become  somewhat  flattened.  All  these 
changes  of  form  are  most  marked  in  sound  unshod  hoofs,  because 
in  them  ground  pressure  on  the  frog  and  sole  is  pronounced;  they 
are  more  marked  in  fore  hoofs  than  in  hind  hoofs. 

The  movement  of  the  different  structures  within  the  foot  and  the 
changes  of  form  that  occur  at  every  step  are  indispensable  to  the 
health  of  the  hoof,  so  that  these  elastic  tissues  must  be  kept  active  by 
regular  exercise,  with  protection  against  drying  out  of  the  hoof. 
Long-continued  rest  in  the  stable,  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  and  shoeing 
decrease  or  alter  the  physiological  movements  of  the  hoof  and  some- 
times lead  to  foot  diseases.  Since  these  movements  are  complete  and 
spontaneous  only  in  unshod  feet,  shoeing  must  be  regarded  as  an  evil, 
albeit  a  necessary  one,  and  indispensable  if  we  wish  to  keep  horses 
continuously  serviceable  on  hard,  artificial  roads.  However,  if  in 
shoeing  we  bear  in  mind  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  hoof  and 
apply  a  shoe  whose  branches  have  a  wide  and  level  bearing  surface, 
so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  may  be  with  the  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  quarters,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  hindered  by  the  nails,  we 
need  not  be  apprehensive  of  trouble,  provided  the  horse  has  reason- 
able work  and  his  hoofs  proper  care. 

GROWTH    OF    THE    HOOF. 

All  parts  of  the  hoof  grow  downward  and  forward  with  equal 
rapidity,  the  rate  of  growth  being  largely  dependent  upon  the  amount 
of  blood  supplied  to  the  pododerm,  or  "  quick."  Abundant  and  reg- 
ular exercise,  good  grooming,  moistness  and  suppleness  of  the  hoof, 
going  barefoot,  plenty  of  good  food,  and  at  proper  intervals  removing 
the  overgrowth  of  hoof  and  regulating  the  bearing  surface,  by  increas- 
ing the  volume  and  improving  the  quality  of  the  blood  flowing  into 
the  pododerm,  favor  the  rapid  growth  of  horn  of  good  quality ;  while 
lack  of  exercise,  dryness  of  the  horn,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof 
hinder  growth. 

The  average  rate  of  growth  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  a  month. 
Hind  hoofs  grow  faster  than  fore  hoofs  and  unshod  ones  faster  than 
shod  ones.  The  time  required  for  the  horn  to  grow  from  the  coronet 
to  the  ground,  though  influenced  to  a  slight  degree  by  the  precited 
conditions,  varies  in  proportion  to  the  distance  of  the  coronet  from  the 
ground.     At  the  toe,  depending  on  its  height,  the  horn  grows  down 


GBOWTH   OP   THE   HOOP.  571 

in  eleven  to  thirteen  months,  at  the  side  wall  in  six  to  eight  months, 
and  at  the  heels  in  three  to  five  months.  We  can  thus  estimate  with 
tolerable  accuracy  the  time  required  for  the  disappearance  of  such 
defects  in  the  hoof  as  cracks,  clefts,  etc. 

Irregular  growth  is  not  infrequent.  The  almost  invariable  cause 
of  this  is  an  improper  distribution  of  the  body  weight  over  the  hoof — 
that  is,  an  unbalanced  foot.  Colts  running  in  soft  pasture  or  confined 
for  long  periods  in  the  stable  are  frequently  allowed  to  grow  hoofs  of 
excessive  length.  The  long  toe  becomes  "  dished  " — that  is,  concave 
from  the  coronet  to  the  ground — the  long  quarters  curl  forward  and 
inward  and  often  completely  cover  the  frog  and  lead  to  contraction  of 
the  heels,  or  the  whole  hoof  bends  outward  or  inward,  and  a  crooked 
foot,  or,  even  worse,  a  crooked  leg,  is  the  result  if  the  long  hoof  be 
allowed  to  exert  its  powerful  and  abnormally  directed  leverage  for 
but  a  few  months  upon  young  plastic  bones  and  tender  and  lax  articu- 
lar ligaments.  All  colts  are  not  foaled  with  straight  legs,  but  failure 
to  regulate  the  length  and  bearing  of  the  hoof  may  make  a  straight 
leg  crooked  and  a  crooked  leg  worse,  just  as  intelligent  care  during 
the  growing  period  can  greatly  improve  a  congenitally  crooked  limb. 
If  breeders  were  more  generally  cognizant  of  the  power  of  overgrown 
and  unbalanced  hoofs  to  divert  the  lower  bones  of  young  legs  from 
their  proper  direction,  and,  therefore,  to  cause  them  to  be  moved 
improperly,  with  loss  of  speed  and  often  with  injury  to  the  limbs,  we 
might  hope  to  see  fewer  knock-kneed,  bow-legged,  "  splay-footed," 
"  pigeon-toed,"  cow-hocked,  interfering,  and  paddling  horses. 

If  in  shortening  the  hoof  one  side  wall  is,  from  ignorance,  left  too 
long  or  cut  down  too  low  with  relation  to  the  other,  the  foot  will  be 
unbalanced,  and  in  traveling  the  long  section  will  touch  the  ground 
first  and  will  continue  to  do  so  till  it  has  been  reduced  to  its  proper 
level  (length)  by  the  increased  wear  which  will  take  place  at  this 
point.  While  this  occurs  rapidly  in  unshod  hoofs,  the  shoe  prevents 
wear  of  the  hoof,  though  it  is  itself  more  rapidly  worn  away  beneath 
the  high  (long)  side  than  elsewhere,  so  that  by  the  time  the  shoe  is 
worn  out  the  tread  of  the  shoe  may  be  flat.  If  this  mistake  be  re- 
peated from  month  to  month,  the  part  of  the  wall  left  too  high  will 
grow  more  rapidly  than  the  low  side  whose  pododerm  is  relatively 
anemic  as  a  result  of  the  greater  weight  falling  into  this  half  of  the 
hoof,  and  the  ultimate  result  will  be  a  "  wry,"  or  crooked  foot. 

THE    CARE   OF   UNSHOD    HOOFS. 

The  colt  should  have  abundant  exercise  on  dry  ground.  The  hoofs 
will  then  wear  gradually,  and  it  will  only  be  necessary  from  time  to 
time  to  regulate  any  uneven  wear  with  the  rasp  and  to  round  off  the 
sharp  edge  about  the  toe  in  order  to  prevent  breaking  away  of  the 
wall. 


572 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Colts  in  the  stable  can  not  wear  down  their  hoofs,  so  that  every 
four  to  six  weeks  they  should  be  rasped  down  and  the  lower  edge 
of  the  wall  well  rounded  to  prevent  chipping.  The  soles  and  clefts 
of  the  frog  should  be  picked  out  every  few  days  and  the  entire  hoof 
washed  clean.  Plenty  of  clean  straw  litter  should  be  provided. 
Hoofs  that  are  becoming  "  awry  "  should  have  the  wall  shortened 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  straighten  the  foot-axis.  This  will  ultimately 
produce  a  good  hoof  and  will  improve  the  position  of  the  limb. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A  HEALTHY  HOOF. 

A  healthy  hoof  (figs.  1  and  8)  is  equally  warm  at  all  parts,  and  is 
not  tender  under  pressure  with  the  hands  or  moderate  compression 

with  pincers.  The  coronet  is 
soft  and  elastic  at  all  points 
and  does  not  project  beyond 
the  surface  of  the  wall.  The 
wall  (fig.  8)  is  straight  from 
coronet  to  ground,  so  that  a 
straightedge  laid  against  the 
wall  from  coronet  to  ground 
parallel  to  the  direction  of 
the  horn  tubes  will  touch  at 
every  point.  The  wall  should 
be  covered  with  the  outer 
varnishlike  layer  (periople) 
and  should  show  no  cracks  or 
clefts.  Every  hoof  shows 
"  ring  -  formation,"  but  the 
rings  should  not  be  strongly 
marked  and  should  always 
run  parallel  to  the  coronary 
band.  Strongly  marked  ring- 
formation  over  the  entire  wall 
is  an  evidence  of  a  weak  hoof, 
but  when  limited  to  a  part 
of  the  wall  is  evidence  of  previous  local  inflammation.  The  bulbs 
of  the  heels  should  be  full,  rounded,  and  of  equal  height.  The  sole 
(fig.  1)  should  be  well  hollowed  out,  the  white  line  solid,  the  frog 
well  developed,  the  middle  cleft  of  the  frog  broad  and  shallow,  the 
spaces  between  the  bars  and  the  frog  wide  and  shallow,  the  bars 
straight  from  the  buttresses  toward  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  the 
buttresses  themselves  so  far  apart  as  not  to  press  against  the  branches 
of  the  frog.  A  hoof  can  not  be  considered  healthy  if  it  presents 
reddish  discolored  horn,  cracks  in  the  wall,  white  line,  bars,  or  frog, 
thrush  of  the  frog,  contraction  or  displacement  of  the  heels.  The 
lateral  cartilages  should  yield  readily  to  finger  pressure. 


Fig.  1. — Ground  surface  of  aright  fore  hoof  of  the  rcgu' 
lar  form:  a,  a,  wall;  a-a,  the  toe;  a-b,  the  side  walls! 
b-d,  the  quarters;  c,  c,  the  bars;  d,  d,  the  buttresses' 
e,  lateral  cleft  of  the  frog;/,  body  of  the  sole;  j?,  g',g" 
le&fy  layer  (white  line)  of  the  toe  and  bars;  h,  body 
of  the  frog;  i,  i,  branches  of  the  frog;  Jb,  k,  homy  bulbs 
of  the  heels;  I,  middle  cleft  of  the  frog. 


CHABACTEEISTICS    OF    THE    HOOF. 


573 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    HOOFS. 

As  among  a  thousand  human  faces  no  two  are  alike,  so  among  an 
equal  number  of  horses  no  two  have  hoofs  exactly  alike.  A  little 
study  of  diflFerent  forms  soon  shows  us,  however,  that  the  form  of 
every  hoof  is  dependent  in  great  measure  on  the  direction  of  the  two 
pastern  bones  as  viewed  from  in  front  or  behind,  or  from  one  side; 
and  that  all  hoofs  fall  into  three  classes  when  we  view  them  from  in 
front  and  three  classes  when  we  observe  them  in  profile.  Inasmuch 
as  the  form  of  every  foot  determines  the  peculiarities  of  the  shoe  that 
is  best  adapted  to  it,  no  one  who  is  ignorant  of,  or  who  disregards 
the  natural  form  of,  a  hoof  can  hope  to  understand  physiological 
shoeing. 

FORMS    OF    FEET   VIEWED    FROM    IN    FRONT   AND   IN    PROFILE. 

Whether  a  horse's  feet  be  observed  from  in  front  or  from  behind, 
their  form  corresponds  to,  or  at  least  resembles,  either  that  of  the 
regular  position    (fig.    2),   the 
hase-wide  or  toe-wide  position 
(fig.  3),  or  the  hose-narrow  po- 
sition (fig.  4). 

By  the  direction  of  the  im- 
aginary   line    passing   through 
the  long  axes  of  the  two  pas- 
terns  (figs.  2,  4,  5)   we  deter-  J 
mine  whether  or  not  the  hoof    "^ 
and  pasterns  stand  in  proper 

mutual  relation.  Fig.  2.— Pair  of  fore  feet  of  regular  form  in  regular 

In  the  regular  standing  posi-  ''^'"'^^"^  p°'^"°"- 

tion  (fig.  2)  the  foot-axis  runs  straight  downward  and  forward;  in 
the  base-wide  position  (fig.  3)  it  runs  obliquely  downward  and  out- 
ward, and  in  the  base-narrow 
position  (fig.  4)  it  runs  ob- 
liquely downward  and  inward. 
Viewing  the  foot  in  profile, 
we  distinguish  the  regular  po- 
sition (fig.  f>l))  and  designate 
all  forward  deviations  as  acute- 
angled  (long  toe  and  low  heel, 
^fig.  5a),  and  all  deviations 
backward     from     the     regular 

F1G.3.— Pair  of  fore  feet  of  base- wide  form  In  toe- wide     (steep    toe    and    hio"h    heel,    fig. 
standing  position.  ),   ^  .  .       i  ^  ^    ' 

be)  as  steep-toed,  or  stumpy. 
When  the  body  weight  is  evenly  distributed  over  all  four  limbs,  the 
foot-axis  should  be  straight;  the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and  wall 
at  the  toe  should  have  the  same  slant. 


574 


DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 


A  front  hoof  of  the  regular  standing  position. — The  outer  -wall  is  a 
little  more  slanting  and  somewhat  thicker  than  the  inner.  The  lower 
border  of  the  outer  quarter  describes  the  arc  of  a  smaller  circle — that 
is,  is  more  sharply  bent  than  the  inner  quarter.  The  weight  falls 
near  the  center  of  the  foot  and  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  whole 
bottom  of  the  hoof.  The  toe  forms  an  angle  with  the  ground  of 
45°  to  50°  and  is  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  long  pastern.    The 

toe  points  straight  ahead, 
^/  \  fk  jfl  ■'  <jjM  and  when  the  horse  is  mov- 

ing forward  in  a  straight 
line  the  hoofs  are  picked 
up  and  carried  forward  in 
a  line  parallel  to  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  body,  and 
are  set  down  flat.  Coming 
straight  toward  the  ob- 
server  the   hoofs   seem   to 

Pig.  4.— Pair  of  fore  feet  of  base-narrow  form  In  toe-narrow    pig^    and     fall     DerDCndicU- 
standing  position.  f     f 

larly. 
A  hoof  of  the  base-wide  position  is  always  awry.  The  outer  wall  is 
more  slanting,  longer,  and  thicker  than  the  inner,  the  outer  quarter 
more  curved  than  the  inner,  and  the  outer  half  of  the  sole  wider  than 
the  inner.  The  weight  falls  largely  into  the  inner  half  of  the  hoof. 
In  motion  the  hoof  is  moved  in  a  circle.  From  its  position  on  the 
ground  it  breaks  over  the  inner  toe,  is  carried  forward  and  inward 


Fia.  6.— a,  side  view  of  an  acnte-angled  fore  foot  (shod);  b,  aide  view  of  a  regular  fore  foot,  showing 
the  moat  desirable  degree  of  obliquity  (V)°);  c,  aide  view  of  a  stumpy,  or  "upright,"  fore  foot; 
obliquity  above  60°.  In  a,  b,  c,  note  particularly  the  relation  between  the  length  of  the  shoe  and 
the  overhanging  of  the  heels.    Note  also  the  toe  roll  of  the  shoes. 

close  to  the  supporting  leg,  thence  forward  and  outward  to  the 
ground,  which  the  hoof  meets  first  with  the  outer  toe.  Horses  that 
are  toe- wide  ("  splay-footed  " — toes  turned  outward)  show  all  these 
peculiarities  of  hoof- form  and  hoof -flight  to  a  .still  more  marked 
degree  and  are  therefore  more  prone  to  "  interfere  "  when  in  motion. 
A  hoof  of  the  base-narrow  position  is  awry,  but  not  to  so  marked  a 
degree  as  the  base-wide  hoof.     The  inner  wall  is  usually  a  little  more 


EXAMINATION   OP    HOOF   BEFORE   SHOEING.  575 

slanting  than  the  outer,  the  inner  half  of  the  sole  wider  than  the 
outer,  and  the  inner  quarter  more  curved  than  the  outer.  The  outer 
quarter  is  often  flattened  and  drawn  in  at  the  bottom.  The  weight 
falls  largely  into  the  outer  half  of  the  hoof.  In  motion  the  hoof 
breaks  over  the  outer  toe,  is  carried  forward  and  outward  at  some 
distance  from  the  supporting  leg,  thence  forward  and  inward  to  the 
ground,  which  it  generally  meets  with  the  outer  toe.  The  foot  thus 
moves  in  a  circle  whose  convexity  is  outward,  a  manner  of  flight 
called  "  paddling."  A  base-narrow  horse  whose  toes  point  straight 
ahead  frequently  "  interferes,"  while  a  toe-narrow  (pigeon-toed) 
animal  seldom  does. 

A  regular  hoof  (fig.  56),  viewed  from  one  side,  has  a  straight  foot- 
axis  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  50°.  The  weight 
falls  near  the  center  of  the  foot  and  there  is  moderate  expansion  of 
the  quarters. 

An  acute-angled  hoof  (fig.  5a)  has  a  straight  foot-axis  inclined  at 
an  angle  less  than  45°  to  the  horizon.  The  weight  falls  more  largely 
in  the  back  half  of  the  hoof  and  there  is  greater  length  of  hoof  in 
contact  with  the  ground  and  greater  expansion  of  the  heels  than  in 
the  regular  hoof. 

In  the  upright^  or  stumpy^  hoof  (fig.  5c)  the  foot-axis  is  straight 
and  more  than  55°  steep.  The  hoof  is  relatively  short  from  toe  to 
heel,  the  weight  falls  farther  forward,  and  there  is  less  expansion  of 
the  heels  than  in  the  regular  hoof. 

Finally,  there  are  wide  hoofs  and  narrow  hoofs,  dependent  solely 
upon  race  and  breeding.  The  wide  hoof  is  almost  circular  on  the 
ground  surface,  the  sole  but  little  concave,  the  frog  large,  and  the 
quality  of  the  horn  coarse.  The  narrow  hoof  has  a  strongly 
"  cupped  "  sole,  a  small  frog,  nearly  perpendicular  side  walls,  and 
fine-grained,  tough  horn. 

Hind  hoofs  are  influenced  in  shape  by  different  directions  of  their 
pasterns  much  as  front  feet  are.  A  hind  hoof  is  not  round  at  the 
toe  as  a  front  hoof  is,  but  is  more  pointed.  Its  greatest  width  is 
two-thirds  of  the  way  back  from  toe  to  heel,  the  sole  is  more  concave, 
the  heels  relatively  wider,  and  the  toe  about  10°  steeper  than  in  front 
hoofs. 

EXAMINATION    PRELIMINARY    TO    SHOEING. 

The  object  of  the  examination  is  to  ascertain  the  direction  and  posi- 
tion of  the  limbs,  the  shape,  character,  and  quality  of  the  hoofs,  the 
form,  length,  position,  and  wear  of  the  shoe,  the  number,  distribu- 
tion, and  direction  of  the  nails,  the  manner  in  which  the  hoof  leaves 
the  ground,  its  line  of  flight,  the  manner  in  which  it  is  set  to  the 
ground,  and  all  other  peculiarities,  that  at  the  next  and  subsequent 
shoeings  proper  allowances  may  be  made  and  observed  faults  corrected. 
The  animal  must,  therefore,  be  observed  both  at  rest  and  in  motion. 


676 


DISEASES    OF   THE   HORSE. 


At  rest,  the  observer  should  stand  in  front  and  note  the  slant  of  the 
long  pasterns.  Do  they  drop  perpendicularly,  or  slant  downward 
and  outward  (base-wide  foot),  or  downward  and  inward  (base-nar- 
row foot)  ?  Whatever  be  the  direction  to  the  long  pastern,  an  im- 
aginary line  passing  through  its  long  axis,  when  prolonged  to  the 
ground,  should  apparently  pass  through  the  middle  of  the  toe.  But 
if  such  line  cuts  through  the  inner  toe  the  foot-axis  is  not  straight,  as 
it  should  be,  but  is  broken  inward  at  the  coronet,  an  indication  that 
either  the  outer  wall  of  the  hoof  is  too  long  (high)  or  that  the  inner 
wall  is  too  short  (low) .  On  the  contrary,  if  the  center  line  of  the  long 
pastern  falls  through  the  outer  toe  the  foot-axis  is  broken  outward  at 
the  coronet,  an  indication  that  either  the  inner  wall  is  too  long  or  the 
outer  wall  too  short. 

The  observer  should  now  place  himself  at  one  side,  two  or  three 
paces  distant,  in  order  to  view  the  limb  and  hoof  in  profile.  Note  the 
size  of  the  hoof  in  relation  to  the  height  and  weight  of  the  animal, 


Fia.  6. — a.  Side  view  of  foot  with  the  foot-azis  broken  backward  as  a  result  of  too  long  a 
toe.  The  amount  of  horn  to  be  removed  from  the  toe  In  order  to  straighten  the  foot- 
axis  Is  denoted  by  a  dotted  line ;  6,  side  view  of  a  properly  balanced  foot,  with  a 
straight  foot-axis  of  desirable  slant ;  c,  side  view  of  stumpy  foot  with  foot-axis  broken 
forward,  as  a  result  of  overgrowth  of  the  quarters.  The  amount  of  horn  to  be  removed 
in  order  to  straighten  the  foot-axis  is  shown  by  a  dotted  line. 

and  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof.  Is  the  foot-axis  straight — that  is,  does 
the  long  pastern  have  the  same  slant  as  the  toe,  or  does  the  toe  of  the 
hoof  stand  steeper  than  the  long  pastern  (fig.  6<?)  ?  In  which  case 
the  foot-axis  is  broken  forward  at  the  coronet,  an  indication,  usually, 
that  the  quarters  are  either  too  high  or  that  the  toe  is  too  short. 

If  the  long  pastern  stands  steeper  than  the  toe  (fig.  Qn)  the  foot- 
axis  is  broken  backward,  in  which  case  the  toe  is  too  long  or  the  quar- 
ters are  too  low  (short).  In  figures  Ca  and  Gc  the  dotted  lines  passing 
from  toe  to  quarters  indicjite  the  amount  of  horn  which  must  be 
removed  in  order  to  straighten  the  foot-axis,  as  shown  in  figure  G6. 
Note  also  the  length  of  the  shoe. 

Next,  the  feet  should  be  raised  and  the  examiner  should  note  the 
outline  of  the  foot,  the  conformation  of  the  sole,  form  and  quality 
of  the  frog,  form  of  the  shoe,  wear  of  the  shoe,  and  the  number  and 


EXAMINATION   OF   HOOF   BEFORE   SHOEING.  577 

distribution  of  the  nails.  Does  the  shoe  fully  cover  the  entire  lower 
border  of  the  wall  ?  or  is  it  too  narrow,  or  fitted  so  full  on  the  inside 
that  it  has  given  rise  to  interfering?  or  has  the  shoe  been  nailed  on 
crooked  ?  or  has  it  become  loose  and  shifted  ?  is  it  too  short,  or  so  wide 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches  as  not  to  support  the  buttresses  of  the 
hoof?  Does  the  shoe  correspond  with  the  form  of  the  hoof?  Are 
the  nails  distributed  so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the 
expansion  of  the  quarters?  are  there  too  many?  are  they  too  large? 
driven  too  "  fine  "  or  too  high  ?  These  are  questions  which  the 
observer  should  put  to  himself. 

Note  carefully  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe.  It  is  the  unimpeachable 
evidence  of  the  manner  in  which  the  hoof  has  been  set  to  the  ground 
since  the  shoe  was  nailed  to  it,  and  gives  valuable  "  pointers  "  in  lev- 
eling the  hoof.  Wear  is  the  effect  of  friction  between  the  shoe  and  the 
ground  at  the  moment  of  contact.  Since  the  properly  leveled  hoof 
is  set  flat  to  the  ground,  the  "  grounding  wear  "  of  a  shoe  should  be 
uniform  at  every  point,  though  the  toe  will  always  show  wear  due 
to  scouring  at  the  moment  of  "  breaking  over."  Everything  which 
tends  to  lengthen  the  stride  tends  also  to  make  the  "  grounding  wear  " 
more  pronounced  in  the  heels  of  the  shoe,  while  all  causes  which 
shorten  the  stride — as  stiffening  of  the  limbs  through  age,  overwork, 
or  disease — bring  the  grounding  wear  nearer  the  toe. 

An  exception  should  be  noted,  however,  in  founder,  in  which  the 
grounding  wear  is  most  pronounced  at  the  heels. 

If  one  branch  of  the  shoe  is  found  to  be  worn  much  thinner  than 
the  other,  the  thinner  branch  has  either  been  set  too  near  the  middle 
line  of  the  foot  (fitted  too  close) ,  where  it  has  been  bearing  greater 
weight  while  rubbing  against  the  ground,  or,  what  is  much  more 
often  the  case,  the  section  of  wall  above  the  thinner  branch  has  been 
too  long  (too  high),  or  the  opposite  section  of  wall  has  been  too  short 
(too  low).  "  One-sided  wear,  uneven  setting  down  of  the  feet,  and  an 
unnatural  course  of  the  wall  are  often  found  together."  How  much 
an  old  shoe  can  tell  us,  if  we  take  time  and  pains  to  decipher  its  scars ! 

The  horse  should  next  be  observed  at  a  walk  and  at  a  trot  or  pace, 
from  in  front,  from  behind,  and  from  the  side,  and  the  "  breaking 
over,"  the  carriage  of  the  feet,  and  the  manner  of  setting  them  to  the 
ground  carefully  noted  and  remembered.  A  horse  does  not  always 
move  just  as  his  standing  position  would  seem  to  imply.  Often  there 
is  so  great  a  difference  in  the  form  and  slant  of  two  fore  hoofs  or  two 
hind  hoofs  that  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  their  normal  shape,  when  a  few 
steps  at  a  trot  will  usually  solve  the  problem  instantly  by  showing  us 
the  line  of  flight  of  the  hoofs  and  referring  them  to  the  regular,  base- 
wide,  or  base-narrow  form. 

No  man  is  competent  either  to  shoe  a  horse  or  to  direct  the  work 
till  he  has  made  the  precited  observations. 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 37 


578  DISEASES   OF   THE   HORSB. 

PREPARATION   OF   THE   HOOF   FOR  THE   SHOE. 

After  raising  the  clinches  of  the  nails  with  a  rather  dull  clinch- 
cutter  ("  buffer  ")  and  drawing  the  nails  one  at  a  time,  the  old  shoe  is 
critically  examined  and  laid  aside.  Kemaining  stubs  of  nails  are  then 
drawn  or  punched  out  and  the  hoof  freed  of  dirt  and  partially  de- 
tached horn.  The  farrier  has  now  to  "  dress  "  the  overgrown  hoof  to 
receive  the  new  shoe ;  in  other  words,  he  has  to  form  a  base  of  support 
so  inclined  to  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  that  in  motion  this  surface 
shall  be  set  flat  upon  the  ground.  He  must  not  rob  the  hoof  nor 
leave  too  much  horn;  either  rafistake  may  lead  to  injury.  If  he  has 
made  a  careful  preliminary  examination  he  knows  what  part  of  the 
wall  requires  removal  and  what  part  must  be  left,  for  he  already 
knows  the  direction  of  the  foot-axis  and  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe,  and 
has  made  up  his  mind  just  where  and  how  much  horn  must  be  re- 
moved to  leave  the  hoof  of  proper  length  and  the  foot-axis  straight. 

A  greatly  overgrown  hoof  may  be  quickly  shortened  with  sharp 
nippers,  and  the  sole  freed  of  semidetached  flakes  of  horn.  The  con- 
cave sole  of  a  thick-walled,  strong  hoof  may  be  pared  out  around  the 
point  of  the  frog,  but  not  so  much  as  to  remove  all  evidences  of  ex- 
foliation. The  wall  should  be  leveled  with  the  rasp  till  its  full 
thickness,  the  white  line,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  margin  of 
the  sole  are  in  one  horizontal  plane,  called  the  "  bearing  surface  of 
the  hoof."  The  bars  if  long  may  be  shortened,  but  never  pared  on  the 
side.  The  branches  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  between  the  bars  and  the 
wall  of  the  quarters  should  be  left  a  little  lower  than  the  wall,  so  as 
not  to  be  pressed  upon  by  the  inner  web  of  the  shoe.  "  Corns,"  or 
bruises  of  the  pododerm,  are  usually  a  result  of  leaving  a  thick  mass 
of  dry,  unyielding  horn  at  this  point.  The  frog  should  not  be 
touched  further  than  to  remove  tags  or  layers  that  are  so  loose  as  to 
form  no  protection.  A  soft  frog  will  shorten  itself  spontaneously 
by  the  exfoliation  of  superficial  layers  of  horn,  while  if  the  frog  is 
dry,  hard,  and  too  prominent  it  is  better  to  soften  it  by  applying 
moisture  in  some  form,  and  to  allow  it  to  wear  away  naturally  than 
to  pare  it  down.  It  is  of  advantage  to  have  the  frog  project  below 
the  level  of  the  wall  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a  plain 
shoe,  though  we  rarely  see  frogs  of  such  size  except  in  draft  horses. 
The  sharp  lower  border  of  the  wall  should  be  rounded  with  the  rasp 
to  prevent  its  being  bent  outward  and  broken  away.  Finally,  the 
foot  is  set  to  the  ground  and  again  observed  from  all  sides  to  make 
sure  that  the  lines  bounding  the  hoof  correspond  with  the  direction 
of  the  long  pastern. 

THE   SHOE. 

The  shoe  is  an  artificial  base  of  support,  by  no  means  ideal,  because 
it  interferes  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  the  physiology  of  the 


THE   SHOE.  579 

foot,  but  indispensable  except  for  horses  at  slow  work  on  soft  ground. 
Since  a  proper  surface  of  support  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
preserving  the  health  of  the  feet  and  legs,  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
the  various  forms  of  shoes  best  adapted  to  the  different  forms  of 
hoofs.  Certain  properties  are  common  to  all  shoes  and  may  be  con- 
sidered first.  They  are  form,  width,  thickness,  length,  surfaces,  bor- 
ders, "  fullering,"  nail  holes,  and  clips. 

Form. — Every  shoe  should  have  the  form  of  the  hoof  for  which  it 
is  intended,  provided  the  hoof  retains  its  proper  shape ;  but  for  every 
hoof  that  has  undergone  change  of  form  we  must  endeavor  to  give  the 
shoe  that  form  which  the  hoof  originally  possessed.  Front  shoes  and 
hind  shoes,  rights  and  lefts,  should  be  distinctly  different  and  easily 
distinguishable. 

Width. — All  shoes  should  be  wider  at  the  toe  than  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches.  The  average  width  should  be  about  double  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  at  the  toe. 

Thickness. — The  thickness  should  be  sufficient  to  make  the  shoe  last 
about  four  weeks  and  should  be  uniform  except  in  special  cases. 

Length. — This  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof  viewed  in 
profile.  The  acute-angled  hoof  (fig.  5a)  has  long  overhanging  heels, 
and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  weight  borne  by  the  leg  falls  in 
the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof.  For  such  a  hoof  the  branches  of  the 
shoe  should  extend  back  of  the  buttresses  to  a  distance  nearly  double 
the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  For  a  hoof  of  the  regular  form  (figs.  5& 
and  8)  the  branches  should  project  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  shoe.  In  a  stumpy  hoof  (fig.  5c)  the  shoe  need  not  project 
more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  In  all  cases  the  shoe  should  cover 
the  entire  "  bearing  surface  "  of  the  wall. 

Surfaces. — The  surface  that  is  turned  toward  the  hoof  is  known  as 
the  "  upper,"  or  "  hoof  surface,"  of  the  shoe.  That  part  of  the  hoof 
surface  which  is  in  actual  contact  with  the  horn  is  called  the  "  bearing 
surface  "  of  the  shoe.  The  "  bearing  surface  "  should  be  perfectly 
horizontal  from  side  to  side,  and  wide  enough  to  support  the  full 
thickness  of  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of 
the  margin  of  the  sole.  The  bearing  surface  should  also  be  perfectly 
flat,  except  that  it  may  be  turned  up  at  the  toe  ("  rolling-motion  " 
shoe,  fig.  5  a,  2>,  c).  The  surface  between  the  bearing  surface  and  the 
inner  edge  of  the  shoe  is  often  beaten  down  or  concaved  to  prevent 
pressure  too  far  inward  upon  the  sole.  This  "  concaving,"  or  "  seat- 
ing," should  be  deeper  or  shallower  as  the  homy  sole  is  less  or  more 
concave.  As  a  rule,  strongly  "cupped"  soles, require  no  concaving 
(hind  hoofs,  narrow  fore  hoofs) . 

Borders. — The  entire  outer  border  should  be  beveled  under  the 
foot.  Such  a  shoe  is  not  so  readily  loosened,  nor  is  it  so  apt  to  lead  to 
interfering. 


580 


DISEASES    OP   THE   HORSE. 


Fullering. — This  is  a  groove  in  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe.  It 
should  pass  through  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  be  clean, 
and  of  uniform  width.  It  is  of  advantage  in  that  it  makes  the  shoe 
lighter  in  proportion  to  its  width,  and,  by  making  the  ground  surface 
somewhat  rough,  tends  to  prevent  slipping. 

Nail  holes. — The  shoe  must  be  so  "  punched  "  that  the  nail  holes  will 
fall  directly  on  the  white  line.  They  should  be  confined  to  the  fore 
half  of  front  shoes,  but  may  occupy  the  anterior  two-thirds  of  hind 
shoes.  For  a  medium-weight  shoe  three  nail  holes  in  each  branch  are 
sufficient,  but  for  heavier  shoes,  especially  those  provided  with  long 
calks,  eight  holes  are  about  right,  though  three  on  the  inside  and  four 
on  the  outside  may  do. 

Clips. — These  are  half -circu- 
lar ears  drawn  up  from  the 
outer  edge  of  the  shoe  either  at 
the  toe  or  opposite  the  side  wall. 
The  height  of  a  clip  should 
equal  the  thickness  of  the  shoe, 
though  they  should  be  even 
higher  on  hind  shoes  and  when  a 
leather  sole  is  interposed  be- 
tween shoe  and  hoof.  Clips  se- 
cure the  shoe  against  shifting. 
A  side  clip  should  always  be 
drawn  up  on  that  branch  of  the 
shoe  that  first  meets  the  ground 
in  locomotion. 

SPBCIAL      PECULIARITIES      OF      THE 
CHIEF    CLASSES    OF    SHOES. 


(1)  A  shoe  for  a  regular  hoof 
(figs.    7    and    8)    fits   when    its 


Fio.  7.— Left  fore  hoof  of  regular  form,  shod  with 
a  plain  "fullered"  shoe.    Note  the  distribution 

of  the  nails,  length  of  the  fuller  (crease),  and  ,  %        3  &  ^^  •■>  n 

the  closeness  of  the  ends  of   the  shoe  to  the    OUtcr     border     loUowS     the     Wall 

branches  of  the  frog.  closely  in  the  region  of  the  nail 

holes  and  from  the  last  nail  to  the  end  of  the  branch  gradually  pro- 
jects beyond  the  surface  of  the  wall  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  and 
extends  back  of  the  buttresses  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of 
the  shoe.  The  shoe  must  be  straight,  firm,  air-tight,  its  nail  holes 
directly  over  the  white  line,  and  its  branches  far  enough  from  the 
branches  of  the  frog  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  foot  pick.  Branches 
of  the  shoe  must  be  of  equal  length. 

In  fitting  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  of  regular  form  we  follow  the  form  of 
the  hoof,  but  in  base-wide  and  base-narrow  hoofs,  which  are  of 
irregular  form,  we  must  pay  attention  not  only  to  the  form  of  the 
hoof,  but  also  to  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  and  the  consequent 


THE   SHOE.  581 

distribution  of  weight  in  the  hoof,  because  where  the  most  weight 
falls  the  surface  of  support  of  the  foot  must  be  widened,  and  where 
the  least  weight  falls  (opposite  side  of  the  hoof)  the  surface  of  sup- 
port should  be  narrowed.  In  this  way  the  improper  distribution  of 
weight  within  the  hoof  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  of 
support. 

(2)  A  shoe  for  a  hase-wide  hoof  should  be  fitted  full  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  foot  and  fitted  close  on  the  outer  side,  because  the  inner 
side  bears  the  most  weight.  The  nails  in  the  outer  branch  are 
placed  well  back,  but  in  the  inner  branch  are  crowded  forward 
toward  the  toe. 

(3)  J.  shoe  for  a  hase-narrow  hoof  should  be  just  the  reverse  of  the 
preceding.  The  outer  branch  should  be  somewhat  longer  than  the 
inner. 

(4)  A  shoe  for  an  acute-angled  hoof  should  be  long  in  the  branches, 
because  most  of  the  weight  falls  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot. 
The  support  in  front  should  be  diminished  either  by  turning  the  shoe 
up  at  the  toe  or  by  beveling  it  under  the  toe  (fig.  5a). 


Fig.  8. — Side  view  of  hoof  and  shoe  shown  In  fig.  7.  Note  the  straight  toe,  weak  ring 
formation  running  parallel  to  the  coronet,  clinches,  low  down  and  on  a  level,  length  of 
the  shoe,  and  the  under -bevel  at  the  toe  and  heel. 

(5)  A  shoe  for  a  stumpy  hoof  should  be  short  in  the  branches,  and 
for  pronounced  cases  should  increase  the  support  of  the  toe,  where 
the  most  of  the  weight  falls,  by  being  beveled  downward  and  forward. 

In  many  cases,  especially  in  draft  horses  where  the  hoofs  stand 
very  close  together,  the  coronet  of  the  outer  quarter  is  found  to  stand 
out  beyond  the  lower  border  of  the  quarter.  In  such  cases  the  outer 
branch  of  the  shoe  from  the  last  nail  back  must  be  fitted  so  full  that 
an  imaginary  perpendicular  dropped  from  the  coronet  will  just  meet 
the  outer  border  of  the  shoe.  The  inner  branch,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  be  fitted  as  "  close  "  as  possible.  The  principal  thought  should 
be  to  set  the  new  shoe  farther  toward  the  more  strongly  worn  side. 
Such  a  practice  will  render  unnecessary  the  widespread  and  popular 
fad  of  giving  the  outer  quarter  and  heel  calk  of  hind  shoes  an  extreme 


582  DISEASES   OP   THE   HOBSE. 

outward  bend.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  that  in  fitting  the 
shoe  "  full  "  at  the  quarter  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  at  the 
quarter  be  not  left  unsupported  or  incompletely  covered,  to  be 
pinched  and  squeezed  inward  against  the  frog.  This  will  be  obviated 
by  making  the  outer  branch  of  the  shoe  suflficiently  wide  and  punch- 
ing it  so  coarse  that  the  nails  will  fall  upon  the  white  line. 

HOT   FITTING. 

Few  farriers  have  either  the  time  or  the  skill  necessary  to  so  adjust 
a  cold  shoe  to  the  hoof  that  it  will  fit,  as  we  say, "  air-tight."  Though 
the  opponents  of  hot  fitting  draw  a  lurid  picture  of  the  direful  con- 
sequences of  applying  a  hot  shoe  to  the  hoof,  it  is  only  the  abuse  of 
the  practice  that  is  to  be  condemned.  If  a  heavy  shoe  at  a  .yellow 
heat  be  held  tightly  pressed  against  a  hoof  which  has  been  pared  too 
thin,  till  it  embeds  itself,  serious  damage  may  be  done.  But'  a  shoe  at 
a  dark  heat  may  be  pressed  against  a  properly  dressed  hoof  long 
enough  to  scorch,  and  thus  indicate  to  the  farrier  the  portions  of  horn 
that  should  be  lowered,  without  appreciable  injury  to  the  hoof,  and 
to  the  ultimate  benefit  of  the  animal. 

The  horse  owner  should  insist  on  the  nails  being  driven  low.  They 
should  pierce  the  wall  not  above  an  inch  and  five-eighths  above  the 
shoe.  A  nail  penetrating  the  white  line  and  emerging  low  on  the 
wall  destroys  the  least  possible  amount  of  horn,  has  a  wide  and 
strong  clinch,  rather  than  a  narrow  one,  which  would  be  formed  near 
the  point  of  the  nail,  and,  furthermore,  has  the  strongest  possible 
hold  on  the  wall,  because  its  clinch  is  pulling  more  nearly  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  grain  (horn  tubes)  of  the  wall  than  if  driven  high. 
Finally,  do  not  allow  the  rasp  to  touch  the  wall  above  the  clinches. 

THE   BAR   SHOE. 

The  bar  shoe  (fig.  9)  has  a  variety  of  uses.  It  enables  us  to  give 
the  frog  pressure,  to  restore  it  to  its  original  state  of  activity  and 
development  when  by  reason  of  disuse  it  has  become  atrophied.  It 
gives  the  hoof  an  increased  surface  of  support  and  enables  us  to  re- 
lieve one  or  both  quarters  of  undue  pressure  that  may  have  induced 
inflammation  and  soreness.  The  bar  of  the  shoe  should  equal  the 
average  width  of  the  remainder  of  the  shoe  and  should  press  but 
lightly  on  the  branches  of  the  frog.  The  addition  of  a  leather  sole 
with  tar  and  oakum  sole-packing  allows  us  to  distribute  the  weight 
of  the  body  over  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the  hoof. 

THE   RUBBER    PAD. 

Various  forms  of  rubber  pads,  rubber  shoes,  rope  shoes,  fiber  shoes, 
and  other  contrivances  to  diminish  shock  and  prevent  slipping  on  the 
hard  and  slippery  pavements  of  our  large  cities  are  in  use  in  diflfer- 


ET7BBEB   PADS   FOE   SHOES.  583 

ent  parts  of  the  world.     In  Germany  the  rope  shoe  (a  malleable-iron 
shoe  with  a  groove  in  its  ground  surface  in  which  lies  a  piece  of  tarred 


Fig.  9. — An  acute-angled  left  fore  hoof  shod  with  a  bar  shoe.  Note  the  width  and  posi- 
tion of  the  bar  and  the  fact  that  the  nails  are  placed  well  toward  the  toe,  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  expansion  of  the  quarters. 

rope)  is  extensively  used  with  most  gratifying  results.    It  is  cheap, 
durable,  easily  applied,  and  effective. 


Fig.  10.— a  fairly  formed  right  fore  ice  shoe  for  a  roadster.  The  toe  and  outer  heel  calks  cut  at  right 
angles,  and  the  inner-heel  callt  Is  slender  and  blunt.  The  back  surface  of  the  toe  calk  should  be 
perpendicular. 

In  the  large  cities  of  England  and  the  United  States  rubber  pads 
are  extensively  used.  They  are  rather  expensive,  but  are  quite  effi- 
cient in  preventing  slipping  on  polished  and  gummy  pavements, 


584 


DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 


though  not  SO  effective  on  ice. 
the  best  of  many  rubber  pads. 


Figure  11  is  an  illustration  of  one  of 
The  rubber  is  stitched  and  cemented 
to  a  leather  sole  and  is  secured  by 
the  nails  of  a  three-quarter  shoe. 
Such  a  pad  will  usually  last  as 
long  as  two  shoes.  They  may  be 
used  continuously,  not  only  with- 
out injury  to  the  hoof,  but  to  its 


Fig.  11.— Left  fore  hoof  of  regular  form  shod  with  a 
rubber  pad  and  "  three-quarter  "  shoe.  (Ground 
surface.) 

great  benefit.  The  belief,  imsup- 
ported  by  evidence,  that  rubber 
pads  "  draw  the  feet "  keeps  many 
from  using  them.  A  human  foot 
encased  in  a  rubber  boot  may  even- 
tually be  blistered  by  the  sweat 
poured  upon  the  surface  of  the 
skin  and  held  there  by  the  imper- 
vious rubber  till  decomposition 
takes  place  with  the  formation  of 
irritating  fatty  acids;  but  there  is 
no  basis  for  an  analogy  in  the  hoof 
of  a  horse. 

Some  drawings,  designed  to  illustrate  shoeing  in  connection  with 
"  interfering  "  and  "  forging,"  are  given  herewith. 


Fio.  12.— A  narrow  right  fore  hoof  of  the  base- 
wide  (toe-wide)  standing  position,  shod  with  a 
plain  "dropped-crease  "  shoe  to  prevent  the  toe- 
cutting  (interfering).  The  dotted  line  at  the 
inner  toe  Indicates  the  edge  of  the  wall  which 
was  rasped  away  in  order  to  narrow  the  hoof 
along  the  striking  section.  Note  the  inward 
bevel  of  the  shoe  at  this  point,  the  dropped 
crease,  the  distribution  of  the  nails,  the  long 
"full"  Inner  branch,  and  the  short  "cloae" 
outer  branch. 


SPECIAL.   SHOES. 


585 


Fta.  13. — Hoof  surface  of  a  right  hind  shoe  to  prevent  Interfering.  The  inner  hranch  has 
no  nail  holes  and  Is  fitted  and  beveled  under  the  hoof.  Note  the  number  and  position 
of  the  nail  holes,  the  clip  on  the  outer  side  wall,  and  the  narrowness  and  bend  of  the 
inner  branch. 


Fio.  14. — Ground  surface  of  shoe  shown  In  the  previous  figure.  The  inner  nailless  branch 
has  the  thickness  of  the  outer  branch  plus  its  calli,  so  that  the  inner  and  outer  quarters 
of  the  hoof  are  equidistant  from  the  ground. 


586 


DISEASES   OF   THE   HOBSE. 


FiQ.  15. — Side  view  of  a  fore  hoof  shod  so  as  to  quicken  the  "  breaking  over  "  (quicken 
the  action)  In  a  "  forger."  Note  the  short  shoe,  heel  calks  inclined  forward,  and  the 
rolled  toe. 


Fio.  16. — Side  view  of  a  short-toed  hind  hoof  of  a  forger,  shod  to  slow  the  action  and  to 
prevent  Injury  to  the  fore  heels  by  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe.  Note  the  elevation  of  the 
short  toe  by  means  of  a  toe  calk  and  the  projection  of  the  toe  beyond  the  shoe.  When 
auch  a  hoof  has  grown  more  toe,  the  toe  calk  can  be  dispensed  with  and  the  shoe  set 
farther  forward. 


SPECIAL    SHOES. 


587 


Fio.  17. — A  toe-weight  shoe  to  increase  the  length  of  stride  of  fore  feet.  The  nails  are 
placed  too  far  back,  and  the  shoe  has  no  characteristic  form,  but  the  weight  Is  properly 
placed. 


Fio.  18. — Most  common  form  of  punched  heel-weight  shoe  to  induce  high  action  in  fore 
feet.  The  profile  of  the  shoe  shows  a  "  roll  "  at  the  toe  and  "  swelled  "  heels.  The 
weight  is  well  placed,  but  "rolling"  the  toe  and  raising  the  heel's  lower  action.  The 
shoe  would  be  much  more  effectiye  If  of  uniform  thicliness  and  with  no  roll  at  the  toe. 


IJSTDEX. 

Abdomen —  Pa^e. 

dropsy,  in  foal,  or  ascites,  description  and  treatment 172 

dropsy,  or  ascites,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 71 

limbs,  and  perineum,  dropsy  affecting,  description  and  treatment 159 

sheath,  and  penis,  swelling,  cause  and  treatment 149 

Abnormal  presentations  at  birth 176-181 

Abortion,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 161 

Abscess — 

and  inflammation  of  lymphatic  glands,  description,  symptoms,  and  treat- 
ment   249 

in  lung  and  suppuration,  symptoms 135 

Abscesses — 

acute,  description  and  treatment 475 

cold,  description  and  treatment  ., 476 

description 474 

in  throat,  treatment ; 46 

Acariasis,  or  mange,  note 450 

Acari,  parasites  of  eye 273 

Achorion  schonleini,  vegetable  parasite  of  skin,  description. 450 

Adams,  John  W.,  chapter  on  "Shoeing" 665-587 

Air  embolism,  or  air  in  veins,  note 247 

Albuminoid  poisoning,  hemoglobinuria,  azoturia,  or  azotemia,  symptoms,  pre- 
vention, and  treatment .* 82 

Amaurosis,  or  palsy  of  nerve  of  sight,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 210,  272 

Amnion,  dropsy,  description  and  treatment 159 

Anasarca,  or  purpura  hemorrhagica,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 508, 510 

Anatomy  and  physiology  of  brain  and  nervous  system 190 

Anemia — 

spinal,  symptoms  and  treatment '. 214 

of  brain,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  and  treatment 203 

Aneurism — 

description,  symptoms,  pathology,  and  treatment 242 

one  form  caused  by  Strongylus  vulgaris '. 243 

Anidian  monsters,  or  moles,  description 158 

Animal  parasites,  description  of  kinds 450 

Ankle — 

and  fetlock,  skin,  note 371 

fetlock,  and  foot,  diseases,  chapter  by  A.  A.  Holcombe 369, 430 

Ankles,  cocked,  or  knuckling,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 374 

Anthrax,  definition,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 529-532 

Apoplexy,  or  cerebral  hemorrhage,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  and  treat- 
ment   200 

Arteries — 

description 227 

diseases,  or  arteritis,  and  endarteritis,  description,  symptoms,  pathology, 

and  treatment 240 

589 


590  INDEX. 

Page. 
Arteritis,  or  diseases  of  arteries,  or  endarteritis,  description,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 240 

Artery — 

constriction,  description 244 

rupture,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 242 

Arthritis,  open  joints,  broken  knees,  and  synovitis,  cause  and  treatment 332 

Ascaris  equorum,  intestinal  worm,  note 60 

Ascites,  or  dropsy  of  abdomen,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 71,172 

Asthma,  heaves,  or  broken  wind,  definition,  symptoms,  and  treatment 137 

Atheroma  of  veins  and  arteries,  description 242 

Autumn  mange,  description  and  treatment 452 

Azotemia,  hemoglobinuria,  azoturia,  poisoning  by  albuminoids,  symptoms, 

prevention,  and  treatment 82 

Azoturia,  hemoglobinuria,  azotemia,  poisoning  by  albuminoids,  symptoms, 

prevention,  and  treatment , 82 

Balls,  or  pills,  description  and  manner  of  administering 28 

Bar  shoe,  uses 575 

Bees,  wasps,  and  hornets,  stings,  treatment .,  464 

Beets  as  feed 41 

Bighead  (osteoporosis) — 

chapter  by  John  R.  Mohler .* 559-664 

symptoms,  lesions,  and  treatment 663 

Biliary  calculi,  or  gallstones,  symptoms  and  treatment. 74 

Bilocular  cavity,  or  calculus  in  sheath,  or  preputial  calculus,  description  and 

treatment 103 

Birth,  abnormal  presentations  at 176-181 

Black  pigment  tumors,  or  melanosis,  description  and  treatment 449 

Bladder- 
calculus,  or  stone,  ^d  tnmor  affecting 169 

diseased  growths,  symptoms  and  treatment 92 

eversion,  description  and  treatment 93 

inflammation,  cystitis,  or  urocystitis,  symptoms  and  treatment 90 

irritable,  cause  and  treatment 91 

neck,  spasms  affecting,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 87, 205 

paralysis,  description  and  cause 210 

paralysis,  symptoms  and  treatment 89 

stone,  vesical   calculus,  or   cystic   calculus,  description,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 100 

worms  of  kidney 87 

Bleeding — 

after  castration,  treatment 149 

from  lungs,  or  hemoptysis,  causes,  description,  and  treatment 136 

from  nose,  causes  and  treatment 112 

or  flooding  from  womb,  treatment 184 

skin  eruptions,  or  Dermatorrhagia  parasitica,  description  and  treatment 441 

Blisters,  inflammation,  or  eczema,  description  and  treatment 437 

Bloat  colic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

Blood- 
circulation  of  heart,  description 228 

clots  in  walls  of  vagina 187 

medicines  administered  into  veins 33 

of  penis,  extravasation,  causes  and  treatment 145 

spavin,  bog  spavin,  and  thoroughpin,  description  and  treatment 331 


•IWDEX.  591 

Blood  vessels —  Page. 

and  heart,  diseases,  remarks .^ '.. 228 

.  heart,  and  lymphatics,  diseases,  chapter  by  M.  R.  Trumbower 225-250 

physiology  and  anatomy 225 

Bloody  urine,  or  hematuria,  cause  and  treatment 82 

Blowing,  high,  description 119 

Bluebottle  (Lucilia  csesar),  note 453 

Bog  spavin,  blood  spavin,  and  thoroughpin,  description  and  treatment. 331 

Boil  of  eyelid,  description  and  treatment 259 

Boila— 

or  Dermatiiis  granulosa 442 

or  furuncles,  description  and  treatment 439 

Bone — 

hip,  fracture,  or  os  innominatum,  description,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and 

treatment 317 

premaxillary ,  fractures,  description  and  treatment 312 

spavin,     (^e  Spavin.) 
Bones — 

cannon,  fractures,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 325 

cranial,  fractures,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 310 

diseases,  description 284 

dislocations  and  luxations,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 336 

of  face,  fractures,  description,  and  treatment 311 

of  fetlock  and  foot,  description , 369 

of  hip,  fractures,  causes 167 

one  system  of  locomotion 275, 277 

sesamoid,  fractures,  cause,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 328 

Botfly,  treatment 61 

Bowels,  twisting,  volvulus,  or  gut- tie,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 56 

Brain — 

and  membranes,  inflammation,  description 192, 193 

and  nervous  system,  anatomy  and  physiology 190 

anemia,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  and  treatment 203 

compression,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 201 

concussion,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  and  prevention 202 

congestion,  or  megrims,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  and 

prevention 197 

description 191 

dropsy,  or  hydrocephalus,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 203 

Bran,  value  as  feed 40 

Broken  knee,  open  joints,  synovitis,  and  arthritis,  cause,  prognosis,  and  treat- 
ment   332 

Broken  wind,  heaves,  or  asthma,  definition,  symptoms,  and  treatment 137 

Bronchitis — 

and  broncho-pneumonia,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 129 

chronic,  description  and  treatment 119 

Broncho-pleuro-pneumonia,  description 135 

Broncho-pneumonia  and  bronchitis,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment...  129 

Bruise  of  frog,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 399 

Bruises,  description  and  treatment 464 

Burns  and  scalds,  treatment 455, 471 

Calculi — 

biliary,  or  gallstones,  symptoms  and  treatment 74 

or  stones,  in  intestines,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 55 


592  INDEX. 

Calculi — Ck)ntinued.  Page.  ' 

or  stones,  in  stomach,  symptoms  and  treatment 64 

renal,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 98 

uretral,  description  and  treatment 99 

urinary,  classification 98 

urinary,  stone,  or  gravel 94, 97 

Calculus — 

in  sheath,  or  bilocular  cavity,  or  preputial  calculus,  description  and  treat- 
ment   103 

or  stone,  and  tumor  in  bladder 169 

urethral,  or  stone  in  urethra,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 102 

vesical,  stone  in  bladder,  or  cystic  calculus,  description,  symptoms  and 

treatment 100 

Calk  wounds,  description  and  treatment 379 

Callosities — 

description 448 

sloughing,  horny  sloughs,  or  sitfasts,  description  and  treatment 448,470 

Cancer,  epithelial,  or  epithelioma,  description  and  treatment 449 

Canker — 

of  foot,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 392 

or  grease   (inflammation  of  heels  with  sebaceous  secretion),  description, 

causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 444 

Cannon  bone — 

description 369 

fractures,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 325 

Capj)ed  elbow,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 354 

Capped  hock,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 359 

Capped  knee,  description,  cause,  treatment,  etc 357 

Cardiac  enlargement,  or  hypertrophy  of  heart,  description,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 237 

Caries  of  cartilage,  or  tumor  of  haw,  description  and  treatment 261 

Carrots,  value  as  feed ' 41 

Cartilaginous  quittor,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 389 

Cartilago  nictitans,  or  winking  cartilage  (the  haw),  description 253 

Castration — 

bleeding  after  operation,  treatment 149 

by  covere<i  operation,  method 151 

of  cryptorchids,  or  ridglings,  method 148 

of  mare,  method 151 

of  stallions,  methods 147 

pain  after  operation,  treatment 149 

successful  method 148 

Cataract,  remarks 272 

Catarrh- 
chronic,  nasal  gleet,  or  collection  in  sinuses,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treat- 
ment   108 

gastro-intestinal,  or  indigestion,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 61 

nasal,  or  cold  in  head,  symptoms  and  treatment 107 

Cerebral  hemorrhage,  or  apoplexy,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 200 

Cerebritis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 193 

Cerebro-spinal   meningitis,  so-called,  or  forage  poisoning,  causes,  symptoms, 

and  treatment 217 

Cervical  choke,  description 47, 48 

Chaff  for  feedmg 39 


INDEX.  598 

Page. 
Chaps  on  knee  and  hock,  scratches,  or  cracked  heels,  description,  canses,  and 

treatment 443 

Chest  walls,  wounds  penetrating,  description  and  treatment 140 

Cheyletua,  or  Gamarus  pteroptaides,  animal  parasites 452 

Chicken  acari,  or  Dermanyssus  gcUlinse,  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

Chigoe,  or  jigger — 

larvae  of  Trombidium,  Leptxis  americanus,  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

{Pulex  penetrans),  bite,  treatment 454 

Choke- 
cervical,  description 47, 48 

pharyngeal,  cervical,  and  thoracic,  symptoms  and  treatment 47 

Chorea,  or  St.  Vitus  dance,  description  and  treatment 207 

Chorioptes — 

bovis  {Symbiotes  equi,  Dermatophagus  equi),  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

spathiferus,  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

Choroiditis,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 265 

Chronic  bronchitis,  description  and  treatment 119 

Circinate  ringworm,  or  Tinea  tonsurans,  description,  symptoms,  treatment 449 

Circulation  organs,  methods  of  examination 15 

Clubfoot,  description 372 

Clysters,  or  enemas,  description  and  manner  of  administering 32 

Cocked  ankles,  or  knuckling,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 374 

Coffinbone,  description 370 

Coffin  joint,  description 370 

Cold  in  head,  or  nasal  catarrh,  symptoms  and  treatment 107 

Colic- 
bloat,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

cramp,  or  spasmodic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 58 

flatulent,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

obstruction,  caused  by  impaction  of  large  intestine,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment    52 

specific  forms 50 

wind,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

worm,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 59 

tympanitic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

Compression  of  brain,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 201 

Concussion — 

of  brain,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 202 

spinal,  causes  and  treatment 215 

Conformation — 

of  foot,  faults 372 

of  horse 12 

Congenital  scrotal  hernia,  description  and  treatment 67 

Congestion — 

active,  causes 485 

and  inflammation  of  skin,  description  of  kinds 434 

and  inflammation  of  testicles,  or  orchitis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treat- 
ment    142 

description 484 

of  brain,  or  megrims,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 197 

of  heart,  description  and  symptoms 240 

of  lungs,  description  and  treatment 120 

of  skin,  red  efiiorescence,  or  erythema,  description  and  treatment 434 

of  skin,  with  small  pimples,  or  papules,  description  and  treatment 436 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 38 


594  INDEX. 

Congestion — Continued.  Page. 

of  spine,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 213 

passive,  causes 486 

Conjunctivitis,  or  external  ophthalmia,  description,  causes,   symptoms,  and 

treatment 262 

Constipation,  or  costiveness,  cause  and  treatment 54, 160 

Constitution  of  horse  . 12 

Consumption,  or  tuberculosis,  note 136 

Convulsions,  description  and  treatment 206 

Cord- 
spermatic,  strangulated,  cause  and  treatment 149 

spermatic,  tumors,  causes  and  treatment 150 

spinal,  description 192 

Cornea — 

ulcers,  treatment 265 

white  specks  and  cloudiness,  cause  and  treatment 265 

Com,  or  maize,  how  to  feed 40 

Corns,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 394 

Coronary  band,  description 371 

Coronet — 

description 370 

fractures,  symptoms  and  treatment 327 

Costiveness,  or  constipation,  cause  and  treatment 54, 160 

Cough,  chronic,  description 139 

Cracked  heels,  or  scratches,  causes,  and  treatment 443 

Cramp — 

of  hind  limb,  or  spasm  of  thigh,  description  and  treatment 205 

or  spasmodic,  colic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 58 

Cramps — 

of  hind  limbs,  cause  and  treatment 160 

or  spasms,  causes  and  treatment 205 

Cranial  bones,  fractures,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 310 

Cranium,  tumor  within,  description  of  kinds 204 

Crookedfoot,  description 373 

Croup  and  diphtheria,  mistakes  in  diagnosis 117 

Cryptorchids,  or  ridglings,  castration,  method 148 

Curb  of  hock,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 349 

Cutaneous  quittor,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 381 

Cuticle,  description 432 

Cyanosis  of  newborn  foals,  description 240 

Cystic  calculus,  or  stone  in  bladder,  description,  symptoms  and  treatment 100 

Cystic  disease  of  wall  of  womb,  or  vesicular  mole,  description  and  treatment. .  158 
Cygticercut  fittttlarit — 

parasite  of  bladder 87 

?  parasite  of  eye 273 

Cystitis,  inflammation  of  bladder,  or  urocystitis,  symptoms  and  treatment 90 

Dermanysgus  gaUinse,  or  chicken  acari,  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

Dermatitis  gramdota,  or  boils '. 442 

Dermaiocoptes  equi,  animal  parasite  of  skm 452 

Dermatodedes  equi,  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

Dermatophagus  equi,  animal  parasite  of  skin ^...  452 

Dermalorrhagia  parasitica,  or  bleeding  skin  eruptions,  description  and  treatment.  441 

Dermis,  or  true  skin,  description 432 


INDEX.  595 

Diabetes —  Page, 
insipidus,  diuresis,  polyuria,  or  excessive  secretion  of  urine,  causes,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment 79 

mellitus,  saccharine  diabetes,  glycosuria,  or  inosuria,  causes,  symptoms, 

and  treatment 80 

Diaphragmatic  hernia,  description 70 

Diaphragm — 

rupture,  cause  and  symptoms 141 

spasm,  or  thumps,  description  and  treatment 141, 205 

Diarrhea,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 62 

Digestive  organs,  diseases,  chapter  by  Ch.  B.  Michener 34-74 

Digestive  tract,  examination 21 

Dilatation — 

of  heart,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 239 

of  veins,  varicose  veins,  or  varix,  causes  and  treatment 247 

Dioctophyme  renale,  roundworm  of  kidney 87 

Diphtheria  and  croup,  mistakes  In  diagnosis 117 

Diseases,  general,  chapter  by  Rush  Shippen  Huidekoper 482-645 

Dislocations  and  luxations  of  bones,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 336 

Distemper.     (See  Strangles. ) 

Diuresis,  polyuria,  diabetes  insipidus,  or  excessive  secretion  of  urine,  causes, 

symptoms,  and  treatment 79 

Douche,  nasal,  in  administering  medicines 31 

Dourine,  or  maladie  du  coi't,  description  and  treatment 146 

Drench,  methods. 29 

Dropsies,  synovial,  remarks '. 330 

Dropsy — 

general,  of  fetus,  description  and  treatment 173 

of  abdomen  in  foal,  or  ascites,  description  and  treatment. 172 

of  abdomen,  or  ascites,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 71 

of  amnion,  description  and  treatment 159 

of  brain,  or  hydrocephalus,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 203 

of  limbs,  perineum,  and  abdomen,  description  and  treatment 159 

of  scrotum,  or  hydrocele,  symptoms  and  treatment 144 

of  womb,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 158 

Dysentery,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 64 

Echinococcus — 

parasite  of  eye 273 

parasite  of  kidney 87 

Ectropion  and  entropion,  or  eversion  and  inversion  of  eyelid,  causes  and 

treatment 259 

Eczema,  or  inflammation  with  blisters,  description  and  treatment 437 

Edematous  pneumonia,  definition,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 520-524 

Elbow — 

capped,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 354 

muscles,  sprain,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 343 

Electric  shock,  causes,  description,  and  treatment 224 

Electuries,  or  pastes,  description  and  manner  of  administering 29 

Embolism — 

air,  or  air  in  veins,  note 247 

and  thrombus,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 244 

Embryotomy  of  parts  at  abnormal  births 182 

Emphysema,  or  swelling  of  fetus  with  gas,  description  and  treatment 173 

Encephalitis,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 193 

Endarteritis,  and  arteritis,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 240 


596  INDEX. 

Endocarditis,  or  inflammation  of  lining  membrane  of  heart,  cause,  symptoms, 

and  treatment 229 

Enemas,  or  clysters,  description  and  manner  of  administering 32 

Engorgement  colic,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 50 

Enteritis,  definition 50 

Entropion  and  ectropion,  or  inversion  and  eversion  of  eyelid,  causes  and 

treatment 259 

Epilepsy,  or  falling  fits,  symptoms  and  treatment 207 

Epithelial  cancer,  or  epithelioma,  description  and  treatment 449 

Epithelioma — 

degeneration  of  penis,  or  papillioraa 146 

or  epithelial  cancer,  description  and  treatment 449 

Equine  variola,  or  horsepox,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 524-529 

Eruptions,  bleeding  skin,  or  Dermatorrhagia  parasitica,  description  and  treat- 
ment    441 

Erysipelas,  description,  cause,  and  treatment .' 446 

Erythema,  congestion  of  skin,  or  red  effloresence,  description  and  treatment.  434 
Esophagus — 

dilatation,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 49 

or  gullet,  treatment  for  foreign  bodies 46 

stricture,  description  and  treatment 49 

Eversion — 

and  inversion  of  eyelid,  or  ectropion  and  entropion,  causes  and  treatment.  259 

of  bladder,  description  and  treatment 93 

or  womb  after  difficult  parturition,  treatment 185 

Exostosis,  cause,  description,  and  treatment 284 

Extravasation  of  blood  of  penis,  causes  and  treatment 145 

Eye — 

diseases,  chapter  by  James  Law 251-273 

examination 254 

haw,  or  winking  cartilage,  description 253 

lachrymal  apparatus 254 

muscles,  description 253 

palsy  of  nerve  of  sight,  o*  amaurosis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment. . .  272 

parasites  affecting,  description  of  different  kinds 273 

watering,  or  obstruction  of  lachrymal  apparatus,  description  and  remedies.  261 
Eyeball- 
description  251 

tumors  affecting 272 

Eyelid— 

diseases,  description  of  different  kinds 255 

inflammation,  causes  and  treatment 257 

inversion  and  eversion,  or  entropion  and  ectropion,  causes  and  treatment.  259 

sty,  or  furuncle  (boil),  affecting,  description  and  treatment 259 

torn,  or  wounds  affecting,  description  and  treatment 260 

warts  and  tumors  affecting,  description  and  treatment 260 

Face  bones,  fractures,  description  and  treatment 311 

Facial  paralysis,  cause  and  symptoms 210 

Fainting,  or  syncope,  symptoms  and  treatment 237 

Farcy — 

and  glanders,  definition,  causes,  etc 532-544 

chronic,  symptoms - 638 

Fatty  degeneration  of  heart,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 239 

Favus,  or  honeycomb  ringworm,  description  and  treatment 450 


INDEX.  597 

Face. 

Feces,  impaction  of  rectum 170 

Feet,  interfering,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 373 

Femur,  fracture,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 323 

Fetlock - 

and  ankle  skin,  note 371 

and  foot  bones,  description 369 

ankle,  and  foot,  diseases,  chapter  by  A.  A.  Holcombe 369-430 

joint,  description ,..,  370 

knuckling,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment . , 347 

sprain,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 376 

Fetus- 
adherent  to  walls  of  womb,  description,  cause,  and  treatment 171 

excessive  size 171 

general  dropsy,  description  and  treatment 173 

or  foal,  prolonged  retention,  cause  and  treatment 160 

swelling  with  gas,  or  emphysema,  description  and  treatment 173 

tumors,  or  inclosed  ovum,  description  and  treatment 174 

Fever,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 493-498 

Fibrous  bands  constricting  and  crossing  neck  of  womb,  description  and  treat- 
ment   170 

Fibrous  constriction  of  vagina  or  vulva,  cause  and  treatment 171 

FUaria — 

conjunctivas,  parasite  of  eye 273 

equina,  parasite  of  eye 273 

hemorrhagica,  threadworm  causing  skin  disease 441 

irrUans,  parasite  causing  summer  sores,  description  and  treatment 442 

muUipapillosa,  threadworm  causing  bleeding  skin  eruptions 441 

palpebralis,  parasite  of  eye 273 

Fistulas,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 477-481 

Fits,  falling,  or  epilepsy,  symptoms  and  treatment 207 

Flatfoot,  description 372 

Flatulent  colic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

Flea,  or  pulex,  prevention  and  treatment  of  bite 454 

Flesh  fly  {Sarcophaga  camaria),  note 453 

Flexor — 

metatarsis,  rupture,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 352 

pedis  perforans,  description 371 

pedis  perforatus,  description 371 

tendons  or  their  sheath,  and  suspensory  ligaments,  sprains,  cause,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment 345 

Flies,  method  of  attacking  horses,  prevention  and  treatment  for  bite 453 

Flooding,  or  bleeding  from  womb,  treatment 184 

Flyblow,  or  grubs  in  skin,  description  and  treatment 453 

Foal- 
contractions  of  muscles,  description  and  treatment 173 

monstrosities,  description  of  kinds,  causes,  and  treatment 174 

natural  presentation *     164 

prolonged  retention,  cause  and  treatment 160 

water  in  head,  or  hydrocephalus,  description  and  treatment 172 

Foals,  newborn,  cyanosis  affecting,  description 240 

Food- 
kinds  to  give 36 

musty  and  moldy,  effect  on  digestive  organs 38 

preparation 41 


598  INDEX. 

Foot.     {See  also  Hoof. )  Pa^e. 

anatomical  review 369,559 

and  fetlock  bones,  description 369 

canker,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 392 

conformation,  faults 372 

fetlock,  and  ankle,  diseases,  chapter  by  A.  A.  Holcombe 369-430 

mange,  description  and  treatment 452 

punctured  wounds,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 400 

sand-cracks,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 405 

sole,  description 371 

Forage  poisoning,  or  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  symptoms  and  treatment 217 

Forearm,  fracture,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 321 

Founder,  or  laminitis — 

acute,  subacute,  and  chronic,  description 421 

complications 422 

curative  measures 428 

description  and  causes '. 414 

following  parturition,  cause 188 

sequel  of  superpurgation 64 

symptoms  ..' 417 

treatment  and  prevention 426 

Fractures — 

causes  and  symptoms 297 

description  of  different  kinds 297 

of  different  bones,  description 310 

prognosis  and  treatment 303 

Frog- 
bruises,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment : 399 

description 371 

Frostbites,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 379 

Furuncle — 

or  boil,  description  and  treatment 439 

or  sty  (boil ),  of  eyelid,  description  and  treatment 259 

€ralls,  harness,  or  sitfasts,  description  and  treatment 448, 470 

Gallstones,  or  biliary  calculi,  symptoms  and  treatment 74 

Qamarus  pteroptoides  and  cheylelus,  animal  parasites  of  skin 452 

Grangrene — 

or  mortification,  causes 136 

or  mortification,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 473 

Gas,  swelling  of  fetus,  or  emphysema,  description  and  treatment 173 

Gastritis,  definition 50 

Gastro-enteritis,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 66 

Gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  or  indigestion,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 61 

Generative  organs,  diseases  affecting,  chapter  by  James  Law 142-189 

Genito-urinary  passages,  method  of  medication 33 

Gestation,  extra-uterine,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 157 

Glanders — 

acute,  symptoms 541 

and  farcy,  definition,  causes,  etc 532-544 

chronic,  symptoms 540 

treatment 544 


INDEX.  599 

Glands —         '  Page. 

lymphatic,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 249 

sebaceous,  description 433 

sweat,  description 434 

Glee^— 

inflammation  of  urethra,  of  urethritis,  symptoms  and  treatment 93 

nasal,  chronic  catarrh,  or  collection  in  sinuses,  causes,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 108 

Glossitis,  description  and  treatment 45 

Glottis,  spasm,  description  . .  205 

Glycosuria,  saccharine  diabetes,  diabetes  melUtus,  or  inosuria,  causes,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment 80 

Grains  for  feeding 39 

Grasses,  important  feed 41 

Gravel — 

urinary  calculi,  or  stone,  causes 97 

urinary  calculi,  or  stone,  description... 94 

Grease,  or  canker,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 444 

Grubs — 

or  flyblow,  description  and  treatment • 453 

under  the  skin,  description  and  treatment 453 

Grunting,  testing 118 

Gullet,  or  esophagus,  treatment  for  foreign  bodies 46 

Gunshot  wounds,  description  and  treatment 469 

Gut-tie,  volvulus,  or  twisting  of  bowels,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 56 

Guttural  pouches,  description  and  treatment 128 

Hairs  on  skin,  description 433 

Harbaugh,  W.  H.,  chapter  on  "  Diseases  of  respiratory  organs" 104-141 

Harness  galls,  or  sitfasts,  description  and  treatment 448,  470 

Harvest  bug,  larvae  of  Trombidium,  Leptus  americanus,  jigger  (chigoe),  animal 

parasite  of  skin 452 

Haw — 

tumor,  or  caries  of  cartilage  of  the  eye,  description  and  treatment 261 

or  winking  cartilage  of  the  eye,  description 253 

Hay,  kinds  for  feeding 38 

Heart — 

adventitious  growths,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 236 

anatomy  and  physiology 225 

and  blood  vessels,  diseases,  remarks 228 

blood  vessels,  and  lymphatics,  diseases,  chapter  by  M.  R.  Trumbower..  225-250 

circulation  of  blood,  description 226 

congestion,  description  and  symptoms 240 

dilatation,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 239 

fatty  degeneration,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 239 

hypertrophy,  or  cardiac  enlargement,  description,  symptoms,  and  treat- 
ment   237 

inflammation  of  lining  membrane,  or  endocarditis,  cause,   description, 

symptoms,  and  treatment 229 

inflammation  of  muscular  structure,  or  myocarditis,  symptoms,  alterations, 

and  treatment 229 

inflammation  of  sac  inclosing,  or  pericarditis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treat- 
ment   233 

inflammatory  diseases,  description  and  treatment 229 


600  INDEX. 

Heart— Oontinaed.  Page. 

palpitation,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 236 

nipture,  description  and  cause 240 

valvular  disease,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 235 

weakness,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 240 

Heat  exhaustion,  sunstroke,  or  heat  stroke,  symptoms,  pathology,  treatment, 

and  prevention 199 

Heaves,  broken  wind,  or  asthma,  definitions,  symptoms,  and  treatment 137 

Heels — 

contracted,  or  hoof-bound,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment.  403 
cracked,  scratches,  or  chaps  on  knee  and  hock,  description,  causes,  and 

treatment 443 

inflammation,  with  sebaceous  secretion,  grease,  or  canker,  description, 

causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 444 

Hematuria,  or  bloody  urine,  cause  and  treatment 82 

Hemiplegia,  or  paralysis  of  one  side,  or  half  the  body,  description  and  symp- 
toms   208 

Hemoglobinuria,  azoturia,  azotemia,   poisoning  by  albuminoids,  symptoms, 

prevention,  and  treatment 82 

Hemoptysis,  or  bleeding  from  lungs,  causes,  description,  and  treatment 136 

Hemorrhage — 

process  of  healing  and  method  of  treatment 461 

spinal,  symptoms  and  treatment 214 

Hemorrhoids,  or  piles,  description  and  treatment 66 

Hemostasia,  description  and  treatment 460 

Hepatitis,  or  inflammation  of  liver,  symptoms,  causes,  and  treatment 72 

Hernia — 

congenital  scrotal,  description  and  treatment 67 

diaphragmatic,  description 70 

inguinal,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 67 

of  womb,  description  and  treatment 168 

or  rupture,  description  of  different  kinds 67 

scrotal,  cause 67 

umbilical,  description  and  treatment 69 

ventral,  description  and  treatment 68 

Herpes,  description  and  treatment 441 

High  blowing,  description 119 

Hip- 
bone, or  06  innominatum,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 317 

bones,  fractured,  causes 167 

joint,  luxation,  description  and  treatment .".  338 

lameness,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 344 

Hock— 

and  knee,  chaps  or  scratches,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 443 

capjied,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 359 

curb,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 349 

fractures,  note 325 

Holcombe,  A.  A.,  chapter  on  "Diseases  of  ankle,  fetlock,  and  foot" 369-430 

Honeycomb  ringworm,  or  favus,  description  and  treatment 450 

Hoof,      {fke  also  Foot. ) 

-bound,  or  contracted  heels,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment. .  403 

description j- 371 

growth 564 

healthy,  characteristics 572 


INDEX.  601 

Hoof — Continued.  Page. 

physiological  movements 569 

preparation  for  the  shoe , 578 

Hoofs — 

unshod,  care 571 

various  forms '. 573 

Hornets,  bees,  and  wasps,  treatment  for  stings 454 

Horny  sloughs  (sitfasts),  or  sloughing  callosities,  description  and  treatment.  448, 470 

Horsepox,  or  equine  variola,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 524-529 

Horses,  anatomy,  description 276 

Horseshoe.     (-See  Shoe.) 
Horse,  sick — 

attitude  and  general  condition  indicative  of  disease 10 

conformation  and  constitution 12 

examination,  chapter  by  Leonard  Pearson 9-27 

history  of  diseases  necessary  in  examination 10 

Huidekoper,  Rush  Shippen,  chapter  on  ' '  General  diseases '' 482-544 

Humerus,  fractures,  symptoms  and  treatment 320 

Hydrocele,  or  dropsy  of  scrotum,  symptoms  and  treatment 144 

Hydrocephalus — 

or  dropsy  of  brain,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 203 

or  water  in  head,  of  foal,  description  and  treatment 172 

Hydrophobia.     {See  Rabies. ) 

Hydrothorax,  treatment 134 

Hypertrophy  of  heart,  or  cardiac  enlargement,  description,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 237 

Hypoderma-lineata,  note 453 

Icterus,  jaundice,  or  yellows,  description  and  treatment 73 

Impaction — 

of  large  intestine,  cause  of  obstruction  colic,  symptoms  and  treatment 52 

of  rectum  with  feces 170 

Indigestion,  or  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 61 

Infectious  anemia — 

chapter  by  John  R.  Mohler 551-554 

cause  and  localities  infected 5^1 

dit^nosis  and  treatment 553 

symptoms  and  lesions 552 

Inflammation — 

acute,  of  kidneys,  or  acute  nephritis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment. .  84 

and  abscess  of  lymphatic  glands,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment..  249 

and  congestion  of  skin,  description  of  kinds _. 434 

and  congestion  of  teats  and  udder,  symptoms  and  treatment 188 

and  congestion  of  testicles,  or  orchitis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment. .  142 

chronic,  of  kidneys,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 86 

description,  symptoms,  termination,  and  treatment 487^93 

local,  and  abscess  of  lymphatic  glands,  description,  symptoms,  and  treat- 
ment   249 

of  bladder,  cystitis,  or  urocystitis,  symptoms  and  treatment 90 

of  brain  and  its  membranes,  description 192, 193 

of  eyelids,  causes  and  treatment 257 

of  heels,  with  sebaceous  secretion,  grease,  or  canker,  description,  causes, 

symptoms,  and  treatment 444 

of  lining  membrane  of  heart,  or  endocarditis,  cause,  description,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment - 229 

of  liver,  or  hepatitis,  symptoms,  causes,  and  treatment 72 

of  membranes,  a  complication  of  influenza 505 

of  membranes  of  spinal  cord,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment-  -  - 211 


602  INDEX. 

Inflammation^>>ntinaed.  Page, 
of  muscular  structure  of  heart,  or  myocarditia,  symptoms,  alterations,  and 

treatment , 229 

of  nerve,  or  neuritis,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 216 

of  pharynx,  description 112 

of  sac  inclosing  heart,  or  pericarditis,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  and 

treatment 233 

of  substance  of  spinal  cord,  or  myelitis,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  and 

treatment 213 

of  urethra,  urethritis,  or  gleet,  symptoms  and  treatment 93 

of  womb  and  peritoneum,  symptoms  and  treatment 187 

with  blisters,  or  eczema,  description  and  treatment 437 

with  pustules,  description  and  treatment 438 

Inflammatory  diseases  of  the  heart,  description  and  treatment 229 

Influenza,  definition,  symptoms,  termination,  complications,  and  treatment.  498-608 

Inguinal  hernia,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 67 

Inhalation,  manner  of  administering  medicines 31 

Injections,  methods  of  administering  medicines 31 

Inosuria,  saccharine  diabetes,  diabetes  mellitus,  or  glycosuria,  causes,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment ; 80 

Insufflation,  description 31 

Interfering — 

and  speedy  cuts,  description,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 362 

of  feet,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 373 

Intestinal — 

paralysis,  cause 210 

worm,  or  Ascaris  eqwynim,  note 60 

Intestines — 

and  stomach,  diseases,  remarks 49 

calculi,  or  stones,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 65 

large,  impaction,  cause  of  obstruction  colic,  symptoms  and  treatment 52 

paralysis,  description  and  treatment 56 

spasms 206 

Iptussusception,  or  invagination,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 56 

Invagination,  or  intussusception,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 56 

Iritis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment.    265 

Irritation,  nervous,  of  skin,  or  pruritus,  description  and  treatment 441 

Jaundice,  icterus,  or  yellows,  description  and  treatment 73 

Jaw,  lower,  fracture,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 312 

Jigger,  or  chigoe,  Leptus  americanus,  animal  parasite  of  skin 453 

Joint — 

hip,  luxation,  description  and  treatment 337 

shoulder,  displacement,  description  and  treatment 337 

Joints — 

(Hseasee,  note 329 

open,  cause,  prognosis,  and  treatment 332 

Kidneys — 

acute  inflammation,  or  acute  nephritis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment.  84 

chronic  inflammation,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 86 

bladder  worm  and  roundworm  affecting 87 

tumors,  note 87 

Knee — 

broken,  cause,  prognosis,  and  treatment 332 

capped,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 367 

fracture,  cause,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 322 


INDEX.  603 

Knee — Continued.  Page, 
or  hock,  chaps,  scratches,  or  cracked  heels,  description,  causes,  and  treat- 
ment    443 

Knees,  sprung,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 348 

Knuckling — 

of  fetlock,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 347 

or  cocked  ankles,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 374 

Labor  pains,  prematrxe,  cause  and  treatment 166 

Lachrymal  apparatus  of  eye — 

description 254 

obstruction,  or  watering  eye,  description  and  remedy 261 

Lameness — 

definition;  physiology  and  description 279 

how  to  detect  the  seat 283 

how  to  discover i 280 

ita  causes  and  treatment,  chapter  by  A.  A.  Liautard 274-368 

of  hip,  description,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 344 

of  shoulder,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 340 

Laminae,  sensitive,  description 372 

Laminitis,  or  founder^     (See  Founder,  or  laminitis. ) 

Lampa^,  description  and  treatment 44 

Laryngismus  paralyticus,  or  roaring,  description  and  treatment 117, 210 

Laryngitis,  or  sore  throat,  description,  symptoms  and  treatment 112 

Larynx,  spasms,  description  and  treatment 116 

Law,  James — 

chapter  on  "Diseases  of  the  eye" 251-273 

chapter  on  ' '  Diseases  of  the  generative  organs  " 142-189 

chapter  on  "Diseases  of  the  skin " 431^58 

chapter  on  "Diseases  of  the  urinary  organs" 75-103 

Lead  poisoning,  or  plumbism,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 223 

Leptus  americamis,  or  harvest  bug,  animal  parasite  of  skin 452 

Leucorrhea,  description  and  treatment 188 

Liautard,  A.,  chapter  on  "Lameness:  Its  causes  and  treatment" 274-368 

Lice,  or  pediculi,  description  and  treatment  for  bite 454 

Ligament — 

suspensory,  description 370 

suspensory,  rupture,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 377 

Ligaments — 

description  and  functions 1 278 

suspensory,  sprains,  causes,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 345 

Limbs — 

hind,  cramp,  cause  and  treatment 159 

perineum,  and  abdomen,  dropsy,  description  and  treatment 159 

Linseed,  ground,  value  as  laxative 40 

Liver — 

diseases,  remarks 71 

inflammation,  or  hepatitis,  symptoms,  causes,  and  treatment 72 

rupture,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 73 

Lockjaw,  or  tetanus,  causes,  symptoms,  prevention,  and  treatment 219 

Locomotor  ataxia,  or  incoordination  of  movement,  description 209 

Loins,  sprains,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 367 

LucUia  caesar,  or  bluebottle,  and  L.  hominivorax,  or  screw  worm  fly,  note 453 


604  iin)Ex. 

LunK—  Page. 

al»cee8,  and  suppuration,  symptoms 136 

fever,  or  pneumonia,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 122 

Lungs — 

bleeding,  or  hemoptysis,  causes,  description,  and  treatment 136 

congestion,  description  and  treatment 120 

description 120 

Luxations  and  dislocations  of  bones,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 336 

Lymphangitis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 250 

Lymphatic — 

glands,  local  inflammation,  and  abscess  affecting,  description,  symptoms, 

and  treatment 249 

system,  diseases,  description 249 

Lymphatics,  heart,  and  blood  vessels,  diseases,  chapter  by  M.  R.  Trum  bower.  225-250 
Madness,  rabies,  or  hydrophobia,  cause,  symptoms,  treatment,  and  preven- 
tion   222,547 

Maize,  or  com,  how  to  feed 40 

Maladie  du  coit,  or  dourine,  description  and  treatment 146 

Mange — 

autumn,  and  mange  of  foot,  description  And  treatment 452 

or  acariasis,  note 450 

Mare — 

castration,  method 151 

pregnant,  hygiene 156 

sterility,  causes  and  treatment 151 

Masturbation,  or  self-abuse,  remedy 145 

Meat  fly,  or  Musca  vomitoria,  note 453 

Medicines,  methods  of  administering,  chapter  by  Ch.  B,  Michener 28-33 

Megrims,  or  congestion  of  brain,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc.       197 

Melanosis,  or  black  pigment  tumor,  description  and  treatment 449 

Membrane — 

lining,  of  heart,  inflammation,  or  endocarditis,  cause,  description,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment 230 

of  nose,  thickening,  symptoms  and  treatment 110 

Membranes — 

inflammation,  a  complication  of  influenza 505 

mucous,  visible,  and  skin  may  indicate  disease 13 

of  brain,  inflammation,  description 192, 193 

of  Hpinal  cord,  inflammation,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 211 

Meningitis — 

causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 193 

spinal,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  and  treatment 211 

Metatarhi,  flexor,  rupture,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 352 

Michener,  Ch.  B. — 

chapter  on  "  Diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  " 34-74 

chapter  on  "  Methoils  of  administering  medicines" 28-33 

chapter  on  "Wounds  and  their  treatment" 459-481 

MuTOKporon  furfur,  vegetable  parasite  of  skin 460 

Mohler,  John  R. — 

chapter  on  "Osteoporosis,  or  bighead  " 559-564 

chapter  en  "  Mycotic  lymphangitis  " 545-547 

chapter  on  "  Infectious  anemia" 551-554 

Mole,  vesicular,  or  cystic  disease  of  walls  of  womb,  description  and  treatment.       158 

Moles,  or  anidian  monsters,  description 168 

Monstrosities  in  foal,  description  of  kinds,  causes,  and  treatment 175 

Moon  blindness,  or  periodic  ophthalmia,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment 268 

Mortification,  or  gangrene.     {See  Gangrene.) 


INDEX.  605 

Page. 

Mouth  diseases,  remarks 44 

Mucous  membranes,  visible,  and  skin  may  indicate  disease 13 

MiLsca  vomitoria,  or  meat  fly,  note 453 

Muscles — 

and  tendons,  diseases 340 

contraction  in  foal,  description  and  treatment 173 

of  elbow,  sprain,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 343 

of  eye,  description 253 

one  system  of  locomotion 275,  276 

Mycotic  lymphangitis — 

and  glanders,  differentiation 547 

chapter  by  John  R.  Mohler 545-547 

diagnosis  and  treatment 547 

symptoms  and  lesions 546 

Myelitis,  or  inflammation  of  substance  of  spinal  cord,  causes,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 213 

Myocarditis,  or  inflammation  of  muscular  structure  of  heart,  symptoms,  alter- 
ations, and  treatment 229 

Nasal — 

catarrh,  or  cold  in  head,  symptoms  and  treatment 107 

douche,  used  in  administering  medicines 31 

gleet,  chronic  catarrh,  or  collection  in  sinuses,  causes,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 108 

polypus,  description  and  treatment Ill 

Navel — 

discharge  of  urine,  or  persistent  urachus,  description  and  treatment 92 

string,  constriction  of  a  member,  description 171 

Navicular — 

bone,  description 370 

disease,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 409 

Neck  of  womb,  twisting,  description  and  treatment 168 

Nephritis,  acute,  or  acute  inflammation  of  kidneys,  causes,  symptoms,  and 

treatment .  84 

Nerve — 

inflammation ,  or  neuritis,  cause,  symptc  ms,  and  treatment 216 

tumor,  or  neuroma,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 216 

Nerves — 

injuries,  description  and  treatment 216 

spinal,  designations 192 

Nervous  system — 

and  brain,  anatomy  and  physiology 190 

diseases  affecting,  chapter  by  M.  R.  Trumbower 190-224 

examination 24 

Nettlerash,  surfeit,  or  urticaria,  description  and  treatment 440 

Neuritis,  or  inflammation  of  a  nerve,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 216 

Neuroma,  or  tumor  of  a  ners'e,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 216 

Nose — 

bleeding,  causes  and  treatment 112 

membrane,  thickening,  symptoms  and  treatment 110 

Nostrils,  tumors  and  wounds,  treatment 106 

Obstruction  colic,  cause 52 

Open  joints.     {See  Joints.) 

Ophthalmia — 

external,  or  conjunctivitis,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment.  262 

internal,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 265 

periodic,  or  moonblindness,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 268 

Optic  nerve,  paralysis,  or  amaurosis,  cause 210 


606  INDEX. 

Page. 
Orchitis,  or  congestion  and  inflammation  of  testicles,  causes,  S3miptoms,  and 

treatment 142 

Ob  innominatum,  or  fracture  of  hip  bone,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment.  317 

Os  pedis,  or  third  phalanx,  fractures,  cause  and  treatment 327 

Osteoporosis,  or  bighead,  chapter  by  John  R.  Mohler 559-564 

Ostitis,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment  •. 284 

Overreach,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 378 

Ovum,  inclosed,  or  tumors  of  fetus,  description  and  treatment 174 

Palpitation  of  heart,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 236 

Palsy— 

of  nerve  of  sight,  or  amaurosis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 272 

or  paralysis,  description  and  causes 208 

Pancreas  and  spleen,  diseases,  remarks 74 

Papilloma,  epithelioma,  or  degeneration  of  penis 145 

Papules,  or  congestion  of  skin  with  small  pimples,  description  and  treatment.  436 
Paralysis — 

facial,  symptoms  and  cause;  local  paralysis 210 

general,  cause 208 

of  bladder,  description  and  cause 89, 210 

of  hind  legs,  cause  and  treatment 160 

of  intestines,  cause 56, 210 

of  one  side  or  half  the  body,  or  hemiplegia,  description  and  symptoms 208 

of  optic  nerve,  or  amaurosis,  cause 210 

of  penis,  cause  and  treatment 145 

of  pharynx,  description  and  treatment 46 

of  rectum  and  tail,  cause 210 

or  palsy,  description  and  causes 208 

transverse,  of  hind  extremities,  or  parapl^a,  description  and  symptoms.  209 

treatment 210 

Paraph ymosis  and  phymosis,  description  and  treatment 150 

Paraplegia,  or  transverse  jMiralysis  of  hind  extremities,  cause  and  treatment..  209 
Parasites — 

animal,  of  skin,  description  of  kinds 450 

causing  worm  colic 59, 60 

in  eye,  description  of  kinds 273 

specific  kinds  affecting  urinary  organs 87 

vegetable,  of  skin,  description  of  kinds,  symptoms,  and  treatment 449 

Parasitic  pityriasis,  description  and  treatment 450 

Parturition — 

different  presentations 1 76 

difficult,  from  narrow  pelvis,  cause  and  treatment 165, 166 

symptoms 164 

Pastern  joint,  description 370 

Pastes,  or  electuaries,  description  and  manner  of  administering 29 

Patella- 
fracture,  description 324 

pseudoluxations,  descriptions,  symptoms,  cause,  and  treatment 338 

Pearson,  Leonard,  chapter  on  "Examination  of  a  sick  horse" 9-27 

Pediculi,  or  lice,  description  and  treatment  for  bite 454 

Pelvis — 

and  vagina,  tumors  affecting,  description  and  treatment 167 

bones,  fracture,  different  kinds 316 

narrow,  cause  of  difficult  parturition,  cauae  and  treatment 166 


INDEX.  607 

Penis —  Page 

degeneration,  papilloma,  or  epithelioma 145 

extravasation  of  blood  and  paralysis,  causes  and  treatment 145 

sheath,  and  abdomen,  swelling,  cause  and  treatment 149 

warts,  treatment 145 

Pericarditis — 

a  complication  of  influenza 505 

or  inflammation  of  sac  inclosing  the  heart,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment.  233 

Perineum,  limbs,  and  abdomen,  dropsy,  description  and  treatment .•. .  159 

Periostitis,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 284 

Peritoneum  and  womb,  inflammation,  symptoms  and  treatment 187 

Peritonitis — 

a  complication  of  influenza 505 

description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 70 

Phalanx,  first,  second,  and  third,  fracture,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment.  326,  327 

Pharyngeal  polypus,  description  and  treatment  Ill 

Pharyngitis,  description  and  treatment 45 

Pharynx — 

inflammation,  description 112 

paralysis,  description  and  treatment 46 

Phlebitis,  or  diseases  of  veins,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment. .  246 

Phymosis  and  paraphymosis,  description  and  treatment 150 

Physiology  and  anatomy  of  brain  and  nervous  system 190 

Piles,  or  hemorrhoids,  description  and  treatment 66 

Pills,  or  balls,  description  and  manner  of  administering 28 

Pimples,  small,  or  congestion  of  skin,  description  and  treatment 436 

Pityriasis,  or  scaly  skin  disease,  description  and  treatment 440 

Plantar  cushion,  description 372 

Pleurisy — 

a  complication  of  influenza 505 

description,  symptoms,  and  treatment '. 131 

Pleuro-dynia,  symptoms  and  treatment 140 

Pleuro-pneumonia,  description  and  treatment 135 

Plumbism,  or  lead  poisoning,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 223 

Pneumonia — 

edematous,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 520-524 

or  lung  fever,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 1 22 

Poisoning —  * 

albuminoid,  or  azotemia,  symptoms,  prevention,  and  treatment 82 

forage,  or  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 217 

lead,  or  plumbism,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 223 

Poll  evil 477 

Polypus — 

nasal,  description  and  treatment Ill 

pharyngeal,  description  and  treatment Ill 

Polyuria,  diuresis,  diabetes  insipidus,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 77 

Pouches,  guttural,  description  and  treatment 128 

Poultry,  acariasis.  description  and  treatment 452 

Powders,  manner  of  administering 28 

Pregnancy — 

duration 155 

mare,  hygiene 156 

medication , 154 


608  INDEX. 

Pace. 

Premaxillary  bone,  fracture,  description  and  treatment 312 

Preputial  calculus,  calculus  in  sheath,  description  and  treatment 103 

Presentations  at  birth,  abnormal 176-181 

Pruritis,  or  nervous  irritation  of  skin,  description  and  treatment 441 

Pseudoluxations  of  patella,  description,  symptoms,  cause,  and  treatment 338 

Psoroptes  equi,  animal  parasite  of  skin 451 

Psoroptic  acariasis,  description  and  treatment 451 

Ptyal  ism,  or  salivation,  description  and  treatment , 45 

Pulex— 

or  flea,  prevention  and  treatment  for  bite 454 

penetrans,  or  chigoe,  bite,  treatment 454 

Pulse,  how  to  count 1 15 

Purpura  hemorrhagica — 

description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 247 

or  anasarca,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 508 

Pustules,  inflammation,  description  and  treatment 438 

Quittor,  description  of  different  kinds 380 

Rabies,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 222, 545 

Rectum — 

and  tail,  paralysis,  cause 210 

impaction  with  feces 170 

method  of  administering  medicines 32 

Red  efflorescence,  or  erythema,  description  and  treatment 434 

Renal  calculi,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 98 

Respiratory  organs — 

description 104 

diseases,  chapter  by  W.  H.  Harbaugh 104-141 

methods  of  examination 17 

Retinitis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 265 

Ribs,  fractures,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 315 

Ridglings,  or  cryptorchids,  castration,  method 148 

Ringbone,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 289, 413 

Ringworm — 

circinate,  or  Tinea  tonsurans,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 449 

honeycomb,  or  favus,  description  and  treatment 450 

Roaring  and  thick  wind,  description  and  treatment 117, 210 

Roundworm  of  the  kidney ^ 87 

Rubber  pads  in  shoes,  uses 576 

Rapture — 

of  an  artery,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 244 

of  diaphragm,  causes  and  symptoms 141 

of  flexor  metatarsi,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 352 

of  heart,  description  and  cause 240 

of  liver,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 73 

of  stomach,  result  of  engorgement  colic,  symptoms  and  treatment 51, 52 

of  suspensory  ligament,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 377 

of  vagina,  description  and  treatment 187 

or  hernia,  description  of  different  kinds 67 

or  laceration  of  womb,  causes  and  treatment - 186 

Saccharine  diabetes,  diabetes  mellitus,  glycosuria,  or  inosuria,  causes,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment 80 

Sacrum,  fractures,  description  and  treatment 316 

St  Vitus  dance,  or  chorea,  description  and  treatment 207 


INDEX.  609 

Page. 

Salivation,  or  plyalism,  description  and  treatment 45 

Sand-cracks  of  foot,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 405 

Sarcocele,  description  and  treatment 143 

Sarcopliaga  camaria,  or  flesh  fly,  note i 453 

Sarcoptes — 

mutans,  animal  parasite  of  skin 451 

scabiel  equi,  animal  parasite  of  skin 450 

Sarcoptic  acariasis — 

description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 450 

of  fowls,  desoription  and  treatment 451 

Scalds  and  burns,  treatment 455, 471 

Scalma,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 515-518 

Scaly  skin  disease,  or  pityriasis,  description  and  treatment. 440 

Scapula,  fracture,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 319 

Scorpion  and  tarantula,  treatment  for  sting  or  bite 455 

Scratches,  or  chaps  on  knee  and  hock,  or  cracked  heels,  causes  and  treatment.  443 

Screw-worm  fly,  or  Luc'dia  hominivorax,  note 453 

S;:rotal  or  congenital  hernia,  cause,  description,  and  treatment 67 

Scrotum,  dropsy,  or  hydrocele,  symptoms  and  treatment 144 

Sebaceous  glands,  description 433 

Self-abuse,  or  masturbation,  remedy 145 

Sesamoid  bones,  fracture,  cause,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 328 

Sesamoid  sheath,  inflammation,  or  navicular  disease,  description,  symptoms, 

and  treatment 408 

Sesamoids,  description 369 

Sexual  and  urinary  organs,  examination 26 

Sheath- 
calculus,  or  bilocular  cavity,  or  preputial  calculus,  description,  treatment.  103 

of  flexor  tendons,  sprains,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 345 

penis,  and  abdomen,  swelling,  cause  and  treatment 149 

Shock,  electric,  description  and  treatment 224 

Shoe- 
bar,  uses 582 

detailed  description 578 

hot  fitting 582 

Shoeing — 

chapter  by  John  W.  Adams 565-587 

preliminary  examination 575 

jireparation  of  the  hoof ,  578 

rubber  pads 582 

Shoes,  special  peculiarities  of  chief  classes 580 

Shoulder — 

joint,  displacement,-  description  and  treatment 337 

lameness,  description,  causes,  symptoms,'  and  treatment 340 

Sick  horse.     {See  Hoi-se,  sick. ) 

Sidebones,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 291,411 

Sinuses,  collection  in,  chronic  catarrh,  or  nasal  gleet,  causes,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 108 

Sitfasts — 

or  harness  galls,  description  and  treatment " 470 

horny  sloughs,  or  sloughing  callosities,  description  and  treatment 448 

Skin — 

and  visible  mucous  membranes  may  indicate  disease 13 

animal  parasites  affecting,  description  of  kinds 450 

H.  Doc.  795,  59-2 39 


610  INDEX. 

8kin — Continued.  Page. 

bleeding  eruptions,  description  and  treatment 441 

congestion,  red  eflJorescence,  or  erythema,  description  and  treatment 434 

disease,  scaly,  or  pityriasis,  description  and  treatment 440 

diseases,  chapter  by  James  Law 431-458 

grubs  under,  description  and  treatment 453 

hairs,  description 433 

inflammation  and  congestion,  description  of  kinds 434 

nervous  irritation,  or  pruritis,  description  and  treatment 441 

of  fetlock  and  ankle,  note 371 

structure,  divisions 432 

true,  or  dermis,  description 432 

vegetable  parasites,  description  of  kinds,  symptoms  and  treatment 449 

wounds,  description  of  different  kinds  and  treatment 456 

Sloughs,  homy,  sitfasts,  or  sloughing  callosities,  description  and  treatment.  448, 470 

Snake  bites,  treatment 455 

Sole  of  foot,  description 371 

Sores,  summer,  caused  by  Filaria  irritans,  treatment 441 ,  442 

Sore  throat,  or  laryngitis,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment ^ 142 

Spasmodic  or  cramp  colic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 58 

Spasm — 

of  diaphragm,  or  thumps,  description  and  treatment 141, 205 

of  glottis  or  intestines,  description  and  treatment 205 

of  larynx,  description  and  treatment 116 

of  neck  of  bladder,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 87,  205 

of  neck  of  womb,  description  and  treatment 170 

of  thigh,  or  cramp  of  hind  limb,  description  and  treatment 205 

Spasms,  or  cramps,  causes  and  treatment 205 

Spavin — 

blood,  bog  spavin,  and  thoroughpin,  description  and  treatment 331 

description,  cause,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 293 

Speedy  cuts  and  interfering,  description,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 362 

Spermatic  cord — 

strangulated,  cause  and  treatment •. —  149 

tumors,  causes  and  treatment 150 

Spinal — 

anemia,  symptoms  and  treatment 214 

compression  and  concussion,  cause,  description,  and  treatment 214 

concussion,  causes  and  treatment 215 

congestion,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 213 

cord,  description 192 

cord,  inflammation  of  membranes,  caoses,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 211 

cord,  inflammation  of  substance,  or  myelitis,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment.  213 

hemorrhage,  symptom,  and  treatment 214 

meningitis,  causes,  symptoms,  i>atIiology,  and  treatment 211 

nerves,  designation 192 

tmnors,  symptoms  and  treatment 215 

Spleen  and  pancreas,  diseases,  remarks 74 

Splint,  description,  symptoms,  cause,  and  treatment 286 

Sprain — 

of  elbow  muscles,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 343 

of  fetlock,  causes,  s>'mptoms,  and  treatment..... 376 

Sprains — 

description  and  treatment 340 

of  loins,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 367 


INDEX.  611 

Sprains— Continued.  Page.  ' 
of  suspensory  ligaments  and  of  flexor  tendons  or  their  sheath,  cause,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment 345 

Sprung  knees,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 348 

Staphyloma,  or  bulging  cornea,  description  and  treatment 273 

Stallion — 

castration,  methods 147 

sterility,  ca,use  and  treatment 151 

Sterility  in  mare  and  stallion,  cause  and  treatment 151 

Stiles,  Ch.  Warden,  chapter  on  "Surra" 554-559 

Stomach —  ' 

and  intestines,  diseases,  remarks 49 

calculi,  or  stones,  symptoms  and  treatment 54 

rupture,  result  of  engorgement  colic,  symptoms  and  treatment 51, 52 

Stomatitis,  description  and  treatment 45 

Stone — 

in  bladder,  vesical  calculus,  or  cystic  calculus,  description,  symptoms,  and 

treatment 100 

in  urethra,  or  urethral  calculus,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 102 

or  calculus,  and  tumor  in  bladder 169 

urinary  calculi,  or  gravel,  description 94, 97 

Stones — 

or  calculi,  in  intestines,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 55 

or  calculi,  in  stomach,  symptoms  and  treatment -. 54 

Strangles,  definition,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 513-516 

Strangulated  spermatic  cord,  cause  and  treatment 149 

Stricture — 

of  esophagus,  description  and  treatment 49 

of  urethra,  description  and  treatment 94 

Stringhalt,  description,  cause,  and  treatment 207, 364 

Strongylus — 

equinum,  parasite  of  kidney 87 

equinus,  intestinal  worm 60 

vulgaris,  intestinal  worm 60 

vulgaris,  worm  causing  one  form  of  aneurism 243 

Sty,  furuncle,  or  boil  of  eyelid,  description  and  treatment 259 

Suffraginis,  description 370 

Summer  sores,  caused  by  Filaria  irritans,  description  and  treatment 442 

Sunstroke,  heat  stroke,  or  heat  exhaustion,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc 199 

Superpurgation,  description  and  treatment 63 

Suppositories,  description  and  uses 32 

Suppuration  and  abscess  in  lung,  symptoms 135 

Surfeit,  nettlerash,  or  urticaria,  description  and  treatment 440 

Surra — 

chapter  by  Ch.  Warden  Stiles 554-559 

climatic  conditions;  animals  affected;  and  lethality 554 

diagnosis  and  treatment 559 

method  of  infection,  symptoms 555 

Suspensory  ligament — 

and  flexor  tendons  or  their  sheaths,  sprains,  cause,  symptoms,  treatment..  345 

description 370  ; 

rupture,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment ^^^i i 

Sutures,  description  and  uses 461 J 

Swamp  fever.     {See  Infectious  anemia.) 

Sweat  glands,  description ^434) 


612  INDEX. 

Page. 
Stjmbioles  equi,  Dermatophagwi  cqui,  or  Chorioptes  spaihiferiis,  animal  parasite  of 

skin 452 

Syncope,  or  fainting,  symptoms  and  treatment 237 

Synovial — 

dropsies,  remarks 330 

sacs,  diseases,  description 330 

Synovitis,  cause,  prognosis,  and  treatment 332 

Tail  and  rectum,  jmralysis,  cause 210 

Tarantula  and  scorpion,  treatment  for  bite  and  sting ...: 455 

Teats,  sore,  scabs,  cracks,  warts,  cause  and  treatment 189 

Teeth- 
diseases;  i^eriod  of  dentition 42 

irregularities,  remedies 43 

Temperament  of  horse 12 

Temperature,  method  of  determining 17 

Tendon  sheaths,  wounds,  description  and  treatment 469 

Tendons — 

and  muscles,  diseases 340 

flexor,  or  their  sheath,  sprains,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 345 

functions 277 

lacerated,  cause,  symptoms,  prognosis,  and  treatment 350 

of  foot,  function 370 

Testicles — 

abnormal. number;  causes  of  degeneration 144 

or  orchitis,  congestion  and  inflammation,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment. .  142 

Tetanus,  or  lockjaw,  causes,  symptoms,  prevention,  and  treatment 219 

Thick  wind  and  roaring,  description  and  treatment 117 

Thigh,  spasm,  or  cramp  of  hind  limb,  description  and  treatment ." 205 

Thoracic  choke,  description  and  treatment 47, 49 

Thoroughpin,  blood  spavin,  and  bog  spavin,  description  and  treatment 331 

Threadworms  causing  bleeding  skin  eruptions 441 

Throat- 
abscesses  affecting,  treatment 46 

sore,  or  laryngitis,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 112 

ThromlK>sLs,  description,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 365 

Thrombus  and  embolism,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 244 

Thnish,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 392 

Thumf*,  or  spasm  of  diaphr^m,  description  and  treatment 141, 205 

Tibia,  fractures,  sjinptoms  and  treatment 324 

Ticks,  description  and  treatment ." 453 

Timothy,  best  hay  for  feeding 38 

Tinea  tonsurawt,  or  circinate  ringworm,  description  and  treatment 449 

Tissues,  description 482 

Toothache,  how  to  determine  and  treat 43 

Trichiasis,  or  turned  eyelashes,  description  and  treatment 260 

TVichophi/ton  tormiranx,  vegetable  parasite  of  skin 449 

Trumlx)\ver,  M.  R. — 

chapter  on  "Diseases of  heart,  bloo<l  vessels,  and  lymphatics" 225-250 

chapter  on  "Diseases  of  nervous  system" 190-224 

Tulxjrculosis,  or  consumption,  note 136 

Tumor — 

and  calculus,  or  stone  in  bladder 169 

of  haw,  or  caries  of  cartilege,  description  and  treatment 261 


INDEX.  618 

Tnmor — Continued.  Page. 

of  nerve,  or  neuroma,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 216 

on  spermatic  cord,  causes  and  treatment 150 

Tumors — 

and  warts  of  eyelids,  description  and  treatment 260 

black  pigment,  or  melanosis,  description  and  treatment 449 

in  nostrils,  treatment 106 

in  vagina  and  pelvis,  description  and  treatment 167 

of  eyeball,  remarks 272 

of  fetus,  or  inclosed  ovum,  description  and  treatment 174 

of  kidneys,  note 87 

of  spine,  symptoms  and  treatment 215 

of  udder,  cause  and  treatment 189 

or  abnormal  growths,  cause  of  colic 57 

within  cranium,  description  of  kinds 204 

Twins,  remarks _ 176 

Tympanitic  colic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

adder- 
congestion  and  inflammation,  symptoms  and  treatment 188' 

tumors,  cause  and  treatment 189 

Ulceration,  description,  causes,  and  treatment 474 

Ulcers  on  cornea,  treatment 265 

Umbilical  hernia,  description  and  treatment 69 

Urachus,  persistent,  or  discharge  of  urine  by  navel,  description  and  treatment.  92 

Uremia,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 223 

Urethra — 

inflammation,  urethritis,  or  gleet,  symptoms  and  treatment 93 

stone,  or  urethral  calculus,  description,  symptoms  antl  treatment 102 

stricture,  description  and  treatment 94 

Urethral  calculus,  or  ston^  in  urethra,  description,  symptoms  and  treatment..  102 

Urethritis,  inflammation  of  urethra,  or  gleet,  symptoms  and  treatment 93 

Uretral  calculi,  descrijjtion  and  treatment 99 

Urinary — 

and  sexual  organs,  examination 26 

calculi,  classification 98 

calculi,  stone,  or  gravel,  description  and  causes 94, 97 

disorders,  causes '. 75 

organs,  diseases,  chapter  by  James  I^w 75-103 

organs,  pai-asites  affecting 87 

organs,  symptoms  of  diseiise 77 

organs,  uses 75 

Urine — 

analysis 95 

bloody,  or  hematuria,  cause  and  treatment 82 

discharge  by  navel,  or  persistent  urachus,  description  and  treatment 92 

excessive  secretion,  diuresis,  ix)lyuria,  diabetes   insipidus,  causes,  symp- 
toms, and  treatment .- 79 

how  to  examine 77 

of  healthy  horse,  description 27 

Urocystitis,  inflammation  of  bladder,  or  cystitis,  symptoms  and  treatment 90 

Urticaria,  nettlerash,  or  surfeit,  description  anri  treatment 440 

Vagina — 

and  pelvis,  tumors  affecting,  description  and  treatment 167 

rupture,  description  and  treatment 1S7 


614  INDEX. 

Paye. 

Vaginal  walls,  effusion  of  blood 169 

Valvular  disease  of  heart,  symptoms  and  treatment , 235 

Varicocele,  description  and  treatment 144 

Varicose  veins,  varix,  or  dilatation  of  veins,  causes  and  treatment' ; 247 

Variola,  equine,  or  horsepox,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 524-629 

Veins — 

description 228 

dilatation,  varicose  veins,  or  varix,  causes  and  treatment 247 

diseases,  or  phlebitis,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 246 

Ventral  hernia,  description  and  treatment 68 

Vertebrae,  fractures,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 313 

Vesical  calculus,  stone  in  bladder,  or  cystic  calculus,  description,  symptoms, 

and  treatment 100 

Vesicular  mole,  or  cystic  disease  of  walls  of  womb,  description  and  treatment.  158 

Volvulus,  gut-tie,  or  twisting  of  bowels,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 56 

Vulva,  or  vagina,  fibrous  constriction,  cause  and  treatment 171 

Warts— 

and  tumors  of  eyelids,  description  and  treatment 260 

description  and  treatment ; 448 

on  penis,  treatment 145 

Wasps,  bees,  and  hornets,  stings,  treatment 454 

Water- 
impure,  cause  of  disease;  time  to  give 34 

in  head,  or  hydrocephalus  of  foal,  description  and  treatment 172 

Watering  eye,  or  obstruction  of  lachrymal  apparatus,  description  and  remedy.  261 

Whistling,  description 119 

Wind- 
broken,  heaves,  or  asthma,  definition,  symptoms,  and  treatment 137 

colic,  cause,  symptoms,  and  treatment 57 

Windgalls,  description,  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment 330, 375 

Windpipe,  description 128 

Winking  cartilage,  or  cartilage  nictitans,  description 253 

Womb— 

and  peritoneum,  inflammation,  symptoms,  and  treatment 187 

bleeding,  or  flooding,  treatment 184 

dropsy,  caus6,  symptoms,  and  treatment 158 

eversion,  description  and  method  of  treatment 185 

hernia,  description  and  treatment 168 

laceration,  or  rupture,  causes  and  treatment 186 

neck,  twisting,  description  and  treatment 168 

Worm  colic,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 59 

Worms,  bladder,  affecting  kidneys 87 

Wounds — 

and  their  treatment,  chapter  by  Ch.  B.  Michener 459-481 

gimsbot,  description  and  treatment 469 

healing  under  a  scab,  treatment 462 

in  nostrils,  cause  and  treatment 106 

lacerated  and  contused,  description  and  treatment 463 

penetrating  walla  of  chest,  description  and  treatment 140 

poisoned,  description  and  treatment. 470 

punctured,  description,  symptoms,  and  treatment 400, 465 

Yellows,  jaundice,  or  icterus,  description  and  treatment 73 

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